ED 063 513 INITIAION PUB DATE NOTE EDPS PRICE DESCRIPTCRS IDENTIFIERS ABSIRACT DOCUMENT RIVAME VT 015 722 Yuywilavia--Ine Education, 1irainin9 ana 1unction:3 el Technic:1am. 41cientilic and Tochnicai Personal. Oryanisativn lor 'conomic Couperation and Development, Vuriu (Franco). Directcrate -Lot Scientific AliairLi. Oct 67 85p. MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29 Articulation (Program); Economic Development; *Foreign countries; Job Analysis; *Job Training; Manpower Development; *Manpower Utilization; *National surveys; Tables (Data); leacher Education; *Technical Luucation; Vocational Education Yugoslavia To identity problems regarding eccnonic development, the Committee for Scientific and Technical Personnel conducted an educational and occupational survey of each member country of the Organisation tor Economic Cooperation and Developrent (OECD). The specific purpose of the surveys was to gather comparative data on the training and utilization of technicians in each member country. Major sections of each survey are: (1) The Structure of the Educational System, (2) 7raining of Technicians and Other Technical Manpower, and (3) Functions of Tectudcians. Related surveys for each of the following countries, Canada, Denmark, Spain, France, Netherlands, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Portugal, and Italy, are available in this issue as VT 015 716-VT 015 721 and VT 015 723-V1 015 725 respectively. (JS)
Transcript
ED 063 513
INITIAION
PUB DATENOTE
EDPS PRICEDESCRIPTCRS
IDENTIFIERS
ABSIRACT
DOCUMENT RIVAME
VT 015 722
Yuywilavia--Ine Education, 1irainin9 ana 1unction:3 elTechnic:1am. 41cientilic and Tochnicai Personal.Oryanisativn lor 'conomic Couperation andDevelopment, Vuriu (Franco). Directcrate -LotScientific AliairLi.Oct 6785p.
To identity problems regarding eccnonic development,the Committee for Scientific and Technical Personnel conducted aneducational and occupational survey of each member country of theOrganisation tor Economic Cooperation and Developrent (OECD). Thespecific purpose of the surveys was to gather comparative data on thetraining and utilization of technicians in each member country. Majorsections of each survey are: (1) The Structure of the EducationalSystem, (2) 7raining of Technicians and Other Technical Manpower, and(3) Functions of Tectudcians. Related surveys for each of thefollowing countries, Canada, Denmark, Spain, France, Netherlands,Switzerland, United Kingdom, Portugal, and Italy, are available inthis issue as VT 015 716-VT 015 721 and VT 015 723-V1 015 725respectively. (JS)
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THE /ED'UCTIO14, TRAINING AND ,FUNCTIONSOF TECHNICIANS
eft
YUGOSLAVIA
4
DIRECTORATE FOR SCI.ENTIFI AIRS
OR6ANI4AT ON FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PERSONNEL
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG-INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-CATION POSITION OR POLICY.
THE EDUCATION, TRAINING AND FUNCTIONS
OF TECHNICIANS
YUGOSLAVIA
DIRECTORATE FOR SCIENTIFIC AFFAIRS
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
2, rue André-Pascal, Paris-16'
CONTENTS
PREFACE9
Part One
The Structure of the Educationall).-stem
I. General Data - The Place of Technical Education in theEducational System 11
II. Vocational Orientation and Guidance 13III. Authorities in Charge of Education - Co-ordinating and
Planning Mechanisms 14
Part Two
Training of Technicians and Other Technical Man ower
IV. Definition and Grading of the Technician Standardized Qualifications 17(a) Content of courses 17(b) Final examinations - diplomas and certificates 18
V. Lower-level Technician Courses within the "Formal"Educational System 18
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VI. Upper-level Technician Courses within the "Formal'Educational System I. 9
VII. Vocational Courses at Craftsman Level within theEducational System 20
(a) Schools for practical training 20(b) .Apprenticeship schools 20
VIII. Technical Courses at University Level . a . OOOO OO 21
IX. Technical Teaching Staff 2r
(a) Recruitment - Pupil/teacher ratios 2 2(b) Training courses for technical teachers 22(c) Status and salaries of technical teachers 22
X. Training outside the Formal System 25
(a) Apprenticeship training 25(b) Courses held by non-governmental organizations(c) Adult education 26(Id) Correspondence courses 26
XI. Commercial Education 26
XII. Agricultural Education 26
XIII. Hotel, Catering and Tourism Courses 27
Part Three
Functions of Technicians
XIV. Technicians and their Occupations 29
(a) General remarks 29(b) Summary of a survey on the functions of technicians
in industry 29
XV. Careers and Status of Technicians 32
(a) Professional associations 32(b) Earnings 33(c) Prospects for further education and promotion 34
(a) Enrolments and output 42(b) School buildings 42(c) Drop-out from technical and vocational courses 42
XVIII. Population and Manpower Statistics 49
(a) Population 49(b) Forecast of employment 49(c) Supply and requirements 49(d) Educational structure of the labour force 49
Appendices
I. Main Types of Schools and Courses within theEducational System 59
II. The Educational System - Technical and Vocational Schools. 62
III. Polytechnical Education in Yugoslavia 63
IV. Lower-level Technician Courses1. Nature and number of main courses available 672. Examples of alternative training methods 683. Selected timetables 70
V. Upper-level Technician Courses1. Nature and number of main courses offered by
VI. Skilled-Worker Courses1. Metal trades - machine construction 782. Electrotechnology 79
VII. Selected Bibliography 80
VIII. List of Ind.viduals and Organisations Consulted . ... . 81
IX. Conclusions of the Confrontation MeetingsA. Confrontation Meeting between the Netherlands Spain
Switzerland and Yugoslavia 0 0 83
B. Confrontation Meeting between Canada and Denmark . 86
Tables
1. Percentage breakdown of teaching staff by qualification and typeof education. (Primary and Secondary Level, 1963) 23
2. Number of teachers, and pupil/teacher ratios (1963) . 24
3. Manpower structure in the electronic measuring instrumentmanufacture (percentages) 30
4. Average earnings by category of worker in the Prvomajska MetalWorks, Zagreb 33
5. Breakdown of Gross National Product by Sector Average AnnualGrowth Rates (1947-1960) 37
6. National Income (at current prices) - Purchasing power of thedinar 38
7. Living Standards 38
8. Balance of trade 1958-1964 (in million dinars) . ..... 39
9. Foreign Trade - Main exports and imports 39
10. National Income and expenditure on aflucation 1956-64(in current prices)
11. Sources of current expenditure for education (in percentage). . . 40
12. Expenditure by level and type of education (1963) 41
13. Enrolments for each level of education and percentage change(Schools years 1956/57 - 1963/64) 43
14. Enrolments for each level of education as a percentage of totalenrolments. (School years 1956/57 - 1963/64) 44
15. Part-time enrolments in higher education institutions(1951/52 - 1963/64) 44
16. Enrolments in main secondary technical and vocational courses(1956/57 - 1962/63) 45
17. Secondary and higher technical courses. Enrolments and outputby specialisation (1956/57 - 1962/63) 46
18. Number and types of schools (1938/39 - 1962/63) 47
19. Dropouts from secondary technical and vocational courses(school years 1956/57 - 1960/61) 48
20. Total Population (1931-1963, actual. 1964 -1975, estimated) . . 50
21. Distribution of active population by economic activity 1961(in thousands) 50
22. Percentage distribution of Manpower, 1953, 1961 . . . ... 51
23. Breakdown of the active population by socialised and private sectors1953-1961 51
24. Employment in the socialised sector by economic activity,and occupational class, 1901 52
25. Estimated employment in the socialised sector by economic activityand occupational class, 1970 (in thousands) . . 53
26. Supply of requirements for personnel with secondary and higherqualifications - 1960-1975 (in thousands) 54
27. Estimated needs in technical and scientific manpower. Inflow fromthe educational system 1961 - 1970 55
28. Qualification structure of the labour force in 1960 and 1975 56
PREFACE
The OECD Committee for Scientific and Technical Personnel has givenconsiderable attention to the question of technician shortage which is a key problemin the economic development of Member countries, and has on several occasionsdrawn attention to the need for an adequate supply of and proper training for skillsat this level.
To clarify the situation as far as possible and to establish a solid base fordiscussion, the Committee has instituted a series of surveys in Member countriesdescribing and analysing training conditions.
The material obtained is classified according te a standard pattern throughout,so that comparisons can be drawn between countries. The completed surveys wereused as basic working documents for "Confrontation Meetings" between two ormore countries. These meetings were held under a neutral chairman and wereattended by teams of specialists from the participating countries. Delegates dis-cussed each other's training systems and the various problems which arise andendeavoured to reach conclusions on questions of policy and to find solutions totechnical difficulties.
The present publication, the seventh of a series, is a revised version of theworking document used at the confrontation meeting between the Netherlands,Spain,Switzerland and Yugoslavia, held in Paris in December, 1965. The conclusions ofthis meeting, and of the previous one between Canada and Denmark, are given inAppendix IX.
The report was prepared by the OECD Secretariat, Mr. S. Syrimis,Consultant to the Directorate for Scientific Affairs being responsible. It incor-porates ii formation already available at OECD, and in particular in the originalsurvey carried out by a joint FEANI/EUSEC (1) Committee, supplemented byon-the-spot investigation.
(1) European Federation of National Associations of Engineers (FEANI). Conferenceof Engineering societies of Western Europe and the United States of America(EUSEC).
6/ 9
Part One
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
I. General Data - The Place of Technical Education in the Educational. System
1. The Federal Peoples' Republic of Yugoslavia consists of six Peoples'Republics: Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia, Macedonia, Montenegro and Slovenia. Thereare five nationalities within the Federation and nine minority groups; three lan-guages are spoken (Serbo-Croat, Slovene and Macedonian) and two alphabets areused, Latin and Cyrillic. The four levels of government in diminishing order ofauthority are: Federal, Republican, District and Communal. Since 1953, regionalgovernments have had a large measure of authority in economic and educationalfields.
2. The educational system in pre-war Yugoslavia was insufficient and uneven.According to data supplied by UNESCO, in 1950 45.2 per cent of the entire Yugoslavpopulation over 10 years old was illiterate; in some parts of the country e. g. Bosnia,Herzegovena and Macedonia, this percentage exceeded 70. During the second worldwar (1941-1945) the school system suffered enormous material damage. In spite ofrapid reconstruction and expansion during the first ten post-war years, the short-comings of the inherited educational system, which was not fully adapted to therequirements of the new Yugoslav society, still needed substantial reform. In June1958, the Federal Peoples' Assembly promulgated the first "Educational ReformAct", based on a report prepared by a special committee appointed in 1954. ThisAct was followed by the "Special Federal Bill on Financing the School System" (1959),and the "Resolution on Training Vocational Personnel". These four documentsconstitute the basis of the present educational system, the main characteristics ofwhich are:
(i) Unified eight years compulsory primary schooling (7 to 15) followed by twoto four years of secondary education (general, technical, vocational) andtwo to five years of higher education. The principal courses available arebriefly described in Appendix j, page 59.
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(ii) Ample provision for lateral and vertical. movement along the educationalladder;
(ii 0 Easy access to higher education from all secondary streams;(iv) Ample opporttmities for adult education at all levels and fields;(v) Social self-government and financing; schools and other educational
institutions legally acquire the status of social institutions, which cprries.the right of seifmanagement (para. 20). The school boards, assisted bythe teachers' council and the pupils' associations, deal with all educa-tional, social and financial problems.
The introduction of an additional two-year cycle following compulsory schooling, and substituting to some extent the present secondary cycle, is now at anadvanced stage of experimentation. The main purpose of this future reform, calledpolytechnical education'', will be the further unification of education and the provi-
sion of additional opportunities for better educational orientation and vocationalguidance. Further details on this important innovation may be found in Appendix III.
4, During the past few years, the expansion of the Yugoslav educational systemhas been enormous. Though eight-year compulsory education was instituted onlyin 1955, enrolments in 1960 amounted to 94 per cent of the 8 - 11 age group andto 70 per cent of the 12 - 15 group; the number of pupils in secondary technicaleducation doubled between 1952 and 1960, and the percentage of the age group inhigher education increased from 2. 6 to 3. 5. However, according to the MRP (1)and the "Country Review" reports there are still some negative features such as..(i) serious lack of buildings, equipment and teaching staff; (ii) an expansion of thenur.thers in higher education without an equivalent expansion in secondary education;(iii) a tendency for secondary technical school graduates to enter university faculties,in many cases other than scientific or technical, instead of entering industry asmiddle-level technicians for which there is an urgent need.
5. The Yugoslav authorities have taken particular interest in the development oftechnical and vocational education, especially during the past few years. Rapideconomic development and the intensive use of a vast network of public servicesorganised on modern principles demanded special efforts in solving problems oftrained staff. The "Resolution on the Education of Technical Personnel" adoptedin 1960 provided for a well-rounded system of technical education adapted to theneeds of modern technology, and fully integrated into the general system of educa-tion as illustrated in a simplified form in Appendix II. The basic principles onwhich the "1960 Resolution" was based are as follows:
(1) The primary task of professional training, as a composite part of thewhole system of education is to produce proficient persons for tasks insociety. Practical work and specific technical and theoretical knowledgeof natural sciences and social economy, indispensable for a succesifulvocation, should therefore be the essence of professional training,
(1) The Mediterranean Regional Project, Education for Economic and SocialDevelopment. Yugoslavia.
(ii) As a result of the over-growing application of science and technologyin production and the public services, and the growing importance ofthe role of the woi kers in the proceR!-; of production and in furtheringsocialist democracy, both the general knowledge and culture of the work-ing people should be constantly improved.
(Ili) AU. institutions for technical training should tend to satisfy as fully aspossible the requirements of the economy aml public services. Therefore,the organization of such institutions, and the curricula and duration oftraining, should be adapted to the specific needs of the various economicorganizations and public services for which such workers are trained.
(iv) For the most effective solution to the problem of skilled labour, all insti-tutions providing vocational training should combine theory with practiceand make full use of the latest discoveries of science and technology.Productive work ql)ould always be a composite part of the process ofeducation.
(v) All institutions for vocational training for young people should give theirattention to the problem of adult training also. This will eventually leadto a merging of the present school and out-of-school systems of voca-tional training into one single system.
(vi) All institutions concerned with technical education; including the univer-sity, should cooperate with economic organizations and public services toimprove the proficiency of personnel by such means as "studying the latestscientific and technical achievements and their application and providingstudents and those who decide to continue their studies with the knowledgerequired for specific jobs and processes."
II. Vocational Orientation and Guidance
G. Educational and vocational orientation and guidance is not yet organised as aregular school service. In towns, "Centres of Vocational Guidance" exist in theform of services attached to the "Republic Employment Offices", which have someconnection with the schools, particularly at primary level. Their main activitiesconsist in: (i) giving advice and guidance to individuals on the basis of psychologicaltests; schools normally seek such advice in difficult cases only; (ii) organisingshort courses and seminars on vocational orientation and guidance for the teachersconcerned; (iii) supplying information on training courses and employment possibil-ities; :iv) assisting unemployed persons to find work by supplying information onjob opportunities and training and re-training possibilities.
7. In schools, the orientation pr ocess is normally limited to the so-called "extracurricula" activities and other practical work (para 10/11), organised visits tofactories or work in industry, lectures and film shows, and information suppliedduring normal classwork. Some primary schools have a specially trained (by meansof short courses etc. ) staff member in charge of such activities who acts at thesame time as a link between the school and the vocational guidance centre. Biggerschools have "vocational guidance boards" composed of tek.whers, parents and other
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community members, At Federal level there are two commissions for the develop-ment of research in medicine and psychology respectively, A "Federal Bureau ofEmployment" is now in the process of being set up.
8. "The Yugoslav Association of Vocational Guidance" is another source ofinformation on matters related to vocational orientation and guidance. It wasestablished ten years ago, and today has over 5,000 members. Its main objectiveis to promote vocational orientation and guidance at all levels and in aL fields.
9. Technical subjects combined with practical work constitute an integral partof the curriculum of primary and general secondary schools. The main objectiveis to give the pupils the opportunity to develop their practical skills, to orientatethem towards technical courses or jobs and to facilitate the transition from schoolto work.
10. In primary schools, practical activities consist of:(i) Two hours per week of "technical education", i. e, the general basic prin-
ciples of applied technology and handicrafts; the teaching of naturalsciences, in the upper classes (5th to ath) is normally combined withlaboratory work.
(ii) Organised "extra-curricula" activities in a variety of subjects such asfarming, printing, bookbinding, woodwork etc. depending on the particularinterest of pupils, the nature of the community (industrial, agricultural)and the school's financial possibilities. Such activities are in many casescombined with productive work.
11. In gymnasia, "technical instruction" is part of the normal curriculum andmay be taught for as much as two hours per week. It includes the principles of:building construction, machine construction, electrotechnology and electronics.Direct contact with working life is achieved through actual work in industry or thecivil service for a period of two months during the four years at school (two weekseach year).
III. Authorities in Charge of Education - Co-ordinating and Planning Mechanisms
12. The Federal government has limited jurisdiction over education; it is respon-sible only for the main guide lines of educational policy, giving financial assistanceto the comparatively underdeveloped regions, and, since 1958, contributing 50 percent of the building costs of new universities and faculties. The responsible bodyis the "Federal Secretariat for Education and Culture" and several "institutes" andIt commissions" such as the "Yugoslav Institute for Educational Research", the"School Buildings' Commission" etc. which assist in co-ordinating and standardisingregional activities.
13. The governments of the Republics are responsible for setting the standardsof the curricula in their secondary schools and in financing their higher educationinstitutions, apart from the contribution mentioned above, from the Federal
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government. In each Republic there is a "Secretariat for Education and Culture"with "Institutes of Educatim (primary, se( ndary) attached, Those institutes actin an 1,tivi.sory capacity to the Socretariat, and also have a supervis)ry role.
14. The authorities in the Communes are responsible for establishing and finamingtheir primary and secondary schools. Educational activities or every type, c g,general, technical, conunercial, agricultural, etc. all come under the sameauthorities.
15. Educational planning is decentralised, but the Mediterranean RegionalProject office in Zagreb, which is a special service under the Federal Secretariatfor Education and Culture, is doing an excellent job collecting and analysingavailable data. Plans for the expansion of secondary and higher education are basedon manpower needs, which are determined by direct enquiries and by comparisonwith other countries at a similar stage of development.
Part Two
TRAINING OF TECHNICIANS AND OTHER TECHNICAL MANPOWER
IV. Definition and Grading of the Technician - Standardized Qualifications
16, In Yugoslavia the term "technician" is used to define graduates of secondarytechnical schools (Appendix I, page 59) while graduates of higher technical schoolsare classified as "engineers, and university degree holders as "diploma engineers".It is evident that the term "technician" covers the lower technician level while theterm "engineer" corresponds to the upper technician level. Both lower and upper-level technicians are organised in the "Union of Technicians and Engineers", whichhas at present over 40, 000 members.
17. Provincial autonomy in education results in considerable differences intechnician programmes and in level of skill standards as may be gathered from (a)and (b) below:
(a) Content of courses
18. Syllabuses for secondary and higher technical schools are prepared by theschools themselvev in collaboration with industry and in accordance with basicdirectives issuedb; the Secretariats for Education and Culture of their Republic,within the federal framework (para. 12). Even though each syllabus has to befinally approved by the Secretariat of the Republic concerned, they differ consider-ably from one school to another even of the same type, as each is specially adaptedto the needs of the individual industry or industries for which it has been prepared.In some cases several schools of the same type collaborate in preparing a commonsyllabus.
(b) Final examinat ions - diplomas and certificates
Final examinations at all 3evels are organised and held by the schools inaccordance with basic directives issued by the Secretariats of the respectiveRepublics. In secondary technical and vocational schools, observers from theSecretariat, the Commune authorities and industry may be invited. Diplomas andcertificates are issued by the individual schools.
V. Lower-level Technician Courses within the Formal Educationt.1 System
20. In Yugcslavia, lower-level technicians constitute a substantial part of thetechnician fo:ne, and their training has reached an advanced stage of development.A great variety of courses covering the industrial, mining, building, agriculturalcommercial, and administrative fields are now available as indicated inAppendix IV page 67.
21. Training at this level is carried out by the secondary technical schools which,in 1962, numbered 125 for industrial a.ad 47 for agricultural trades. Industrialenterprises play an important part in supplementing the formal educational systemin the training of technical manpower. Many of them have set up and operate"School Centres" consisting of training units attached to the enterprise to educateand train technical personnel at several levels (paras. 49-51).
22. Technical schools, as well as other educational institutions have the legalstatus, based on the principles of self-management, of sovereign social institutions.This status confers the right of self-management on the Communities, particularlyfor vocational questions, which means full responsibility for carrying out educa-tional as well as other special tasks. In addition to teachers, representatives fromthe different social organizations also sit on the various school comxrittees andthus ensure both general and continued aid. These representatives are delegatedby the people, by social and professional organizations and by industry, or areelected by the Assemblies of Socio-Political Communities, ranging from theCommune to the Republic, depending on the kind and importance of the school.Self-management on the part of the schools has meant that all Assemblies, fromthe Commune to the Federation, as well as social, political, professional andindustrial organizations have become intensively occupied in the country's educa-tional questions.
23. In theory, lower-level technician courses should last four years, although inpractice the length varies according to the type of course, the trade and the schoolconcerned; much will depend on the individual needs of the industry or industrieswith which the school is connected; even in the F: a m e school and for the same tradeseveral alternatives may sometimes be offered (see Appendix IV, page 67 for furtherdetails). Entrance requirements to the normal four-year courses are eight yearsof primary schooling (compulsory period). Where the number of applicants exceedsthe number of places available, selection is normally based on the primary schoolmarks in mother tongve, mathematics and physics; certain schools also holdentrance examinations in mathematics.
24. Curricula comprise general cultural. subjects, mathenuttical and scientificdisciplines, technical knowledge and workshop practice as indicated in Appendix IV,3 (selected time-tables). Practical work is normally combined with actual workin industry on the basis of one month per year of schooling. However, in the normalfour-year courses emphasis is usually placed on technological knowledge ratherthan on practical work; in some cases this appears to be a point of dissensionbetween schools and industry, the latter preferring more intensive practical trainingand specialisation. Alternative ways of training provided by the schools have fre-quently been introduced to satisfy this demand on the part of industry. It is alsoexpected that the "polytechnical educdtion" period (Appendix III) will allow formore intensive specialisation on a broader base. Certain industries have shownparticular interest and contribute financially to experimental work in this field.
25. Final examinations in secondary technical schools are o?..ganised by the schoolsthemselves and comprise oral and written tests, Certain schools also requirepractical tests or the preparation of a complete practical and theoretical study ofa specific technical project. Successful candidates are awarded a diploma whichqualifies them as "technicians", which is considered equivalent to a full secondaryeducation certificate.
VI. aperLievel Techri.__.ci.anCourses within the "Forih racationalS stem
26. Upper-level technician courses are held by the "Two-year post-secondaryschools". In 1962 there were 51 such schools covering 13 main fields as indicatedin Appendix V, page 74.
27. The structural reform of technical education in 1960 led to the absorption ofthe majority of the two-year post-secondary schools into the first university cycle.This cycle is less specialised, however,r4han the training previously provided forupper-level technicians, and there is a danger that in future they will be inadequate-ly equipped to perform their important practical tasks in industry. Furthermore,there is now a possibility that the training of an upper-level technician will belooked upon more as a stepping stone to the second university cycle than as prepa-ration for an indispensable industrial function (1).
28. The normal length of an upper-level technician course is two years, with theexception of graphic art courses, which last three years. For admission, prefer-ence is given to lower-level technicians and highly skilled workers, normally onthe basis of selective entry examinations in mathematics, physics, chemistry and,in certain cases, in the student's mother tongue. Skilled workers are acceptedif they have had three years vocb.tional training following compulsory schooling, ortwo years of training following two years' secondary education. Candidates who donot fulfil the above conditions may also be accepted after a minimum of four years'industrial experience in the field they wish to study.
(1) Country Review, Yugoslavia (OECD, 1962).
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29, Curricula of the higher technical schools are prepared by the schoolsi Staff;_ _
usually in collaboration with industry; they therefore vary considerably fromschool to school and from industry to industry but all contain general subjects,mathematical and scientific disciiiiines, and technological subjects as indicated inthe examples of selected thnetables in Appendix IV, 3 page 70. Practictd workis generally limited except when the schools are directly attached to big enter-prises. The syllabus is then fully adapted to the needs of the individual industryand may differ in duration, pattern and content front courses of the same level heldby other schools (Appendix IV).30. Final examinations in higher technical schools are organised by the schoolsthemselves and lead to the title of engineer which corresponds to upper-technicianlevel. Graduates are eligible for the second cycle of the corresponding universityfaculty although, in certain cases, only after passing additional examinations.
VII. Vocational Courses at Craftsman Level within the Educational System
31, Vocational courses at craftsman level are held by the vocational schools forskilled workers and "schools for highly skilled workers". The vocational schoolsfor skilled workers are of two types as follows:
(a) Schools for practical training
32. These provide full-time practical and theoretical training in industry andmining, building and construction, transport and communications, agriculture andforestry, commerce, hotel and catering, handicrafts, health services and medicalpractice. Requirements for admission are full primary education and physicalability to exercise the job chosen. Length of training varies from two to four years,depending on the trade, but in the majority of cases is three years. The curriculumcomprises general cultural subjects, science and mathematics, practical trainingand related theory as outlined in the examples of Appendix VI, page 78. Practicaltraining is carried out in the workshops of the school and is supplemented by actualplacement in industry during vacation periods. The final examinations compriseoral, written and practical tests and lead to the skilled worker certificate. Specialcommittees, usually composed of specialist teachers, representatives of studentsand delegates from industry and the educational authorities of the republic, assessthe results.
Many schools for practical training are attached to individual industries as acomposite part of the "school centres" (paras. 49-51).
(b) Apprenticeship schools
33. These are part-time schools for apprentices, leading to the skilled workercertificate.
Conditions for admission, length and content of courses are similar to thosefor the practical training schools but the practical part of the syllabus is carriedout in enterprises and amounts .to approximately 50 per cent of the total trainingperiod.
Trainees receive monthly remuneration from the enterprises or from theemployer if working in the private sector.
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COUPS06 for Skilled workers constitute, in certain cases, the basis for tech-nician training, au indicated in Appendix IV, page 67 ,
The skilled worker certificate IH not considered to be equivalent to a fulluecondary education certificate although skilled workers may be admitted to highertechnical schools and university faculties under certain conditions (paras. 28 and39),
34, Schools for highly skilled workers provide further specialised training forskilled workers with at least two years of industrial experience and not more than25 years of age.
The courses usually last three years, but for certain trades are as short assix months; they cover: industrial trades, building and construction, transport andcommunications, commerce and hotel and catering. Final examinations co.,--riseoral, written and practilal tests and lead to the highly skilled worker certi,....atewhich opens the way to higher technical training.
VIII. Technical Courses at University Level
35. Technical courses at university level are held by the schools of higher learn-ing and the technical faculties.
36. The schools of higher learning offer highly specialised professional trainingin the technological field, agriculture, administration, physical culture and politicalscience. At present, there are four technical schools of higher learning; thesespecialise in production engineering, mechanical construction and metallurgy, andin agronomy.
Requirements for admission are full secondary education and the passing ofan entrance examination. Candidates without full secondary education but withactual working experience of four to five years are normally allowed to sit for theexaminations.
The course lasts three to four years and leads to a diploma equivalent to auniversity degree which qualifies holders as diploma engineers.
37. The technical faculties are attached to the six universities of Belgrade,Zagreb, Novi Sad, Ljubljana, Sarajevo and Skopje.
There are 39 such faculties at present in mechanical engineering, electricalengineering, chemical engineering, naval engineering, architecture, civil engineer-ing, mining and geology, metallurgy, oil, technology, transport and communication,agronomy and forestry.
38. Most of the technical faculties have divided their syllabuses into three self-contained parts; the first lasts two years and leads to the certificate of engineeringwhich corresponds to the upper-technician level (para. 27); the second leads to auniversity degree (engineer level) and also lasts two years; the third consists ofpost-graduate work and lasts from one to two years.
39. Admission to the first part is by entrance examination, preference beinggiven to those who completed secondary education with excellent marks. Candidates
with insufficient educational qualifkation but with actual working experience aroallowed to sit for the examination. Admissioii to the second part is open to grad-uates Of the first part and of higher technical schools, but post-graduate studiosare open only to graduates of the second part.
1X. Technical Teaching Staff
(a) Eecruitine. teacher r atios40. Teachers for skilled-worker schools and secondary technical schools arerecruited mainly among university graduates and the technician force, as shownin Table 1 on page 23, giving the qualification structure of the teaching force bytype of education. The table shows that in all types of educational establishmentsthere is a small proportion of teachers with primary education only; at secondarylevel, there is a high proportion of tft.chers without higher-level qualifications.
41. Participation of women in education is unusually high, particularly at second-ary level, where it reaches 32.2 per cent for secondary technical schools, r;ticl46.1 per cent for gymnasia.
42. During the past few years the increase in the number of teachers has notkept pace with that in the number of pupils, except at primary level, however thepupil/teacher ratios still appear to be satisfactory, particularly at secondary andhigher levels, although in technical vocational schools there is a high proportionof part-time teachers (Table 2, page 24).
(b) Training courses for technical teachers
43. The educational authorities of the republics and districts organise shortpedagogical courses for teachers without professional qualifications. Althoughthese courses are not compulsory, enrolment is high as they are preparatory tothe special examination held by the republics and which every teacher has to passwithin three or four years of the date of his first appointment.
(c) Status and salaries of technical teachers
44. The teaching profession in Yugoslavia enjoys a high reputation and bringsteachers into direct contact with the authorities of the communes and republics, aswell as with various industrial, commercial and other organizations (para 22).
45. Teachers' salaries vary considerably from school to school as a result of thesystem of self-management practised by the schools. Much will depend on thefinancial resources of the individual school and on the quantity and quality of thework offered by the teacher and which is evaluated by special committees. Ingeneral, the average income, of a teacher with technical qualifications comparesfavourably with that of a per aon with equivalent qualifications in industry.
Tab
le 1
Perc
enta
ge b
reak
dow
n of
teac
hing
sta
ff b
y qu
alif
icat
ion
and
type
of
educ
atio
n
(Pri
mar
y an
d Se
cond
ary
leve
l, 19
63)
Typ
e of
sch
ool
Gra
duat
es o
f:
Tot
alnu
mbe
r of
teac
hers
Prim
ary
scho
ol
Scho
ols
for
skill
edan
d hi
ghly
skill
edw
orke
rs
Seco
ndar
yte
chni
cal a
ndvo
catio
nal
scho
ols
Gym
nasi
aT
each
.rtr
aini
ngco
llege
s
Tw
o-ye
arse
cond
ary
cour
ees
and
sc.c
s of
1. P
rim
ary
scho
ols
93, 4
342.
40.
4:
1. 7
6. 8
63. 3
5. 6
2. S
choo
l for
ski
lled
wor
kers
5, 4
621.
916
. 120
. 64.
212
. 722
, 322
. 2
3. S
econ
dary
tech
nica
l and
voc
atio
nal
scho
ols
9, 7
040.
84.
013
. 33.
63.
910
. 963
. 5
4. S
choo
l cen
tres
5. G
ymna
sia
6, 2
49O
. 20.
72.
55.
55.
111
. 5
6. T
each
er-t
rain
ing
colle
ges
and
art s
choo
ls3,
318
1. 6
1. 3
2. 1
2. 7
28. 0
12. 7
51. 6
Sour
ce: O
ffic
e of
the
Med
iterr
anea
n R
egio
nal P
roje
ct,
Zag
reb.
Table 2
Number of teachers and pupil/teacher ratios (1963)
6. Teacher training collegesand art schools 36, 438 3, t?18 2, 291 11. 0 15. 9
7. Other schools (Adult educationcentres, special schools, etc). 94, 575 8, 345 2, 713 11. 3 34. 9
8. Two-year post secondarycourses and schools of higherlearning 52,050 3,089 1,334 16. 9 39.0
9. Universities 107, 360 5,262 3, 823 20. 4 28.1
Source: Office of the Mediterranean Regional Project, Zagreb.
46, Over 40 per cent of those teaching in technical and vocational education estab-lishments have a joint educational-industrial career, as they are occupied simul-taneously in both industry and education, as shown in Table 2, page 24. Althoughthis may have certain disadvantages, it helps technical teachers maintain closeand constant contact w44.n industry and keep abrest of developments in both educa-tional and industrial fields.
Traim47. The resolution on the training of technical personnel, adopted in 1960, pro-vides inter alia for the merging of the normal school and out-of-school systems intoone single system of professional training (para. 5). The socialisation of all bigindustrial and commercial enterprises in addition to the self-management of theschools helped to make this possible.
(a) Apprenticeship training
48. This is provided by the apprenticeship schools or the school centres describedin paragraph 32. Training covers industrial, commercial, agricultural, hotel andcatering, and handicraft subjects.
(b) Courses held by non-governmental organizations
49. No differentiation is possible between governmental and non-governmentalactivities in the field of education, because of the social structure of the country.Two examples of the part played by industry in education and training are givenbelow. The Central Council of the Confederation of Trade Unions of Yugoslavia,through its commission for education and culture, also participates actively ineducational and research activities in several industrial and commercial fields,
50. The textile school centre in Zagreb is a training unit established and financedjointly by the community of Zagreb and a group of textile-industries, The centreprovides training for future skilled workers, and lower and upper technicians, asshown in Appendix IV, 2 (page 68). Training at skilled-worker level is in theform of apprenticeship and consists of actual work in industry combined with day-release school attendance for two days a week for the first year of training andthree days a week for the second. The centre also contains a school for dress-making and tailoring. Enrolment is roughly 2,000 trainees; technical teachers arerecruited from industry but the majority of them have had special training abroad,usually in Germany or in Czechoslovakia.
51. The "Rade Koncar" electrical engineering firm in Zagreb, which employsover 8,000 persons, has established a school centre providing full-time trainingfor future skilled workers and lower technicians (Appendix IV, 2, page 68). Two-year evening courses are held for upper-level technicians, admission require-ments being a technician diploma, plus two years' industrial experience. The
'5
centre also includes a school for economics and administration, organised alongsimilar lines. Teaching staff is recruited from industry, and University professorsare also used as part-time teachers for the upper-level courses,
(c) Adult education
52. Adult education is adequately organised and covers V. ll fields and levels.Several schools and special centres hold primary-level courses for those who failedto complete compulsory schooling; the vast majority of technii:al and vocationaltraining schools and centres also provide day-release and/or evening courses foradult training.
53. The Workers' Universities are educational and cultural centres which offercourses to help the worker improve his education, culture and professional quali-fications. In each republic there is a large central unit, and smaller establishmentsare found in all industrial towns. The Workers'University in Zagreb (capital ofCroatia) is a vast organization with over 10,000 trainees, 200 permanent teachingstaff and 800 part-time instructors from industry, commerce and education.
(d) Correspondence courses
54. Correspondence courses in Yugoslavia have up to now contributed very littleto technical and vocational education.
Xl. Con mercial Education
55. Commercial education is provided as part of the normal educational systemand complies with thc.; rult,s and regulations for technical and vocational training.The same applies to agricultural, hotel, catering and tourism courses.
XII. Agricultural Education
56. Agricultural courses are available only at skilled-worker, upper-level tech-nician and university levels. Skilled-worker courses last from two to three yearsand lead after one or two years of practical experience to upper-level technicianor university courses, which last two and five years respectively.
XIII. Hotel Catorinis and Tourism Courws
57. Hotel, entering and tourism courses at skilled worxer level last three yearsand are held by special, schools, while courses at lower technician level last fouryears and are normally offered by secondary commercial schools as a specialisa-tion after the first two years. The latter cover the administration fields only.Technician courses at the upper level last two years and are held in special schools.
S"tr: Part Three111.11n11.11.
FUNCTIONS OF TECHNICIANS
XIV. Technicians and Their Occupations
(a) General remarks
58. In Yugoslavia as in other countries, engineers (upper-level technicians) areoccupied in industry and the public services. In industry they are employed ondevelopment and research projects, construction and quantity sure,eying, sales andpurchases usually under the supervision of diploma engineers. After acquiringexperience, they may be promoted to production managers, heads of technicaldepartments or administrative posts. In the public services, engineers are occupiedin administration, technical services, public works and education. Some of themfill a dual function, in both industry and education (para. 46).
59. Lower-level technicians normally assist engineers and diploma engineers intheir jobs, the most capable of them being promoted to supervisory posts.
(b) Summary of a survey on the functions of technicians in industry
60. A special survey on the functions of technicians in industry was initiated byOECD in 1963. The findings of this survey are summarised below:
(i) Introduction61. The survey covered only the manufacture of electrical measuring instru-
ments and was carried out by a group consisting of two electrical engineers,
One social psychologist and two industrial psychologists. Two entcrpriseswere visited, and 20 formal inquiries wore conducted with techniciansempLoyed in various sections of these firms.
62. (ii) Functions and )ositions of technicians in the firmsThe firms visited also cover professional telecommunication, and theproduction of radio and electronic equipment and components. The man-power structure in these firms differs basically from that of firmsspecialising in heavy engineering such as machine construction or steelproduction, mainly because technological development in the field ofelectronics is rapid, and the quality and accuracy required are high.Present manpower structure in these firms is shown in Table 3 below,together with the structure desired by management.
Table 3
Man ower structure in the electronic measuring instrumentmanufacture (percentages)
63. It was observed that a number of engineers are assigned to posts requiringuniversity qualifications and, at the same time, some highly skilledWorkers occupy technician posts. Practically all technical personnel areemployed in the development (67 per cent), production (17 per cent), andcontrol (16 per cent) departments. In the development departments thesupervision of various units and groups is carried out by "diplomaengineers".
(iii) ...1211s_serformed by technicians - Initiative and independence
64. The work is usually allocated by supervisors who, in the majority of thecases, are diploma engineers or chiefs of laboratories or developmentdepartments. Some technicians are given only long-term assignments
ela.. 30
ranging from several weeks to a year, but the majority of them alsoreceive short-term assignments. Technicians assign tasks to others onlyif they are charge-hands or if workers are assigned to them for specificprojects. Technicians feel relatively free in their work since they performtheir job independently and without permanent supervision, In fact, mana-gers look for technicians to whom they can offer a period oZ initial trainingand who will then be in a position to work independently. Only a smallnumber of technicians however take the initiative of suggesting and intro-ducing new ideas and techniques despite the fact that the enterprisesencourage experiments to develop new methods and technives.
(iv) Evolution of the posts65. The firms visited were not organised in the same way as when they started.
They had grown from small departments established after the war as partof the domestic radio and telecommunication factories to manufactureelectronic instruments for the local market; demand for such instrumentswas at that time limited. Today, market requirements by far exceed in-dustrial capacity, which is limited by the lack of technical personnel andskilled manpower. Managers of both the enterprises visited state that,although the scarcity of diploma engineers is a serious problem, that oftechnicians is even greater. Some diploma engineers are at present fre-quently engaged in work requiring only technician-level knowledge. There-fore, although in principle managers assist and encourage the furthereducation of technicians, they point out that, when more technicians becomeengineers, the imbalance of the manpower structure will be even greater(Table 3),
(v) Remarks on the education and training of technicians66. Managers of both firms stated that the "secondary technical school did not
and was not expected to produce technicians ready for industry." The over-whelming opinion was that technicians should obtain their specialisedknowledge in electronics or other fields mainly through training in industry.The present school curriculum should be revised, however, to providetechnicians with a basic technical knowledge and make them better acquaintedwith financial, productivity and organisational questions. More attentionshould also be given to practical work and laboratory experience. Presentcurricula are overloaded and technicians graduate without really masteringthe content. Management of both firms claimed that one of the reasons whytechnicians have not sufficient practical kncwlecige is because teachers aremainly diploma engineers without industrial experience.
67. Technicians promoted from qualified workers are more useful for routinework and in development departments, especially in model making. Theyare better acquainted with manual work and have more experience insolving problems connected with mechanical construction, finishing proces-ses and production.
68. According to a number of technicians, only a few of them have attendedcot....ses in enterprises; they acqUire further knowledge either through theirpersonal interest, reading books and literature available in their mothertongue, or with the assistanle of senior technicians and engineers at work.
31 27'
GO. The intJrviews with the technicians enwloyed mainly in development, andpartly in testing, calibration, adjustment and control, showed that thesearo making progress and that their knowledge and level of eaucation arefar above the standard achieved at school.
(vi) The social status of the technicians interviewed- )ersonal
70. Relations between technicians and diploma engineers in both enterprisesare good, contacts are satisfactory and no great differences exist. Investi-gation showed that there are no social barriers between technicians,engineers and workers.
71. The majority of the technicians interviewed stated that they were satisfiedwith their salary as compared with the salaries of the other categoriesemployed.
72. Managers in both enterprises confirmed that initial salaries of diplomaengineers are from 20 to 50 per cent higher than those of technicians.However, by the subsequent application of the principle of payment byresult, this difference is reduced to 13 per cent, and there are caseswhere able technicians earn more than engineers with an equivalent expe-rience.
73. It was apparent that the technicians interviewed were satisfied with theirjobs, mainly because most of them have to spend a great amount of timeon development work. This means they are permanently doing somethingnew, their work is creative and, being to some extent independent, theyhave no wish to change their profession.
74. The following reasons were given as providing incentives for further study:(i) to achieve a good reputation and position in the enterprise; (ii) betterpossibility for advancement and higher pay; (iii) to acquire a higherstandard of technical knowledge and consequently a better position andfuller recognition in society.
75. The living standard of the technicians interviewed as compared with otherinhabitants was satisfactory. All the technicians were interested in socialand political events and one-third of them were taking an active part in theworkers' councils or union organizations.
76. The results of general education tests showed that among the techniciansinterviewed interest is of secondary importance in art but is relativelyhigh in sports.
XV. Careers and Status of Technicians
(a) Professional associations
77. Lower and upper level technicians are organised under a common federalassociation, the "Union of Engineers and Technicians of Yugoslavia" whichconsists of six associations, i. e. one for each republic and 13 craft unions atfederal level such as the "Union of Civil Engineers and Technicians of Yugoslavia",
2as.
the "Union of Forestry ;And Lumber Engineers ttnd Technicians of Yugoslavia"representing a total of over GO, 000 members.
According to the Constitutional Act of the Union, its main objectives are:(1) to promote the social and professional status of the members; (ii) to organizescientific and other seminars and conferences at both national and internationallevel; (iii) to publish reviews and other scientific material; (iv) to collaborate withthe federal assembly and other political, social and economic organisations andinstitutions for the promotion of science and technology; (v) to assist, throughcollaboration with appropriate institutions and organisations, in raising the technicalstandard of skilled manpower.
(b) Earnings
79. The salaries of technicians vary considerably according to field of activity,type of job, personal ability and (for socialised organizations) the earnings ofthe enterprise.
80. Practical skill is in general highly appreciated by industry and is well remu-nerated; in the metal industry for instance, the earnings of skilled and highly skilledworkers on the average compare favourably with those of lower and upper-leveltechnicians respectively as shown in the example given in Table 4 below. In thechemical industry, the average salaries of technical manpower are nearly 30 percent higher than those in the metal industry.
Table 4
Average earnings by category of worker in the Prvomajska Metal Works, ,Zagreb(in dinars (1) per month)
81. Productivity in industry also plays an important role in fixing the earnings oftechnical personnel. In Prvomajska, for instance, 10 per cent of the skilled workersearn more than the average engineer in the same firm. Further details on technicians'earnings may be found in paragraph 56, (vi) above.
33 29
V-*
(c) Pros )ects fur further education and womotion
82. The structure of the country's educational system provides ample possthilitiesfor further study in all fields and at all levels. Many industrial enterprises haveestablished and now run their own school centres (para. 22) which offer, inter-alia,day-release and evening courses for further specialisation to make possible theupgrading of their technical personnel. Scholarship schemes :or the university havealso been adopted by several industries.
34
Part Four
GENERAL INFORMATION - STATISTICAL DATA
XVI. The Financial Situation
(a) Economic develoament - National income
83. While the Yugoslav economy, in common with the eastern countries, in genera]adopts the principle that the means of production (except agricultural small holdings)should be nationalised and the economy be planned, since 1949-50 there have beentwo important differences. First, the Workers' Councils elected by all the workersin each enterprise in the socialized sector have acquired extensive powers of manage-ment, both insofar as allocating the net disposable income between workers' wagesand the enterprise's investment fund is concerned and also in orienting productionand consequently the pattern of gross investment, whatever the source of financing.Secondly, this relative autonomy on the part of the enterprises, and the decentrali-sation of production and investment decisions have meant that a genuine market hasbeen restored to a far greater degree for both end products and the production fac-tcrs of capital and labour. The sovereignity of consumers has been recognised and,in more and more cases which now form the rule, the consumer's choice, throughthe mechanism of supply, demand and prices, is being increasingly allowed to affectinvestment decisions.
84. The main target for Yugoslav economic policy is industrial development, andthe results obtained in this respect are remarkable. Production rose between 1953and 3960 at an average rate of ten per cent per year for the Social Product (1). This
(1) Yugoslav definitions of the social product include only material goods and activitiesclosely related to their production; the production of most services and adminis-tration are therefore excluded.
35.3.1
expansion has brought about substantial changes, the share of industry in the SocialProduct going up from 33. 3 per cent in 1047 to 24. 6 per cent (Table 5) with corres-ponding changes in employment, important new industries have been created, espe-cially in iron and steel, electrical equipment and shipbuilding, and the proportionof industrial production in exports has risen considerably (Economic Surveys by theOECD, Yugoslavia, July 1963),
85. The National Income increased from D 1, 834, 000 million in 1958 to D 4, 682, 000million in 1964 (Table 6), causing a considerable increase (135 per cent) in the percapita income, which in 1964 amounted to 240, 000 dinars. The purchasing power ofthe dinar loll by 61 per cent during the same period. This rapid economic developmenthas been accompanied by a substantial rise in the standard of living (Table 7).
(b) Foreign trade
86. To ensure the expansion of exports, the Yugoslav authorities made extensiveuse of internal measures, restricting demand and encouraging export enterprises.A high proportion of exports (about 50 per cent& is still subsidised while the liberal-isation of imports is still only partial; in 1962 only approximately 20 per cent ofimported goods were unrestricted. Although Yugoslavia has thus achieved a markedincrease in her exports, these favourable results are not without their problems,since, to increase exports, Yugoslavia has to grant substantial credits while herown capital requirements remain immense (Economic Surveys by the OECD,Yugoslavia 1963). Imports have also increased considerably during the past fewyears, as illustrated in Table 8; they include food to supplement home production,raw materials, machinery and equipment and a range of manufactured products(Table 9) now in increasing demand as a result of industrialization and the rise inthe standard of living.
(c) Expenditure for education
87. Total expenditure for education has increased considerably since 1956, andamounted to 5. 73 per cent of National Income in 1964 (Table 10), which is high byinternational standards (1). However, in spite of this great effort the materialconditions of the Yugoslav educational system are not yet satisfactory, owing to theaccumulation of past shortages and the great expansion in enrolments, particularlyat the higher level.
88. The changes in the system of financing education have produced correspondingchanges in the share of the various authorities, as indicated in Table 11. The distri-bution of expenditure, by level of .education, for the year 1963, is given in Table 12.
(1) This percentage is lower (approx. 4. 6) when the National Income is calculatedas in western countries (see footnote, page 35),
(1) Excluding USA economic aid and agricultural surplus imports which amounted to:25, 101 million dinars in 1958, 6, 508 million dinars in 1960, 28, 939 million dinarsin 1962, 34,400 million dinars in 1963 and 20, 184 million dir.rs in 1964.
Source: Federal Institute for Statistics.
Table 9
ForeVn Trade - Main exports and imports
EXPORTS % IMPORTS %
1. Exports of goods and servicesas a percentage of GNP
1. Imports of goods and servicesas a percentage of GNP
(average 1956-61) 14 (average 1956-61) 18
2. Main exports (percentage oftotal exports in 1962)
2. Main imports (percentage oftotal imports in 1962)
(ii) Machinery and transport (ii) Machinery and transportequipment 23 equipment 33
(iii) Raw materials (excluding (iii) Raw materials (excludingfuels) 14 fuels) 15
I(iv) Manufactured goods . . . . 18
Source: Economic Surveys by the OECD, Yugoslavia (1963).
35 .
39.
Table 10
National income mid ex =cilium on education 1956-64
(in current prices)
YearNational income
( ' 000 milliondinars)
Expenditure for education
'000 milliondinars Index
Percentageof national
income
1956. 1, 445 37. 7 100. 0 2.61
1958. . 1, 834 63. 3 168. 1 3.
1960. . 2, 686 91. 5 242. 7 3. 40
1962. 3, 474 191. 4 507. 9 5. 51
1964. . 4, 682 268, 5 712. 3 5. 73
Source: Federal Institute for Statistics (through MRP Office).
Table 11
Sources of current expenditure for education(in percentage)
1957 1961
4.
Total 100. 0 100. 0
1. Communes
2. Districts3. Republics
67. 4
15. 6
17. 0
76. 9
1. 2
21. 9
aource: Federal Secretariat for Education and Culture.
Table 12
Emumditure by ltayistIvily2E,L1.11911 (1M6_19
Level 61. typeof education
No. ofpupils
Totalexpenditure(in milliondinars) (1)
Exiienditureper pupil in
round figures(in dinars)1
1, Primary 2, 960,
457,
116,
132,
90,
82,
36,
159,
52,
107,
94,
199
838
171
758
245
226
438
410
050
360
575
94,
44,
7,
13,
7,
12,
44,
28,
6,
21,
2,
212
114.
478
436.
096,
103
001,
836.
852.
984
612.
8
2
4
2
8
8
1
31,
96,
64,
101,
78,
147,
109,
181,
131,
204,
27,
800
500
400
200
600
200
800
000
700
800
600
2. Secondary
(i) Gymnasia . . , , , , . ,
(ii) Secondary tech, schools. . .
(iii) Skilled worker schools . . .
(iv) School centres
(v) Teacher-training colleges andart schools
3. Higher
(1) Two-year post secondarycourses and schools of higherlearning
(ii) Universities
4. Other Schools
(Adult ed, centres, special schools,etc. )
Sou- 'e: Federal Secretariat for Education and Culture, MRP Office.(1) 14ov dinars = 1 US dollar.
XV11. c.ticational Statistics
;a) Enrotments and output
89. The general trend in education for the period 1956-64 is summarised in Tables13 and 14, During this period the number of the population attending school increasedby well over a million. Enrolments in primary education dropped from 84. 0 percent of total enrolments in 1956 to 81. 2 in 1964 and, during the same period, enrol-ments in secondary education rose from 10, 8 per cent to 13. 5 per cent of the total.A striking feature is the drift from general secondary schools (gymiutsia) towardstechnical and vocational schools, particularly during the period 1952-60. Enroinwntsin the schools for skilled workers show a fairly slow increase, despite the fact thatthey offer the best conditions for study, e. g. monthly benefits, shorter courses andgood occupational prospects.
90. The expansion in the number of enrolments in higher education has been sovast and rapid that, by comparison with other countries, it may be considered asextraordinary; at the same time, it appears to have placed the utmost strain on highereducation facilities, despite the considerable programme of construction undertakenin the past few years. There is, therefore, a severe shortage of teachers and labo-ratory facilities (1V1RP Report). The number of part-time students attending highercourses has also increased considerably during the past few years (Table 15); in1964 it amounted to about 35 per cent of the total student body.
91. Further analysis of enrolments in secondary and higher technical and voca-tional schools may be found together with the output of the various courses inTables 16 and 17.
(b) School buildings
92. The constriction of school buildings has not kept pace with the opening of newschools. Despite the efforts made since 1944, a large number of buildings still housetwo, three or even four different schools.
In Table 18 the actual number of school buildings is given for the period1938-1963. The continuously decreasing number of schools for skillad workers iscounterbalanced by the establishment of schools for adults, including school centres,as a result of the integration of formal and informal school systems.
(c) Drop-out from technical and vocational courses
93. The data available, although incomplete, show that the drop-out rates forsecondary technical and vocational courses at technician and craftsman levels arefairly high (37.3 and 21. 0 per cent respectively) and no clear trend (Table 19)appears.
Tab
le 1
3
Enr
olm
ents
for
eac
h le
vel o
f ed
ucat
ion
and
perc
enta
ge c
hang
e
(Sch
ool y
ears
195
6/57
- 1
963/
64)
Lev
el a
nd ty
peof
edu
catio
n19
56/5
719
60/6
119
62/6
319
63/6
41P
erce
ntag
ech
ange
1950
-64
1. P
rim
ary
..
.
2,17
4,67
22,
764,
369
2,96
0,19
93,
005,
659
39. 4
2. S
econ
dary
279,
562
,
362,
540
448,
169
503,
424
80. 0
(i)
Gym
nasi
a(i
i) S
econ
dary
tech
nica
l and
voc
atio
nal
.sc
hool
s (1
)(i
ii) S
kille
d w
orke
rs s
choo
ls (
1)(i
v) O
ther
pro
fess
iona
l sch
ools
(v)
Tea
cher
-tra
inin
g co
llege
s(v
i) A
rt s
choo
lq
3. H
ighe
r
84,
52,
115, 2, 20, 3, 60,14
1
806
899
062
930
734
848
79,,6
76
108,
023
139,
305
3, 3
9127
, 950
4, 1
95
94, 7
63
116,
153,
138, 3, 31
, 4,
106,
171
339
713
391
912
643
439
141,
171,
153, 3,
28 4
106
738
586
125
269
716
990
624
68. 6
225.
032
. 258
. 31
37. 2
136.
2
75.4
(1)
Tw
o-ye
ar p
ost-
seco
ndar
y co
urse
s(i
i) S
choo
ls o
f hi
gher
lear
ning
(iii)
Aca
dem
ies
(iv)
Fac
ultie
s
4. A
dult
cour
ses
7, 1, 52,
71,
003
280
254
311
637
15, 1
791,
710
1, 4
0976
, 462
97, 6
73
21, 2, 1, 80,
95,37
454
675
576
4
037
243 1
76 87,
808
584
941
292
881
254.
21,
176
.05.
545
.8
22. 6
Tot
al2,
586,
719
3,.
319,
342
3,60
9,84
43,
703,
588
-
(1)
Incl
uclin
g st
uden
ts a
t sch
ool c
entr
es.
(2)
Exc
ludi
ng p
art-
time
stud
ents
.So
urce
: Fed
eral
Sec
reta
riat
of
Edu
catio
n an
d C
ultu
re.
Table 14
Enrolments for each level of education as a percentatilLof total enrolments(SchooL years 1956/57 - 1963/64)
Level of educationEnrolments as a percentage of total
1956/57 1960/61 1963/64
Primary 84. 0 83. 5 81, 2
2. Secondary 10. 8 10. 9 13..5
(i) Gymnasia 3. 7 2. 4 3. 8
(ii) Technical and vocational schools . 2. 0 3. 3 4. 6
(iii) Skilled worker schools 4. 5 4. 2 4. 5
(iv) Other schools . 0. 6 1. 0 0. 6
3. Higher 2. 4 2. 8 2. 9
4. Adult courses, special schools, etc. 2. 8 2. 9 2. 4
Table 15
Part-time enrolments in higher education institutions(1951/52 - 1963/64)
Source: Federal Institute of Statistics.(1) Administrative and medical schools.
(2) Schools for adults, special schools and schools for supplementary education.
4347
Tab
le 1
9
Dro
p-ou
ts f
rom
sec
onda
ry te
chni
cal a
nd v
ocat
iona
l cou
rses
(sch
ool y
ears
195
6/57
-19
60/6
1)
1956
/57
1957
/58
1958
/59
1959
/60
1960
/61
Tot
al
1. S
econ
dary
tech
nica
l cou
rses
0.)
Initi
al e
nrol
men
ts21
, 942
25, 5
7428
, 430
32, 9
1241
,477
150,
335
(ii)
Gra
duat
ion
13, 5
9716
, 431
16, 6
4621
, 349
26, 4
9294
, 57_
5
(iii)
Per
cen
t was
tage
38. 0
35. 8
41. 4
35. 1
36. 1
37. 3
2. V
ocat
iona
l cou
rses
(3
year
s)(i
) In
itial
enr
olm
ents
43, 3
0845
, 565
50, 8
55-
-13
9, 7
03
(ii)
Gra
duat
ion
33, 4
0036
, 455
40, 5
20-
-11
0, 3
75
(iii)
Per
cen
t was
tage
22. 9
20. 0
20. 3
--
21. 0
Sour
ce: F
eder
al S
ecre
tari
at f
or E
duca
tion
and
Cul
ture
.
NW
...A
{.0.
a...
Puutation iVlan tower Statistics
(a)1212pulation
94. The population of Yugoslavia increased by 31 per cent during the period 1931-1963 and it is estimated that the increase will reach nearly 50 per cent by 1975(Table 20). Tlw active population for the year 1961 was 45 per cent of total populationoccupied as shown in Table 21.
95. After the second world war Yugoslavia made a major effort towards herreconstruction and development. Manpower was transferred from low to high produc-tivt,y sector* as shown in Table 22, and the socialised sector increased its share oftotal employment from 23.2 per cent in 1953 to 41.8 per cent in 1961 (Table 23).
(b) Forecast of employment
96, It is estimated in the MRP study that employment in the socialised sector willpass from 3.5 millions in 1961 to 4.5 millions in 1970, and the occupational structurein this sector will undergo the changes indicated in Tables 24 and 25.
(c) Supply and requirements
97. The supply and requirements for personnel with secondary and higher qualifi-cations for the period 1960-1975 are given in Table 26. According to this projectionthere will be a substantial surplus from the business administration and pedagogicalschools, although there would seem to be ample possibilities for these graduates toreplace insufficiently qualified employees in administration, the social services,and commercial undertakings. A similar situation is apparent, for universities andschools of higher learning. The most important surplus will be for economists andlawyers and the smallest for graduates from the technological faculties.
98. There is a substantial shortage of graduates from secondary-level technicalschools and this shortage wouli be even greater than shown in the table if accountwere taken of the need to replace non-qualified personnel holding jobs for whichtechnical secondary education would normally be required. (MRP Report). A furtheranalysis of manpower requirements and supply has now been undertaken by theMRP office. A sample of the work so far completed is shown in Table 27.
(d) Educational structure of the labour force
99. Substantial changes are expected to take place in the educational structure ofthe labour force during the period 1960-75. A preliminary estimate taken from theMRP study may be found in Table 28.
MAIN TYPES OF SCHOOLS AND COURSES WITHIN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
I. "rimary Level
1. Pr e-schooiper iod
Infant education covers ages 4 to 7. Pre-school institutions may be set up bywork organisations or parents, as well as by the communes. The number of suchinstitutions is still limited (just over a thousand in 1962).
2. Primary schools - compulsory schooling period
Primary school constitutes the backbone of the Yugoslav educational systemand covers the compulsory eight-year period (7 to 15).
According to federal law, this school offers a general education and has thetask of providing pupils with an essentially socialist attitude and modern generaleducation; of guiding and he3ping them to choose their future education and trainingfor their vocations.
Since the primary school is accepted as the minimum education required forall, the federal law prescribes that it must be uniform throughout the country. Tosecure this, the Educational Council of Yugoslavia was formed within the Federationand, in addition to its other tasks, has to determine the programme and instructionconcepts for this level of schooling. The basis prescribed contained the minimumfor the whole country in each of the varbus educational branches and their curricula,but permitted the republics and even the communes to add to the syllabus accordingto the needs of individual communities.
II. Secondary Level
Secondary education comprises several types of institutions all of which followthe compulsory prinlary school and, subject to certain conditions, open the way tohigher education.
Examinations for admission are normally held only when the number of appli-cants exceeds that of the places available, and even then pupils who have completedtheir primary schooling with "excellent" marks are exempt. Latei al movementbetween different courses is possible tlirougn special examinations.
3. Gymnasia
Gymnasia are four-year secondary institutions providing for general educationpreparatory to entering the university. Two math lines are available: social sciencesand modern languages; natural sciences and mathematics. However, as the degreeof specialisation is slight and curricula do not differ very much, there are no re-strictions on the type of faculty in which the student may enrol.
A third line, with emphasis on classical history, Greek and Latin, is alsooffered but is of minor importance as it absorbs hardly more than one per cent ofthe total gymnasia population.
4. Technical secondarchools
Technical secondary schools are four-year institutions providing training forlower-level technicians in such fields as industry, agriculture, transport and com-munications, commerce, medicine, etc. Graduates of technical schools are eligibleto enrol in university faculties or other higher education institutions.
5. Vocational schools
Vocational schools provide for training at craftsman level and are of threetypes: (i) Schools for practical training, which offer full-time practical and theoreticaltraining in industrial, agricultural, commercial, medical, hotel and catering, andhandicraft trades, and lead to the skilled-worker certificate. (ii) Apprenticeshipschools for the part-time theoretical trainiag of industrial apprentices leading to thesame skilled worker certificate. The length of the courses varies with the trade,but in most cases is three years. (iii) Schools for highly skilled workers, which maybe considered as a continuation of the two types mentioned above; they provideadvanced vocational courses of varying length (6 months to 3 years) mainly in industry.Highly skilled workers are granted direct access to upper-level technician courses(see 8 below) while skilled workers should have at least four years' vocational expe-rience for admission to these courses.
6. Art schools
Art schools L-ain artists, teaching staff and employees in cultural and educa-tional institutions in such subjects as music, ballet and applied arts. The courseslast four years.
7. Teacher-training schools
Teacher-training schools are five-year secondary institutions for trainingprimary school teachers. Apart from the general teacher-training schools, thereart a few more specialised schools for teachers in child-welfare, home economics,elementary vocational subjects and physical training.
60
ill. tat,her Education
Admission to higher education is normally granted after the passing of anentrance examination by those who have full secondary education, actual workingexperience or special abilities. Higher education may be divided into three, self-contained parts as described below.
8. post-secondary
These courses are held at the upper-technician level in several industrial andother fields. They may be regarded as complete in themselves or as replacing thefirst cycle of the university faculties, as graduates have access to the second cycleof the corresponding faculty.
9. University faculties
University f aculties are usually divided into three levels: the first correspondsto upper technician level and lasts two years (see 8 above); the second, after twoyears of further study, leads to the batchelor's degree, and the third consists of oneto two years of post-graduate study.
10. .c....Schools
These offer highly specialised professional training in technology, agriculture,administration, physical education and political sciences. The courses last fromtwo to four years.
11. Art academies
Art academies train persons to become highly qualified professional artistsin the fields of music, fine and decorative arts. courses last four to five years.
61 56
TH
E E
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L S
YS
TE
M T
EC
HN
ICA
L A
ND
VO
CA
TIO
NA
L S
CH
OO
LS
1415
1617
1819
2021
2223
2425
26
Prim
ary
scho
ol
Pty
mna
sia
.I
*A
geI
1
Oth
er fa
culti
es
Tec
hnic
al fa
culti
es
high
er le
arni
ng
Voc
atio
nal s
choo
ls
Tw
o-ye
ar p
ost-
eco
ndar
y sc
hool
s
Sci
ttAils
fa h
ighl
y sk
illed
-wor
kers
IND
US
TR
Y
11 ifab
e
1,7:
5 -- f
Com
puls
ory
perio
dgr
ades
910
1112
1314
1516
171g
19
Ent
ranc
e ex
amin
atio
n* Q
ualif
ying
exa
min
atio
n
Appendix HT
POLYTECIIMC AL EDUCATION IN YUGOSLAVIA
1. The Yugoslave Institute for Educational ltesearch has shown particular in-terest in reforming the school curricula, especially at lower-secondary level. TheInstitute, in collaboration with university professors, associations of the institutesfor the advancement of education in the republics and pA.ovinces, teachers at second-ary schools and experts from industry. has proposed E draft curriculum for anew type of secondary school consisting of two lower grades (9th and 10th).
2. The proposed curriculum, for "tN hat is known as polytechnical education, hasbeen based mainly on the experience acquired so Car through experimental work inseveral secondary schools throughout the country, and through study and researchcarried out in foreign countries. Elementary school curricula have been also takeninto consideration so that a proper link is maintained between the two stages ofeducation.
Polytechnical education endeavours to establish a functional link between thedifferent types of secondary education and their composite subjects, the main inno-vation being the introduction of technology and praz:tical work as an integral com-ponent of the curricula at this stage, defined as: the preparatory stage of second-ary education.
4. The general timetable given below shows that approximately 42 per cent ofthe total instruction time is devoted to general sul..jects, 36 per cent to scientificand technological disciplines, 17 per cent to technical work in production, theremaining 5 per cent being left for elective subjects.
(a) Natural sciences and mathematics
5. In this part of the programme technology is introduced as an integral part ofthe natural sciences. The following example, which refers to the subject chemistrywith technology illustrates this.
041
6. The aim of the subject is (i) to supply the students with a social knowledge ofelementary chemistry; (ii) to develop new scientific thinking; (iii) to enable studentsto grasp correctly the scientific background on which some major branches of pro-duction are based; (iv) to keep students informed on recent chemical and technolo-gical developments.
7. To achieve the establishment of a cloSe relationship between chemistry as ascience and production, a detailed study of such ithportant items as materials,scientific basi?, of the processes, stages of production, typical apparatus, etc. isindispensabl e.
k 63 58
Time-table of the IIpreparatory t?.11.1.e of secondary education"
Subjects1st your(grade 0)
2nd year(grade 10)
Instruction Periods
Perweek Total %
1. Humanities 16 14 30 1,050 41.67
(i) Literature with elementsof esthetics in languageculture 5 4 9 315
3. Technical work in the6 6 12 420 16.67production process
Total compulsorytrends of instruction 34 34 68 2,380 94.45
4. Elective subjects 2 2 4 140 5.5
Grand Total 36 36 72 2,520 100.00
a*.
64 59
As the detailed study of a large number of Trocesses would be difficult andunnevessary at this stage, a few basic processes should be selected anti treated allength. They should be typical and include a large nunther of fundamental 1wincip1escommon to industriai chemistry as a whole. For example, the study of the produc-tion of: (1) sulphuric! acid, (il) aluminium oxide, (iii) sugar, may serve as a soundbasis for the application of the above Iwincip le, as these include a number of fun-damental operations such as filtering, milling, grinding, crystallisation, absorp-tion, etc. and demand the use of a variety of typical machinery, apparatus andequipment. These processes should be studied thoroughly including the raw mate-rial, industrial location, the chemical-physical and chemical aspect, historicaldevelopment, production and importance to the economy.
9. Additional subject-matter shoulrl be treated separately without a detaileddescription of the production process. For instance:
- The synthetic production of ammonia should be studied at length from thephysical-chemical aspect; catalysis should also be studied at the sametime.
- The production of soda should be used to illustrate in detail the elaborationof the chemical basis of the process, the problems of rational utilisation ofby-products, and the material balance as a whole.
- When dealiag with metals, floatation corrosion and preservation should beconsidered.
- Because of its importance petroleum should be studied in detail and refer-ence made to the synthetic production of benzine, octane rating, crackingand petrochemical industry. The economic aspect should also be taken intoconsideration.
10. in order to link chemistry with its applications in other branches of industryand the economy, and with life and the students' environment in general, it isnecessary, when dealing with all other products of inorganic and organic chemistry,to dwell upon the general principles of production, their application and impact onthe development of civilisation and of other sciences.
(b) Education in production and technology
11. Education in production and technology is considered an indispensable compo-nent for the all-round development of the pupil because: (i) it increases work appre-ciation and discipline and coordinates school education with productive work; (ii) ithelps broaden his understanding of the natural, economic and social sciences andthe app,ication of scientific and technological innovations; (iii) it provides an insightinto the productive processes and the organization of work, v) it breaks down thedifferences between the intellectual and the young worker; (vi) it provides a soundbackground for future intensive vocational training and education.
12. Training in production and technology,however, is never allowed to assume aprofessional character at this stage, the curricula being based on carefully screenedand analytically elaborated integral jobs, through which the student is expected toacquire a knowledge of the basic principles of productive labour and practice inbasic operations.
. 6560
13. Regardless of the character of the jobs to be included in the programme, themain criterion for selecting and analysing the jobs and for the technological andpractical knowledge required should be the dominance of the processes of mecha-nisation. It is necessary to keep a constant look out for new developments in thefield of labour which might offer new opporiunities for a real portnership betweenscience and labour, and further integration between education and productivity.
14. Prior to the preparation of a formal programme in technology and production,it would be necessary to determine the technological processes and to study theorganization of work in a number of local firms engaged in different activities, andalso to examine the training pattern in one or more vocational schools in the area.
15. In general, five main job areas may be differentiated within the frameworkof technology and production; once the programme has been based on one, or on acombination of two or more of them, the following factors can be determined:(i) degree of familiarity with mechanical and manual operation and manipulations;(ii) special techniques, technical drawing, blue-print reading standards, etc.;(iii)properties, testing and use of raw materials; (iv) safety regulations and pre-cautions; (v) socio-economic relations.
16. Based on the results of the evaluation and analysis mentioned above, thefinal programme for the institutes may be drawn up. This should comprise:(i) practical work, classified into two categories, namely common or fundamental,and special and (ii) related theory for both the fundamental and special aspects.Time standards should also be determined especially for particular types of work-ship practice, as this directly affects the degree to which the student is expectedto master the varlous techniques.
(c) Elective subjects
17. The elective part of the curricula is intended to give students an opportunity(i) to broaden and enrich the knowledge acquired in the compulsory part of theprogramme; (ii) to acquire new knowledge useful to their educational or occupationalcareer. Students are not obliged to take an elective subject. The nature and contentof the elective subjects are determined and elaborated by the individual schoolsaccording to the interests and aptitudes of the students and the industrial and socialactivities of the area.
2. DiampiLL2L,22...Lrtialwit-;Apart from the normal four-year courses, several alternatives have been
devist.d to serve the needs of particular industries. A few examples are given inthe chart overleaf.
Example I shows the normal four-year courses leading to the diploma (lowertechnician level).
Example II shows a five-year full-time course, leading simultaneously to theskilled worker certificate and the technician diploma. This is offered by a technicalschool in Sisak (Croatia) which trains technicians mainly for a large local metalindustry (foundries).
Example III, which shows technician training as a continuation of skilled-worker training supplemented by one year's industrial experience has been generallyaccepted in Croatia and is applied by all the schools there, which train techniciansfor the textile industry.
Example IV is an alternative to mechanical and electrical engineering techni-cian courses. It provides for the upgeading oi the skilled worker to technician withoutdiscontinuing productive work; school attendance is in the afternoon only.
Example V shows part of the full-time training scheme of a large electricalengineering firm (Rade Koncar) in Zagreb, employing over 8,000 employees.Courses are mixed (skilled-worker/technician) and last eight semesters. At theend of each semester, pupils are tested and only those considered apt are allowedto continue their training in the school. The rest enter production in any of thefollowing grades: (i) specialised workers; (ii) independent specialised workers;(iii) semi-skilled workers; (iv) skilled workers; (v) highly skilled workers; (vi) tech-nicians at the stages illustrated in the diagram. Special part-time courses providean alternative way for drop-outs from the full-time school to improve their formalskills. Courses for upper-level technician training are also available and are opento holders of the technician diploma.
6a3
6 4 '2 0
jech
nici
an c
ome
Ski
lled
wor
ker
Tec
hnic
ian
cour
se
0 S
kille
d w
orke
r ce
rtifi
cate
I I
PA
TT
ER
NS
OF
TR
AIN
ING
Tec
hnic
ian
cour
se_-
--__
AZ
IS
kille
d w
orke
r co
urse
II I
Tec
hnic
ian
dipl
oma
Tec
hnic
ian
cour
se
00.0
Ski
lled
wor
ker
cour
se%
fled
wor
ker
cour
sefii
ll
Tec
hnic
ian
cour
se
lom
blb
*am
*or
mom
. ove
rm
om a
...
IvV
Wor
k in
indu
stry
;
=
3. Selected time _tables
a. Mechanical engineering course (construction)
(example from a school in Belgrade)
Subjects
1. General Subjects(i) Mother tongue
(ii) Foreign language(iii) History and the Cunstitution . .
(iv) Elements of political economy..(v) Physical training
(ii) Electrotechnics 3 3 6(iii) Knowledge of materials 3 3(iv) Technology of the trade 4 5 5 14(v) Electrical measurements 3 3
(vi) Power production and distribution . 3 3(vii) Production economics 2 2
4. Practical work 63 50 %
Workshop practice 21 21 21 63
Total 42 42 42 126 100 %
(1) 1 unit = 30 periods of instruction (approx. )
Source : Secretariat for Education and Culture, Belgrade.
v-
Appendix Vli
SELECTED 13I13IAOG1APHY
1. Draft report on the education and training of engineers of non-university leveland technicians in Yugoslavia, (OECD, through FL %Nl-Eusec, 1963).
2. Report on the inquiry into the functions of technicians in industry in Yugoslavia(OECD, DAS/ST/64. 3).
3. The Mediterranean Regional Project. Education for Economic and socialDevelopment, Yugoslavia (OECD June, 1964).
4. Economic surveys by the OECD, Yugoslavia, 1963.
5. Country Reviews, Yugoslavia (OECD, 1962).
6. Policy for school (Provisional summary of the industrial Seminar in Rescati,OECD, 1965).
7. The proposed system of education in the Federal People& Republic of Yugoslavia(Commission f.)r School Reform, Belgrade, 1959).
8. Education in Yugoslavia (Medunarodna Politika, Belgrade, 1964).
9. Vocational training in Yugoslavia (Secretariat for Education and Culture,Belgrade).
10. Curricula and Syllabi of the preparatory stage of secondary education (Draftreport, Yugoslav Institute for Educational Research, Belgrade, 1966).
11. Courses for technical teachers (Institute for Technical and Vocational Educationof Serbia, 1965).
12. Technical and vocational school programmes (Institute for Technical andVocational Education of Serbia).
13. Technical and vocational school programmes (Institute for Technical andVocational Education for Croatia).
14, Training programme of Rade Koncar school centre.
15. The enterprise and national income distribution (A. Polajnor, published by theYugoslav Trade Unions, 1963).
16. Social self-government (Medunarodna Politika, 1965).
17. Statistical pocket-book of Yugoslavia (Federal Institute for Statistics, 1965).
Appendix VIII
LIST OF INDIVID1.JAU3 AND ORGANISATIONS CONSULTED
1. Federal Secretariat for Education and Culture(Mr. V. Colic, Advisor on Technical Education.Mrs. Bozickovic, commission for cultural relations with foreign countries.
2. El cgjAl_titute for Educational Research(i) Technical and Vocational Education Division
(Prof. P. Zivojinovic, Director)(ii) Documentation Division
3. Institute for Technical Education of Serbia(Mr. Povlovic, Director)
4. Secretariat for Education and Culture of CroatIa(i) Institute for the Development of Primary Education
(Mr. Muhvic, Advisor)(ii) Institute for the Development of Technical and Vocational Education
(Mrs. A. Ante, Director) (Mr. Z. Jurkovic, Deputy Director)
5. Office of the Mediterranean Regional Project(Mrs. S. Sari; Deputy Director)
6 Yugoslav Association for Vocational Guidance(Miss Brancic, Member)
7. Town Centre for Vocational Guidance, Belgrade(Mr. Illi, Director)
8. Schools and colleges
(1) Osnovna Skoka, Jordanovac 108, Zagreb (Primary School)(Mr. Puzevski, Director)
(ii) Secondary Technical and Polytechnical School, Zagreb, Klarceva 9,(Mrs. Antic, Director)
(iii) Central School of Chemistry - Proleterskih Brigade 269, Zagreb(Prof. Dumic, Director of the Centres. Prof. Zozko, Director of the School)
7G4,
(iv) Central School of Textiles. Lobe Ribara 126, Zagreb(Prof. Mika, Director).
(v) Central School for Metal Industries(Dr. Dzjiecva, Zagreb)(Mr. B. Drago, Director)
(vi) Rade Koncar School Centre(Director of two-year post-secondary schools)
(vii) Zagreb Central Workers' University(Mr. Velcic, Deputy-Director)
9. Prvomajska Metal Industries, Zagreb (Eng. Zdravko, in charge of training).
10. Central Council of the Confederation of Trade Unions of Yugoslavia, Belgrade(Mr. S. Bezdanov, Head of the Commission for Education and Culture)
11. Union of Engineers and Technicians of Yugoslavia, Belgrade(Mr. S. Nicolic, President)
Appendix IX
CONCLUSIONS OF THE CONFRONTATION MEETINGS
The Netherlands - Spain - Switzerland - Yugoslavia
I. The discussions followed the procedure adopted in the previous confrontationmeeting between Canada and Denmark, the main conclusions of which were adoptedby the meeting. These conclusions are incorporated here as Part B of this Appendixfor the sake of easy reference.
2. The participation of a large number of countries with different systems andmethods and the availability of completed reports on these countries made thediscussion extremely profitable and lively and brought to light issues which had notappeared before. A brief account of these new issues as they have been discussedunder the various agenda items is given below.
(a) Standardised qualifications
3. It appears that an attempt to set international standards as regards techniciantraining courses will not lead to any valid results, because of the existing greatdifferences in structure and content of these courses in the various countries. How-ever, it would be useful to define the minimum qualifications required for each gradeso as to devise a yardstick against which one could measure and evaluate the situationin each Member country.
(b) The technician force
4. In most cases technician courses aim at the production of middle level technicalmanpower to fill in existing gaps in the rapidly developing economy. It should beemphasised, however, thac in the case of countries in the process of industrialisation,availability of such a technical force might play a decisive role in the establishmentof new industrial concerns and be a prerequisite to set developing industry on a soundand competitive basis.
5. When planning for technical education it is important to know, among otherthings, the appropriate ratio: university engineer/higher technicians. Although thisratio may vary from country to country, depending mainly on the nature of industry,it is observed that in the majority of cases, a higher technician force three timeslarger than the respective engineering force will be required effectively to supportand supplement the latter.
878
6. It was observed that in all four couniries under examination there was a scarcityof higher technic:ans. Among the reasons given for this scarcity, the following,although not always universally applicable, are worthy of note:
(I) Inadequate supply of information to parents and prospective students, asregards technician studies and careers, due to lack of properly organised andfunctioning educational and vocational orientation and guidance service.
(ii) The role of higher technicians in industry is not, in all cases, well defined andappreciated. The social and professional status of the technician is still vagueand in many cases technicians are still considered as "second class" engineers.
(iii) Promotion possibilities through further studies are, in certain cases, extremelylimited. Although the vast majority of technicians are expected to enter theIIeconomy" directly, provision should be made for those who have the abilityand interest to be enabled to continue their studies for higher qualifications.
(iv) The educational system is finding it extremely difficult to keep pace with theconstantly increasing demand of a rapidly developing industry.
(v) Lack of reliable statistical data on present and future needs in technical man-power do not permit effective planning in the educational field.
(c) Technician training courses
7. When using the term "apprenticeship" one should have in mind that it doesnot necessarily refer to craft training only. There are countries, such as the UnitedKingdom, where apprenticeship training covers the whole range of technical forcefrom the skilled worker up to and including the university engineer.
8. Although school-training is indispensable it should be realised that it has itslimitations. Therefore, training within industry should constitute an integral partof the technician training process.
9. It was agreed that there are at least two possible ways of training in order toensure desirable adaptability of the "end-product" to the continuously changing needsof modern technology:
(i) To give narrow and deep specialisation providing for retraining possibilitieson a similar basis, as might be proposed by a special "retraining committee";
(ii) To train on broad scientific and technical background allowing for further spe-cialisation within industry. Speclal short courses on new developments andtechniques may be organised by the technical colleges in collaboration withindustry. It appears that the latter method of training gives better results asregards both the quality and adaptability of technical personnel and is thereforehighly recommended.
10. As technology is developing at a rapid pace it does not appear feasible for theeducational system to keep abreast of it. Therefore, industry is expected to reactfirst by providing necessary training courses, which may then be adopted andfurther developed by the technical colleges.
(d) Co-ordination of efforis in the trQ:siag_process industry_Epliption11. The establishment of a co-ordinating mechanism charged with policy makingand all other matters related to technical education and training is considered ofvital importance, no matter what the social and political structure of the countryis. Such a mechanism should be composed of representatives of the educationalauthorities, the teaching force, other governmental and private institutions partic-ipating in the training scheme, employers' and employees' associations and in-dustry.
12. Under Item 5 of the agenda the several forms of participation of industry in thetraining process were thoroughly discussed. It was agreed that active participationof industry, including jointly financed (industry/educational authorities) trainingprogrammes, is of vital importance and positively contributes to the developmentof technical education and training. Reference was also made to the pattern of co-operation between industry and education developed recently by the United Kingdom.(Technical training, under the Industrial Training Act, 1964).
13. Participation of industry representatives in a central co-ordinating mechanism(see under 11 above), in technical school boards and examination boards and theestablishment of jointly financed (government and industry) training programmesare considered as realistic measures to secure the desirable active participationon its part.
(e) Recruitment and training of technical teachers
14. In the discussion of the problem of recruitment and training of technicalteachers, it was revealed that all four countries experience much difficulty insecuring in adequate numbers properly qualified personnel to cope with modernindustrial and educational requirements.
15. In order to be efficient in his job, a technical teacher should possess adequateknowledge in a variety of subjects. Technical knowledge and experience should besupplemented by pedagogical training covering child and adult education, psychologyof the trade, labour market problems, industrial organisation and financing, produc-tivity, etc. Such knowledge can be acquired only through special training whichshould, therefore, be regarded as part and parcel of the technical teacher trainingprocess.
16. Entrants from industry to teaching, lacking pedagogical training, frequentlyexperience great difficulty in performing teaching tasks. Often they have to learnby trial and error and the students suffer from their initial ignorance of efficientteaching methods. On the other hand, experience of certain countries shows that,as a general rule, adult personnel originating from industry are rather reluctantto readjust themselves to school conditions and be exposed to formal training.
B. Confrontation Meetiu Between Canada and Denmark
(Revised version)
(a) Delineation of the cate or of skilled labour force under consithwation
1. It was agreed that a "scholastic" definition of the technician should be avoided.The force under consideration was defined as that which lies between the skilledworker at the one end and the professional engineer at the other,
2. It was decided that although discussions should be focussed on engineeringtechnicians, as information available was mainly in this field, technicians in otherfields should also be covered as adequately as possible.
(b) Level of Technicians - Certification - Training
3. It was agreed that the technician force should be classified in two main levels,provisionally termed the junior or lower technician level and the senior or uppertechnician level. The classification should be based not on functional assignmentsbut on educational qualificaxions which need not necessarily be acquired in a formalway.
4. Difficulty was experienced in comparing the training programmes of the twocountries because of differences in basic principles, The Danish system is mainlybased on apprenticeship training while the Canadian is entirely institutional. Afterdiscussion it was agreed that though apprenticeship should not be a prerequisite fortechnician training a period of practical training in industry is essential. TheDanish authorities have already realised this fact and are planning to reduce theapprenticeship period preceding technician training.
5. By comparing the "Teknikum Engineer" of Denmark with the "Technologist"of Canada it became evident that Senior Technician training should be a standardisedpost-secondary training of a less theoretical but positively more practical characterthan the university level training in parallel fields.
6. By studying the fields of activity of Junior technicians it was agreed that Juniortechnician training programmes should be flexible in character and duration, andshould be particularly adapted to the needs of the individual trade in each country.A basic general education of at least 10 years was considered an essential prerequi-site for the production of an adaptable "end product". This educational background,together with the additional education and training acquired through the courseproper, should bring the junior technician to an educational level comparable to thatof a full secondary education.
Specific training programmes were further discussed on the basis of an illus-trated exposé (projection of slides) by the Danish Delegation.
7. Standardised certification, already well ahead in Denmark, was consideredessential not only at national level but also internationally. OECD was invited toassist Member countries in this respect.
dt,
(c) Vocational Cuidance Service - Wastbjell. from technical eoursesema*Ne Vde ,
8. Study of relevant information revealed that vocatlonal guidame services Inboth countries are not adequately organised. It was decided that further steps shouldbe taken to establish effective services in both the vocational guidance and thevocational selection fields.
9. Wastage from Senior Technician and Unive.:sity courses appeared to be amajor problem, partL:ularly in Cana0:. Many factors seeln to influence thiswastage; undoubtedly among them is the inadequate method of vocational guidanceand selection.
It was decided that further investigation should be undertaken to define (i) thereasons for high wastage, (ii) what happens to the "drop-outs".
(d) Recruitment and training of technical teachers
10. In both countries recruitment of technical teachers presents difficultiesbecause of the scarcity of properly qualified personnel and the competition fromindustry.
11. It was agreed that a technical teacher should:(i) possess qualifications ensuring thorough theoretical and practical know-
ledge of the subject he is expected to teach;(ii) have industrial experience in appropriate fields;
(iii) be familiar with basic educational principles and possess adequate know-ledge of teaching methods and techniques;
(iv) be kept continuously aware of new developments in the educational andindustrial fields.
It was agreed that to ensure this represented an important area where furthergovernmental action was necessary, OECD was invited to assist the countries inthis respect.
12. The possibility of securing part-time services of personnel from industrywas discussed. It was agreed that this procedure, though difficult to put into practice,at least so far as day courses are concerned, should be further explored; in effectit encouraged the person concerned to keep continuously up to date on both thetheoretical and practical sides.
13. Further discussion led to the conclusion that a reciprocal flow from industryto education and vice-versa is highly desirable. To ensure this, establishment ofrules for recognition of a "continuity of service" (years of service, pension, etc. )would be necessary. In Denmark, this problem is being tackled by the technicians'professional association.
14. Discussion on the status and salaries of. technical teachers revealed thatauthorities in charge should be advised to work out salary scales, pension allowance,etc., competing with those in industry.
(e) Authorities in chare of tochnical :Ind vocational education - Co-ortlinatim_ --safs - ts- .-7E.e 'of efforts
15. Provincial autoaomy in Canada creates a special situation and makes compar-ison with Denmark or some other European countries difficult, inscu;;;.4ion led tothe conclusion that although a decentralisation is for several reasons advisable,the existence of a central co-ordinating authority is indispensable to ensure therequirements of sound educational policy at national level and the desirable standard-isation of qualifications as a pre-requisite for interr al mobility.
(f) Status of technicians and their careers
16. An examination of the information availab]e led to the conclusion that at presenttwo types of teelmicians exist in each country, i. e. :
(i) those classified as technicians by virtue of their educational qualifications;(ii) those who, because of long experience and aptitude, perSorm the duties of
technicians, regardless of their formal qualifications.The latter category however was created in each case to meet the urgent
requirements of the rapid industrial expansion with which the provision of educa-tional facilities could not keep pace; this category is gradually fading out in bothcountries.
17. Discussion on the organisation and functions of technicians' professionalassociations led to the conclusion that the establishment of such associations shouldbe encouraged, as they greatly contribute to the social recognition of the professionalstatus of this category of skilled personnel. The successful example of Denmarkshould encourage other countries to proceed in the same direction.
18. Discussion on the earnings of technicians in industry revealed that these largelydepend on the personal ability of the individual and in some cases are higher thanthose of the professional engineers.
19. The limited possibilities existing in the two countries for promotion fromskilled worker to Junior Technician to Senior Technician was shown to be a featureof the present situation. However, in Denmark, it appears that Teknikum Engineershave many more opportunities as compared to their Canadian counter-parts(technologists) to undertake managerial or technical jobs, normally requiring anengineering degree in industry.
20. It is recommended that promotion from one skilled category to another throughfurther studies be encouraged and facilitated through inter-relating the structureand content of the training programmes. However, it should always be kept in mindthat training for each skilled category is an entity in itself and cannot be regardedas part of another; consequently, unnecessary distortion of training programmesfor the sake of continuity and transferability should definitely be avoided.
(g) Availabili4 of statistieta dataOP4G
21, in both countries the availability of statistical data enabling the planning andimplementation Of technician training intogrammes is inadequate or does not existat all. it W as decided that offorts should be made to secure such data mainly basedon the veal needs of industry and not on the available capacity of the educational08tablishmouts, However, one of the main difficulties in estimating the needs ofindustry in skilled manpower was the hesitation of industry itself to make any firmstatement as regards future needs. Research and Development Services wereusually found to be more reliable sources for such information.
