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Does violence in the media contribute to violent behavior in children? 

    Shannon M. Richute

    Psy 101

        September 3, 2012            

        Instructor Hai Nguyen

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Topic:  Violent Video Game Regulation

 

I.          Introduction of the Issue -- Thesis

            A.        Why the issue is important

1.         The ever-increasing technological advancements in the computer information and electronics industries have had dramatic effects on the entertainment industry.  The advent of these technologies has made realistic, first person video games possible.  This has led to numerous breakthroughs in the gaming industry.  However, technology has made it possible to subject children to strikingly realistic and violent images and themes in video games.

            Source:  “[T]he arrival of a new generation of ultraviolent video games beginning in the early 1990s and continuing unabated to the present resulted in large numbers of children and youths actively participating in entertainment violence that went way beyond anything available to them on television or in movies.  Recent video games reward players for killing innocent bystanders, police, and prostitutes, using a wide range of weapons including guns, knives, flame throwers, swords, baseball bats, cars, hands, and feet…In some, the player assumes the role of hero, whereas in others the player is a criminal.”

 

            Anderson, Craig A.  “Violent Video Games:  Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions.”  American Psychological Association.  Psychological Science Agenda:  October 2003.

 

2.         Video games have become increasingly popular and children are beginning to devote more of their free time to video games.

           

            Source:  “The increasingly realistic and exciting nature of electronic games has helped to make them enormously popular with children and youth.  79% of American children now play computer or video games on a regular basis.  Children between the ages of seven and 17 play for an average of eight hours a week.”

 

            Walsh, David.  “Video Game Violence and Public Policy.”  National Institute on Media and the Family.  http://culturalpolicy.uchicago.edu/conf2001/papers/walsh.html (23 October 2003).

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B.        Thesis – Although regulating the themes and ideas expressed in video games violates first amendment rights, violent video games provide enjoyable alternatives for gaining practice in problem solving and strategizing, and display distinct differences between real violence and fantasy violence, the government should take action to monitor video game content and limit distribution of video games with questionable content because violent material in video games leads to higher levels of aggression in children and adults, games with violent themes hinder pro-social behavior in children, and children who relate with fictional video game characters tend to imitate the behavior displayed by these characters.

 

C.        Clarification – Currently, the rating system used to describe the content of video games is a system designed by a self-regulatory body.  The rating system is completely voluntary and it is not a government entity, which means that no video game developers are forced to submit software to be rated.  This rating system is an effective means of monitoring video game content.  However, government regulation of the video game industry by utilizing this system would help prevent children from easily obtaining violent and graphic video games, would place severe penalties on distributors that make it easy for children to obtain these materials, and would help make parents more aware of the type of themes and images certain video games portray to their children.

 

II.        Definitions

            A.        ESRB

                       

            Source:  “The Entertainment Software Rating Board is a self-regulatory body established in 1994 by the Entertainment Software Association (ESA),…ESRB independently applies and enforces ratings, advertising guidelines, and online privacy principles adopted by the industry.  To date, the ESRB had rated more than 8,000 titles submitted by 350 publishers.”

 

            “About ESRB.”  Entertainment Software Rating Board.  April 2003.  http://www.esrb.org/about.asp (23 October 2003).

 

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B.        ESA

 

            Source:  “The Entertainment Software Association (ESA) is the U.S. association exclusively dedicated to serving the business and public affairs needs of companies that publish video and computer games for video game consoles, personal computers, and the Internet. ESA members collectively account for more than 90 percent of the $6.9 billion in entertainment software sold in the U.S. in 2002, and billions more in export sales of U.S.-made entertainment software.”

 

            “About the Entertainment Software Association.”  Entertainment Software Association.  2003.  http://www.theesa.com/index.html (26 October 2003).

 

C.        Engrossed Substitute House Bill 1009

           

            Source:  “Passed by the House March 18, 2003.  Passed by the Senate April 17, 2003.”  “An act relating to video and computer games depicting violence against public law enforcement officers.”

 

            Engrossed Substitute House Bill 1009.  ESHB 1009.PL.  www.leg.wa.gov/pub/billinfo/2003-04/ House/1000-1024/1009-s_pl.pdf.  26 October 2003.

III.       Explanation of Technology Involved

            A.        History of the Violent Video Games

                       

1.         Source:  The current wave of violence in video games can be traced back to 1992 with the release of the first segment of the Mortal Kombat series.  Nintendo elected to modify the game by toning down some of the gore and changing blood to white sweat.  The version released on the Sega version was unchanged.  The number of copies sold by Sega was considerably higher than the number sold by Nintendo.

 

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            Bestor, Dan and Matt Hong.  “The History of Violent Games.”  Power Point presentation.  http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/courses/ci335/fa01/Game1.ppt (23 October 2003).

 

2.         Source:  As a result of the violence portrayed in games such as Mortal Kombat and Night Trap, “Senators Joseph Lieberman (Connecticut) and Herbert Kohl (Wisconsin) launch[ed] a Senate ‘investigation’ into video game violence.”  Lieberman and Kohl attempted to completely ban violent games, but eventually conceded to an industry-wide rating system.

 

            “The History of Video Games.”  GameSpot.  2001.  http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/p8_01.html (26 October 2003).

 

3.         Source:  In 1994, Mortal Kombat 2 was released.  Both Nintendo and Sega released uncensored versions.  The second installment is considerably more violent.  However, Nintendo learned from the release of the first Mortal Kombat that, in the gaming industry, violence could be a key selling point.  The 1996 Release of Harvester featured an advertising campaign based solely on the statement:  “The most violent video game ever made!”

 

            Bestor, Dan and Matt Hong.  “The History of Violent Games.”  Power Point presentation.  http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/courses/ci335/fa01/Game1.ppt (23 October 2003).

 

4.         Source:  1994 also brought on the establishment of the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB)

           

                           “About ESRB.”  Entertainment Software Rating Board.  April 2003.  http://www.esrb.org/about.asp (23 October 2003).

5.         Source:  On September 11, 2000, The Federal Trade Commission Released a video game study that claimed that video game companies targeted children in their ads for mature-rated games.  The findings included instances where games with mature content were advertised in magazines and television stations geared toward children.

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Hutchison, Kay Bailey.  “Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison Speaks Out Against Marketing Violence to Children.”  Kay Bailey Hutchison.  15 September 2000.  http://hutchison.senate.gov/prl264.htm (23 October 2003).

 

6.         Source:  Grand Theft Auto III was released in October of 2001 and it quickly became the top selling video game title in the nation based on units sold according to NPD Group, a marketing research firm.

 

            “Annual 2001 Video Game Best-Selling Titles.”  NPDFunworld TRSTS Service.  http://www.npdfunworld.com/funServlet?nextpage=trend_body.html&content_id=287 (26 October 2003).

 

7.         The tremendous success of GTA III spurred the creation and release of Grand Theft Auto:  Vice City in October of 2002.   Vice City is similar to the original game except the storyline takes place in Miami and there are a few more options such as the ability to abuse prostitutes and own a strip club.

 

            Source:  Grand Theft Auto:  Vice City was the top ranked selling video game title in the fourth quarter of 2002.

 

            “Fourth Quarter 2002 Video Games Best-Sellers.”  The NPD Group / NPD Funworld / TRSTS.  http://www.npdfunworld.com/funServlet?nextpage=trend_body.html&content_id=352   (26 October 2003).

 

8.         Source:  The Engrossed Substitute House Bill 1009 was passed in 2003 that made it difficult and costly for merchants to sell violent video games to minors.

 

            Engrossed Substitute House Bill 1009.  ESHB 1009.PL.  www.leg.wa.gov/pub/billinfo/2003-04/ House/1000-1024/1009-s_pl.pdf.  26 October 2003.

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IV.       Practical Arguments for the Position

 

A.        Violent themes, materials, and images in video games lead to higher levels of aggression in children and adults.

           

            Source:  “There have been studies which have indicated that, like viewing violence on the television, playing violent video games increases aggressive behavior.  [W]hen a child plays a violent video game, he or she is more likely to behave aggressively, more so than when the child is passively watching violent television programs.”

 

“Ellis, an authority on this subject outlined three theories to the correlation of video game violence and aggression, these included:  ‘the general arousal theory which suggests that when aroused, children most likely behave in a manner most recently observed; the social learning theory suggests that children who actively play video games are given positive reinforcement for antisocial behavior and in turn, transfer this behavior into individual action with the same reward expectations; the catharsis theory states simply that video game play purges the participant of aggressive tendencies”

 

Choi, Suzanne.  “Computer Games and Violence: A Child’s Friend or Foe?”  http://www.ucalgary.ca/~dabrent/380/webproj/sue.html (23 October 2003).

 

Source:  Dr. Craig A. Anderson, an expert on media violence explains aggressive behavior as a result of violent video games.  “Immediately after exposure to media violence, there is an increase in aggressive behavior tendencies because of several factors.

1. Aggressive thoughts increase, which in turn increase the likelihood that a mild or ambiguous provocation will be interpreted in a hostile fashion.

2. Aggressive (or hostile) affect increases, which is directly related to aggressive behavior.

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3. General arousal (e.g., heart rate) increases, which tends to increase the dominant behavioral tendency. If the dominant behavioral tendency in the present situation is aggressive, then the increased arousal will further increase that tendency.

4. People learn new aggressive behaviors by observing, and will reenact them almost immediately afterwards if the observed aggression was successful in producing desired results and if the situational context is sufficiently similar.”

Anderson, Craig.  “Violent Video Games and Other Media:  Craig Anderson answers FAQs.”  Young Media Australia.  2002.  http://www.youngmedia.org.au/mediachildren/05_07_violence_anderson.htm (23 October 2003).

B.     Video games with violent and sexual themes hinder pro-social behavior in children.

 

Source:  “Experimental studies have shown that after playing video games, young people exhibit measurable decreases in prosocial and helping behaviors.”

Rich, Michael.  “Violent Video Games Testimony.”  American Academy of Pediatrics.  Chicago City Council. 30 October 2000.

Source:  “Children learn by observing others, and the mass media provide a very attractive window for these observations.  Children imitate the behaviors they see, and children deduce what is right and wrong from what they see.  Children hone their ideas and behaviors by practicing them, by rehearsing them over and over…As children observe more violence, imitate it, practice, and are rewarded for it, they become more tolerant of violence.”

Huesmann, L. Rowell.  “Violent Videos and Violent Video Games:  Why do they cause violence and why do they sell?.”  Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation.  4 May 1999.  http://www.senate.gov/~commerce/hearings/0504hue.pdf (23 October 2003).

Source: “Expressing anger breeds more anger, and practicing violence breeds more violence” (p 705).  “Social psychologists attribute the media’s influence partly to the social scripts they provide.  When we find ourselves in new situations, uncertain how to act, we rely on social scripts provided by our culture…[Y]oungsters may acquire a script—a mental tape for how to act—that gets played when they face real-life conflicts.  Challenged, they may ‘act like a man’ by intimidating or eliminating the threat” (707).

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Myers, David G.  Psychology, Myers in Modules.  6th ed.  New York:  Worth Publishers, 2001.

[R]ather than observing part of a violent interaction, video games allow the player to rehearse an entire behavioral script from provocation to choosing to respond violently to resolution of the conflict – this is more effective learning than watching or rehearsing part of the sequence.”

Rich, Michael.  “Violent Video Games Testimony.”  American Academy of Pediatrics.  Chicago City Council. 30 October 2000.

C.        Children who relate with fictional video game characters tend to imitate the behavior displayed by these characters.

            Source:  “On April 20, 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold launched an assault on Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, murdering 13 and wounding 23 before turning the guns on themselves.  Although it is impossible to know exactly what caused these teens to attack their own classmates and teachers, a number of factors probably were involved.  One possible contributing factor is violent video games.  Harris and Klebold enjoyed playing the bloody, shoot-‘em-up video game Doom, a game licensed by the U.S. military to train soldiers to effectively kill.  The Simon Wiesenthal center, which tracks Internet hate groups, found it its archives a copy of Harris’ web site with a version of Doom that he had customized.  In his version there are two shooters, each with extra weapons and unlimited ammunition, and the other people in the game can’t fight back…An investigator associated with the Wiesenthal Center said Harris and Klebold were “playing out their game in God mode.”

            Anderson, Craig A. and Karen E. Dill.  “Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior in the Laboratory and in Life.”  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.  Vol. 78, No. 4 (April 2000):  772-790.  Online.  EBSCOhost. 21 September 2003.  http://web3.epnet.com.

V.                Ethical Arguments for the Position

A.                Utilitarianism

1.                  “[U]tilitarians posit what they consider to be a reasonable goal for human society, i.e., one that has the greatest amount of human happiness for the greatest number of its citizens, and then judge acts and policies by how well they achieve the desired end, relative to viable alternatives” (147).

Hatcher, Donald L.  “Science, Ethics, and Technological Assessment.”  Boston, Massachusetts:  American Press, 2001.

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2.                  By imposing governmental control over the rating and distribution of video games, the greatest good for society will be created.  Retailers would be required to verify the ages of potential customers and parents would be more knowledgeable about the products they are inviting into their homes.  This creates the greatest good for society because it will help to prevent children from being subjected to violence in the video games they play.  Children become leaders in society and if they are taught through the media and video games they play that having violent thoughts and acting on them is acceptable behavior, then society will eventually follow a trend toward more violent and aggressive behavior.  By limiting the exposure to video game violence, children will be less likely to develop violent ideas and tendencies and thus will create a better society for all people.

B.                 Rawls

1.                  “Rawls argues that a good way to determine whether or not a policy is fair or just is to ask whether it would be adopted by a group of self-interested citizens who did not know their own identities with respect to the ‘accidents of nature,’i.e., social class, gender, physical and mental capacities, age, etc.” (p. 306).

Hatcher, Donald L. and L. Anne Spencer.  Reasoning and Writing:     From Critical Thinking to Composition.  Boston, Massachusetts:  American Press, 2000.

2.                  When evaluating the ethics of instituting government restriction on video games and the distribution of these games to children under the Rawls’ veil of ignorance, one must assess the issue from a neutral standpoint.  Considering the issue from the perspective of a rational agent, regardless of societal status, one must agree that restricting America’s youth from violent video games will benefit society as a whole.

VI.       Possible Objections to the Position

A.        Restricting video game content violates First Amendment rights.

1.                  Supporting Material

Source:  “Indianapolis and St. Louis passed laws banning the sale of violent video games to minors.  (Both measures were struck down by federal courts as violations of the First Amendment.)  And Gov. Gary Locke of Washington recently signed a law that would prohibit the sale of games to minors that depict acts of violence against law enforcement officers (this law is also being challenged in Federal Court and is likely to be struck down as an unconstitutional restriction of protected speech).”

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Source:  “Government regulation could easily cross the line into censorship.  If legislators threaten industry with fines or prosecution for mislabeling games, voluntary labeling will likely be abandoned altogether.”

Thierer, Adam.  “Regulating Video Games:  Parents or Uncle Sam?.”  Cato Institute.  14 July 2003.  http://www.cato.org/dailys/07-14-03.html (23 October 2003).

Source:  Henry Jenkins, director of the comparative media studies program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology states, “’I am quite prepared to say no one under the age of 18 should play Grand Theft Auto 3…But on the other hand, to legislate or regulate bad art is ultimately a losing proposition.  It’s not something we do in a free society.’”

“Eye of the Beholder?  Conflicting Video Game Research Reflects an Escalating Debate.”  USA Today.  5 August 2003.  http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/333/7228/367715.html (22 September 2003).

2.                   Rebuttal

Source:  “The First Amendment of our Constitution guarantees freedom of speech and expression.  Just because democracy is the appropriate way to organize society does not mean that it is not a tender and fragile institution, one that needs every citizen’s care and attention.  While a cornerstone of democracy is freedom of expression, it, too, is a double-edged sword that can be, and often is, abused.”

Source:  “[T]here must be a clear separation of what adults can say and write to and for other adults and what they can say and write to and for children.”

Source:  “The supreme Court has, from time to time, made it abundantly clear that children are not entitled to all of the constitutional guarantees provided for adults.”

Snelling, Charles D.  “Crimes Emulating Video Games Pose Free Speech Issue.”  Morning Call.  20 Sept. 2003, 2nd ed.,  Another View:  A18.  Online.  Lexis Nexis.  23 October 2003.  http://web.lexisnexis.com.

B.                 Violent video games provide enjoyable alternatives for practicing problem solving and developing strategy skills.

1.                  Supporting Material

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Source:  Experimental studies have shown that playing violent video games such as Medal of Honor in which players must concentrate on a number of different visual stimuli develop visual acuity more than games such as Tetris that require players to concentrate on one visual object.

Bavelier, Daphne and C. Shawn Green.  “Action Video Game Modifies Visual Selective Attention.”  Nature.  Vol. 423:  29 May 2003.  534-537.  http://www.nature.com/nature (27 October 2003).

2.         Rebuttal

Video games do not necessarily need to be violent to develop motor skills and problem solving skills.  The issue is not based on whether video games in general affect children’s cognitive processes and behavior, but rather how violent video games affect their level of aggression and learned anti-social behavior.  By developing video games that are suitable for children, the same skills can be developed without subjecting children to violent and inappropriate material.

Source:  “[University of Wisconsin professor James Paul] Gee points out that in the Pokémon games, for instance, children must learn the attributes of hundreds of the make-believe creatures so they can collect and battle them on a Nintendo Game Boy.”

Eye of the Beholder?  Conflicting Video Game Research Reflects an Escalating Debate.”  USA Today.  5 August 2003.  http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/333/7228/367715.html (22 September 2003).

Games such as the Pokémon games require the use of the same skills and memory processes that games such as Grand Theft Auto 3 require, but when players “battle” in the Pokémon games they do not kill the other players.  The players are defeated rather than killed, and they are not punished with real weapons such as guns and baseball bats that are popular in games such as Grand Theft Auto 3 and State of Emergency.

C.        Violent video games display distinct differences between fantasy violence and real violence.

1.      Violent video games may seem realistic and lifelike but the there is no substitute for real violence.  The images and scenes portrayed in video games are intended for entertainment value only, and much like TV and cinema, the scenes are fictional renderings.

 

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2.      Rebuttal

Source:  “Many people tend to think: ‘Well, it is just a game, the boy (girl) understands the difference between entertainment violence and reality. Therefore, we shouldn’t worry about fantasy violence.’ One of the great myths surrounding media violence is this notion that if the individual can distinguish between media violence and reality, then it can’t have an adverse effect on that individual. Of course, the conclusion does not logically follow from the premise.”

Anderson, Craig.  “Violent Video Games and Other Media:  Craig Anderson answers FAQs.”  Young Media Australia.  2002.  http://www.youngmedia.org.au/mediachildren/05_07_violence_anderson.htm (23 October 2003).

VII.     Public Policy

            A.        What is being done

1.        The current system for rating video games is a voluntary system, in that video game and software developers are not required to submit products to the review board.  Software developers can choose to have their products reviewed or the company can choose to release the product directly to the market.  The ESRB is the current rating system most generally accepted.  The ESRB was created in 1994 by the Entertainment Software Association.  It is a self-regulatory agency that reviews video games and places ratings on the content of the video games.

Source:  “ESRB ratings have two parts: rating symbols that suggest what age group the game is best for, and content descriptors that tell you about content elements that may be of interest or concern. When parents check the rating, the control is in their hands.”

“Check the Rating.”  Entertainment Software Rating Board.  April 2003.  http://www.esrb.org/   (23 October 2003).

2.         Source:  Governor Gary Locke signed the current legislation on the violent video game issue on May 20, 2003.  Engrossed Substitute House Bill 1009 will prohibit the sale or rental to children under the age of 17 of any video game that is known to graphically depict violence against police officers.  Violation of this law would result in a fine of up to $500 dollars for the retailer.

            “Gov. Gary Locke Signs ‘Violent Video Game’ Legislation.”  Access Washington News.  20 May 2003.  http://access.wa.gov/news/2003/May/n2003420_5997.aspx (23 October 2003).

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            Even with this legislation, local laws prohibiting the sale of these violent video games to minors and imposing heavy penalties on those retailers who choose to distribute the games to minors have been ruled unconstitutional.

B.        What should be done

1.        The government needs to adopt the Entertainment Software Rating Board’s rating system and require the submission of all video game software to undergo the rating process.  If the government does not adopt the rating system that is already in use, a new government program should be developed to create a rating system for video games.  Although submission of software would be mandatory, this would only be used to rate the video game content.  The government agency would not be granted the power to censor the content or modify the content in any way.

2.        The current legislation should be expanded to include all violent video games that are rated for adults over the age of 17 only.  The current legislation prohibits the sale of violent video games to children under 17 if the content depicts violence directed toward law enforcement officials.  The new legislation should impose penalties on retailers who knowingly sell violent video games to minors without showing proper identification.  Adults over the age of 17 would be able to obtain the video games, but the sale of these video games would be restricted for children under 17 years of age.

3.        By placing the government in charge of rating video game software, the types of games that are deemed inappropriate for children will be identified as such and laws regulating the sale of these games to minors will be easily monitored to ensure that the games are not sold directly to minors.  Further, the government will have a better idea of the types of games that are available and will be able propose legislation accordingly.

VIII.    Summation and Conclusion – While relying on voluntary regulation of the video game industry and parental supervision of the media children are exposed to are good alternatives, governmental regulation of the types of video games made easily available to children is not only a rational solution, but a necessary one.  Studies have shown that violent video games have negative effects on children’s behavior and their outlook on society in general.  By imposing government supervision on the video game industry, parents will become more aware of the situation and they will in turn, help to deter their children from violent video games.  Children should not be continually exposed to violence in the video games they engage in and the government should take action to prevent this occurrence.

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IX.       Appendices

 

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Appendix A – ESRB.com

Game Rating & Descriptor Guide

ESRB ratings have two parts. The RATING SYMBOL suggests what age group the game is appropriate for and provides general information about a game's content. If a game contains content elements that aren't suggested by the rating symbol, CONTENT DESCRIPTORS are added that tell you what to expect.

To take full advantage of the ESRB rating system, it's important to check both the RATING SYMBOL (found on the front of the game box) and the CONTENT DESCRIPTORS (found on the back of the game box).

Look for the rating/icon symbols in the lower right and the lower left hand corner on the front of the box.

Descriptors are found on the lower left or right hand corner on the back of the box

ESRB Rating Symbols

EARLY CHILDHOODContent may be suitable for ages 3 and older. Contains no material that parents would find inappropriate.

EVERYONEContent may be suitable for persons ages 6 and older. May contain minimal violence and some comic mischief or crude language.

TEENContent may be suitable for persons ages 13 and older. May contain violent content, mild or strong language, and/or suggestive themes.

MATUREContent may be suitable for persons ages 17 and older. May contain mature sexual themes or more intense violence or language.

ADULTS ONLYContent suitable only for adults. May include graphic depictions of sex and/or violence. Not intended for persons under the age of 18.

RATING PENDINGProduct has been submitted to the ESRB and is awaiting final rating.

ESRB Content Descriptors

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Alcohol Reference - Reference to and/or images of alcoholic beverages Animated Blood - Cartoon or pixilated depictions of blood. Blood - Depictions of blood. Blood and Gore - Depictions of blood or the mutilation of body parts. Comic Mischief - Scenes depicting slapstick or gross vulgar humor. Drug Reference - Reference to and/or images of illegal drugs Edutainment - Content of product provides user with specific skills development or

reinforcement learning within an entertainment setting. Skill development is an integral part of product.

Gambling - Betting like behavior. Informational - Overall content of product contains data, facts, resource information,

reference materials or instructional text. Mature Humor - Vulgar and/or crude jokes and antics including "bathroom" humor Mature Sexual Themes - Provocative material, possibly including partial nudity. Mild Language - Mild references to profanity, sexuality, violence, alcohol, or drug use. Mild Lyrics - Mild references to profanity, sexuality, violence, alcohol, or drug use in

music. Mild Violence - Mild scenes depicting characters in unsafe and/or violent situations. Nudity - Graphic or prolonged depictions of nudity. Partial Nudity - Brief and mild depictions of nudity. Some Adult Assistance May Be Needed - Early Childhood Descriptor only. Strong Language - Profanity and explicit references to sexuality, violence, alcohol, or

drug use. Strong Lyrics - Profanity and explicit references to sex, violence, alcohol, or drug use in

music. Strong Sexual Content - Graphic depiction of sexual behavior, possibly including

nudity. Suggestive Themes - Mild provocative references or materials. Tobacco Reference - Reference to and/or images of tobacco products Use of Drugs - The consumption or use of illegal drugs Use of Alcohol - The consumption of alcoholic beverages Use of Tobacco - The consumption of tobacco products Violence - Scenes involving aggressive conflict.

The following ratings and content descriptors have been updated and are no longer used, but they may appear on games published previously.

Kids to AdultTitles rated "Kids to Adult (K-A)" have content that may be suitable for persons ages six and older. These titles will appeal to people of many ages and tastes. They may contain minimal violence, some comic mischief (for example, slapstick comedy), or some crude language.

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Gaming - Betting-like behavior. Mild Animated Violence - Mild cartoon or pixilated scenes depicting animated

characters in unsafe and/or violent situations. Mild Realistic Violence - Mild photographic-like detailed depictions of characters in

unsafe and/or violent situations. Animated Violence - Cartoon or pixilated scenes depicting animated characters in unsafe

and/or violent situations. Realistic Violence - Photographic-like detailed depictions of characters in unsafe and/or

violent situations. Animated Blood and Gore - Cartoon or pixilated images of blood or the mutilation of

body parts. Realistic Blood and Gore - Photographic-like detailed depictions of blood or the

mutilation of body parts. Realistic Blood - Photographic-like detailed depictions of blood. Reading Skills, Fine Motor Skills, Higher-Level Thinking Skills - These phrases are

found only on products rated Early Childhood and indicate whether children's reading, computer, or other skills are used in these titles.

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Bibliography

Anderson, Craig A.  “Violent Video Games:  Myths, Facts, and Unanswered

Questions.”  American Psychological Association.  Psychological Science

Agenda:  October 2003.

Anderson, Craig A.  “Violent Video Games and Other Media:  Craig Anderson answers

FAQs.”  Young Media

Australia.  2002.  http://www.youngmedia.org.au/mediachildren/05_07_violence_anderso

n.htm (23 October 2003).

Anderson, Craig A. and Karen E. Dill.  “Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and

Behavior in the Laboratory and in Life.”  Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology.  Vol. 78, No. 4 (April 2000):  772-790.  Online.  EBSCOhost. 21 September

2003.  http://web3.epnet.com.

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