DONE, Bio-medical Eng Physiology-2 in PDF

7/31/2019 DONE, Bio-medical Eng Physiology-2 in PDF

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[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-

PHYSIOLOGY-2][BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-PHYSIOLOGY-

2]

[TOPICS ARE :-> ENDO-CRINELOGY, SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY, BRAIN-

PHYSIOLOGY, NERVOUS-SYSTEM-PHYSIOLOGY, SLEEP-PHYSIOLOGY, E.E.G

(ELECTRO-ENCEPHALO-GRAM) ] .

2012

MOHAMMAD-SIKANDER-KHAN-LODHI, BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-

GUIDE.INC BY SIKANDER-LODHI

6/21/2012


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[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-PHYSIOLOGY-2]

[ B I O - M E D I C A L - E N G I N E E R I N G - G U I D E . I N C B Y S I K A N D E R - L O D H I ] Page 2-OF-56DATE:JUNE/21/2

(CLASS-1)-ENDOCRINELOGY:

1. ENDOCRINELOGY:Its the study ofGland's,there hormones and there

physiological effect's on the human biological-system;

2.Hormone's:Its a chemicalsubstance,which secreated by there gland'swhich produce's a physiological effect on thehuman body and its glands itself;

3. Local-Hormone's:Those hormonesproduced there effects at the side of theresecreation or near to its secreation there forelocal hormones receptor are present nearthere site of secreation;(e.g)

Acetylecholine(hormone);4. General-Hormones:These hormones produced there

effects on the hole human body, therefore these hormone's

receptor's are present on all over the body;(e.g) Growth-hormone's, this growth-hormones secreated by Anterior-

pituitary gland;

5. Target-tissue:Its a tissue whichcontain's,specific receptor's, for binding therespecific-hormones ;

----------------------------

CHEMICAL-NATURE-OF-HORMONE:

There are 3-major classis of hormones, whichclassified chemically;(i-e)


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1. Steroid's-hormone's;2. Amino-Acid Derivative's-hormone's;3. Proteine and peptied's hormone's;

1. STEROID'S-HORMONE'S:

They are derived from Cholestrol;(e.g)

GLAND'S AND HORMONE'S

Testes-Gland[Testo-sterone-hormones];

Overy[(a)Esterogen,&(b)pro-estrogen)hormones];

2).Amino-Acid-Derivative's-Hormone's:Mostely there are derived from Tyrosine;(e.g) T3,T4 "Throid-hormones"; (T4[thyroxine])(T3[tri-iodo-thyronine]);

1. nor-epi-nephrine;2. epi-nephrine;

both of above them from "Adrenal-Madula(gland)";

3).PROTEINE and PEPTIED'S-HORMONE'S:They are amino-acid chain's(peptied's and poly-


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peptied's);example:

GLAND'S and HORMONE'S:

1. Anterior-pituitary-gland's[growth-hormone];2. Posterior-pituitary-gland's[i).Anti-diuretic-

hormone;(ii).Oxytosine-hormone];3. Islet-of-langer-hans(pancreas)[(i).Insuline-

hormone; and (ii).Glucagon-hormone];

------------------------------(finished-here)-----------------

-------

Activation Of Cell Function ByProteine Hormone:

Mechanism-Of-Hormonal-Action-On-The-Cell:

Hormone-production-cell(hormone-synthesis,stored and released) release-hormone(unactivated form) into

blood ,in blood(its reach to its targeted-cell) ,hormone(activated) as a 1st-messenger bind's

with its recpetor which present at plasma-membrane of its targeted-cell then, its activated

"Adenylate-cyclase-enzyme" then "Adenylate-cyclase-enzyme" converted ATP to Cyclic-AMP(c-AMP)[as a 2nd-messenger] , then it activated the"PROTEIN-KINASE(ENZYME)" then, this"protein-kinase" reacted protein(PROTEIN-KINASE(ENZYME)) with ATP then its gives


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"protein-phosphate-complex" + ADP then, This"protein-phosphate-complex" Activated the"Altered cell function" [action-indicated by

hormone];then cell performed all cell function:(i-e)

1. Enzyme regulation;2. secreation;3. protein synthesis;4. altered membrane permeability;

--------------------------------(FINISHED-HERE)-------------------------------------

S A T U R D A Y , A P R I L 4 , 2 0 0 9

(class-2)-ENDOCRINELOGY:

ACTIVATION-OF-GENE'S-BY-STEROID-&-AMINO-ACID-HORMONE'S:

-->Hormone-production-cell(hormone=>synthesis,stored & released)-->Its release-Hormone(in un-

activated form) to blood(as a 1th-messenger)--->in blood (hormone=>reach to its Target-cell)-->these

hormones are steroid or amino-acid in nature-->there fore, these hormones eassiely penetrated into

plasma-membrane & come's inside the cell--->Inside Cell-membrane, there is an Amino-Acid OR Steroid

hormonal receptor(known as "Intera-Cellular-Receptor") are present --->When steroid or Amino-Acid

Hormones bind with its "Intera-Cellular-receptor" ---->Its form a "Hormonal-receptor-complex"---

>"hormonal-receptor-complex" bind with DNA-molecule--->then, DNA-molecules form "Protein-

phosphate-complex" enzyme-molecule;--->"protein-phosphate-complex-enzyme" --->Activated "Altered-

cell-function";

---------(FINISHED-HERE)-------------------------

S A T U R D A Y , A P R I L 4 , 2 0 0 9

(class-3)-ENDOCRINELOGY


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PITUITARY-GLAND:

--->Pituitary-gland=>is divided into 2-parts;

a).Neuro-hypophysis(posterior-pituitary-gland);

b).Adeno-hypophysis(Anterior-pituitary-gland);

a).NEURO-HYPO-PHYSIS(POSTERIOR-PITUITARY-GLAND):

1.---->Superiorly to the "Pituitary-gland" there is a "hypo-thalamus" is located;

2.---->"hypo-thalamus" contains neurons whose axon run & end at "Posterior-pituitary-gland";

3.---->There are 2-types of hormones are porduces in the cell body of Neuron's at "hypo-thalamus"

& released by "posterior-pituitary-gland" to blood.

i).Anti-diuretic-hormone(ADH), (or Vasopressin); (ii).Oxytocin;

i).Anti-diuretic-hormone(ADH), (or Vasopressin):

1.Its act on the Kidney it cause to suck the water from the Ureane;

2.It cause to contract the blood-vessel's;

ii).Oxytocin:

1. It Cause to contract the smooth-muscle;


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b).Adeno-hypo-physis(Anterior-pituitary-gland):

LOCATION:

1. Its located anterior with respect to "posterior-pituitary-gland";ITS PHYSIOLOGY:

1. Its cause to produce there hormone's inside the cell in "Anterior-pituitary-gland";2. when a stimulus come's from the hypothalamus to "Anterior-pituitary-gland" either "releasing-

hormone (RH)" OR "inhibitary-hormone(IH)" form;

3. Then,"Anterior-pituitary-gland" cause to secreated there hormonal-secreating to Blood-vessel's;--> There are following Hormones which secreated by "Anterior-pituitary-gland";

1. Growth-hormone; 2. Adreno-corticotropin; 3. Thyroid-stimulating-hormone; 4. Follicle-stimulating-hormone; 5.prolactin; 6. leutinizing-hormone;

1. GROWTH-HORMONE:

--->It Causes growth in all most all cell of body;

2.ADRENO-CORTICOTROPIN:

--->This "Adreno-corticotropin" activated the "Adrenal-cortex" which cause to secreate "Adrenocortical-hormones";

3. THYROID-STIMULATING-HORMONE:

--->It activated the thyroid-g

land which cause to secreated T3 , T4-hormone, & Calcitonine;

4. FOLLICLE-STIMULATING-HORMONE:

--->Its causing growth of follicles in the Ovary before Ovulation & promotes the formation of sperm in

Testis;

5. PROLACTIN:

--->It promotes developments of breasts & secreation of milk;

6. LAUTINIZING HORMONE:

__________(FINISHED-HERE)___________________________


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S U N D A Y , A P R I L 5 , 2 0 0 9

(CLASS-4)ENDOCRINELOGY

ADRENAL-CORTEX:

(OR SUPERA-RENAL-GLAND):

--> The Adrenal-cortex secreated 2-major hormones;

(i-e)

1.Cortisol ;

2.Aldosterone;

1.CORTISOL:

---> The Cortisol is the Metabolic-hormone, which Cause to performed metabolism in the body;

(a). CORTISOL-PERFORMED-CARBOHYDRATE-METABOLISM:

1.Its increased Gluconeogenesis, In which its converted amino-acid into glucose in liver;

2.Its increased the glucose-level in blood;

3.


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Its decrease the utilization of cell;

(b).CORTISOL-PERFORMED-PROTEINE-METABOLISM:

1.It cause to increase the conversion of Amino-Acid into glucose, by "gluconeogenesis" in liver ;

2.Its cause to increase the "plasma-Amino-Acid" in blood , which then transported to the liver;

(c).CORTISOL-PERFORMED-METABOLISM-OF-FAT:

1. Its Cause to Increase the "Utalization" of fat's;2. ALDOSTERONE:

1. Its cause to decrease the (Na+) excreation by kidney;2. Its cause to increase the (K+) excreation by kidney;3. Its exchange (Na+) as (K+) by the kidney to expel (K+) out-side the body;

----------------------(FINISHED-HERE)---------------------------------------

--->MEDULLA-gland(its a inner-part of supera-renal gland)----RELEASED--->1.NOR-EPI-NEPHRINE-

hormone; OR, 2.EPI-NEPHRINE-hormone;

--->Adernal-cortex(gland)-->(its the outer-coat of supera-renal gland);

_________________________________________________

HORMONE-RECEPTOR'S-&-THERE-ACTIVATION'S:

1. The each"hormone-Recpitors" for there specific receptor's are locatedinside and on the cell-membrane ofTarget-cell;

2. The Steroid hormonecontain there receptorin the cytoplasm;3. The "Thyroid-hormone" contain there receptor on the nucleus;


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-------------------(FINISHED-HERE)--------------------------------------

S U N D A Y , A P R I L 5 , 2 0 0 9

(CLASS-5)-ENDOCRINELOGY:

THYROID-GLAND:

1. Its present in neck below "Cricoid-cartilage";2. its contain's 2-lobe's;3. its internal structure is Composed of folicles;4. Between the folicles para-folloicles (C-cell)-cell's are present's;5. A folicles is bounded by folicules cell's, and filled with thyro-globuline which is produced and

secreated by follicular-cell;

6. Iodine is also, transported from blood to inside the thyroid-gland through folicle's cell's;7. then,Iodine combine with thyro-globuline which produced T3 and T4 harmones; THYROID-HORMONE'S: There are 2 types of Thyroid hormone's; (i-e)1. T3(Tri-iodo-thyronine);2. T4(Thyroxine);

(a).increase rate of chemical reaction in all cell's of the body;

(b).increase metabolism;

Calcitonine:1. Its increases the (Ca+) Concentration in bone;2. Its decreases the (Ca+) Concentration in blood;

___________(FINISHED-HERE)____


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M O N D A Y , A P R I L 6 , 2 0 0 9

(CLASS-1)-SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:

SPINAL-CORD-ANATOMY:

PROTECTION-AND-COVERING-OF-SPINAL-CORD:

There are 3-type's of protection;1. Bony (vertibral-canal);2. Meninge's;3. Fluid,(Cerebro-spinal-fluid[C.S.F]);1. BONY(VERTIBRAL-CANAL): Its the tunnel, In Vertibral-Columb through which "Spinal-Cord" goes

down;

2. MENINGES:

There are 3-type's of meninge's are present in spinal-cord, which are calledas spinal-meninge's;

(i-e)

1. Dura-mator(Outer-most)[Its consists of Dense, irregular connective Tissue];

2. Arachnoid-mator(Middle-layer);3. Pia-Mator(Inner-most);


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these are the Covering's of Spinal-Cord;

3. FLUID (CEREBRO-SPINAL-FLUID[C.S.F]):

"C.S.F" a Liquid present b\w the Arachnoid & pia-mator;

----------------(FINISHED HERE)------------------------------------

EXTERNAL-ANATOMY-OF-SPINAL-CORD: The external-dimension of spinal-cord are below;1. SHAPE(Cylindrical);2.

LENGTH(42--to-->45 cm,in adult's);

3. diameter(2--to--3 cm);4. START-From(MADULA);5. END'S -AT((1).Upper border of L2 in adult's; (2).Lower border

of L3 in children);

{:.Those meninge's which are present in brain is called as "Crainal-

meninge's"};{:.those meninge's which are present in spinal-cord is

known as spinal-meninge's};

2-ENLARGEMENTS: In Spinal-cord there are 2-enlargements ;1. CERVICAL-ENLARGEMENT'S: The Cervical-EnLargement's is Start's from C4 and its end's

at T1;

2. LUMBER-ENLARGEMENT'S:

The lumber-enlargement's from T9 to T12;

CONUS-MEDULLARIS:1. Its a Conical-Termination of Spinal-Cord;


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FILUM-TRIMINALE:1. Its the extension of Pia-Mator, present below the Conus-

Medullaris;

TWO-GROVE'S:SPINAL-CORD have 2-grove's;

1. Anterior Median fissure;2. posterior Median Sulcus;

-----------(FINISHED-HERE)-----------------------------

M O N D A Y , A P R I L 6 , 2 0 0 9

(class-2)-spinal-cord-physiology

INTERNAL-ANATOMY-OF-SPINAL-CORD:

The cross-section of spinal-cord show's 2-Area's ;

1.Grey-matter;

2.White-matter;

1.GREY-MATTER:


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Its Consists of the Cell-bodie's of Neuron's,which present's inspinal-cord;

Its Composed of following Area's;

1.The Grey-Commissure;

2.Anterior-Grey-Horn;

3.Posterior-Grey-Horn;

CENTRAL-CANAL: 1. Its small in Dia-meter called as Central-Canal ;2. Its run's with the center of spinal-Cord;3. Its Contain C.S.F; WHITE-MATTER:1. This Area's Contain's Myelinated-Axon's of Neuronpresent in

Spinal-Cord and in Brain known as Tract's;

2. White-Matter is divided into 3-region's by Gray-Matter inSpinal-cord;

(i-e)

1. Anterior(Ventrical)-White-Columb;2. Posterior(Dorsal)-White-Columb;3. Laterial-White-Columb;


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These Columb's Contain's bundles of Axon's which are called

as Tracte's ;

There are 2-type's of Tracte's ;

1. Ascending(sensory)-Tracte;2. Descending(Motor)-Tracte;

These Tracte's join with the Controlled center in brain;

-----------------(FINISHED-HERE)---------------------------------

T U E S D A Y , A P R I L 7 , 2 0 0 9

(Class-3)-SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:

SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:

The Spinal-cord has following function's;

(i-e)

1.Its form's a connection b/w the body and the brain;

2.The neuron's present's in grey matter of spinal-cord

combine and process InComming and out-going signal's;

3.


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The neuron's in grey-matter of spinal-cord form thecentral

part of reflex-arc ;

TRACT'S:

There are 2-type's of tract's are present's in Spinal-cord;

(i-e)

1.Sensory-Tract's;

2.Motor-Tract's;

1.THE SENSORY-TRACT'S:

There are 2-major sensory-tract's in the body;

1. The Spino-Thalamic-Tract's;2. The Posterior-Columb-Tract's;

1. THE SPINO-THALAMIC-TRACT'S:

Its Carries sensory Impulse's, from the body to the Brain for

1. Pain-Sensation;2. Temperature-Sensation;3. Crude-Tuch-Sensation;4. Deep-Pressure-Sensation;


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2.THE POSTERIOR-COLUMB-TRACT'S:

Its Carries Sensory Impulse's for,

1.Proprio-ception-Sensation(knowing of the movements ofmuscle's,tendon's and joint's);

2.Discrimeated-tuch(Fine-Tuch, or , localized pin-point-tuch);

3.Two-point Discrimeation;

4.Light-Pressure[light-tuch];

5.Vibration-Sensation;

2.MOTOR-TRACT'S:There are 2 Motor-tract's are present's;

1. Pyramiddle-Tract's;2. Extra-pyra-Middle-Tract's;

1. PYRAMIDDLE-TRACT'S:

Its Contain's 3 Tract's ;

1. CORTICO-BULBER-TRACT'S:TheyTransmittedMotor-Impulses from Cerebral-Cortex to Crainal-nerve's;

2. CORTICO-SPINAL-TRACT'S:

(a).Anterior-Cortico-spinal-tract's;

(b).Lateral-Cortico-spinal-tract's;


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These "Cortico-spinal-tract's" transmitted motor-order's from CORTEX toSpinal-

nerve's ;

2.EXTRA-PYRA-MIDDLE-TRACT'S:

1. Rubro-Spinal-Tract's;2. Tecto-Spinal-Tract's;3. Vestibular-Spinal-Tract's;

There function's are

1. Controlled of "Auto-matic-movement";2. Controlling the Co-ordination and equilibrium;3.

Controlling the "Muscle-Tone";

___________________(FINISHED-HERE)_______________________

REFLEXE'S:

The Reflexe's is the fast,automatic responce's Occur's when a changed produced

in the body environment's;

___________________

SPINAL-NERVE'S:

Each Spinal-Nerve's consist's of 2-root's;

1.Posterior(or-Dorsal[or-sensory])-root;


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2.Anterior(or-Ventrial[or-motor])-root;

1. POSTERIOR(or-DORSAL[or-SENSORY])-ROOT:(a).Its Contain's Axon's (sensory-nerve's-fibre's) of "Sensory-Neuron's";

(b).Its has a Sowilling near the Spinal-cord in which the cell-bodie's of"Sensory-

Neuron's (uni-polar-neuron)"are present's is called as "Posterior-root-

Gangolion";

2.ANTERIOR(or-VENTRIAL[or-MOTOR])-ROOT:

1. Its Contain, Axon's of "Motor-Neuron's" ;2. The "Cell-bodie's" of "Motor-Neuron's" are present's in the "Gray-Matter"

of Spinal-Cord;

Motor-Neuron's has 2-type's;

1. Somatic-Motor-Neuron's;2. Auto-nomic-Motor-Neuron's;

1. SOMATIC-MOTOR-NEURON'S:(a).Its Supplie"Motor-Impule's" to the "Skeleton-Muscle's" ;

(b).Its have there Cell-bodie's in "Anterior-Gray-Horn" in spinal-cord ;

2.AUTO-NOMIC-MOTOR-NEURON'S:

(a).Its Supplie"Motor-Impule's" to "Smooth-Muscle's", Cardiac-Muscles &

Glands;

(b). Its have there Cell-bodie's in the "Lateral-Gray-Horn" in spinal-cord ;

_______________________


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REFLEX-ARC:

Its the Neuronal-circuit in which the Sensory-

Impule's, generated by the Receptor's , Triggere'sa Motor-Responceby the effector'swithout the

Involvement ofBrain;

Its composed of 5-part;

(i-e)

1.Receptor's;

2.Sensory-Neuron's(uni-polar-neuron);

3.Integrating-Center(or-Intermediated-or-Association)-Neuron;

4.Motor-Neuron;


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5.Effector's (Muscle, or, Gland);

1.RECEPTOR'S:

Its a dendrite'sOR a "Specilized-Structure" which can sence anyChange in

the InternalyORExternaly Environment's then itsproducedAction-

Potential;

2. SENSORY-NEURON'S:

Its Receive's a Stimulu's from its Receptor's and Transmitte's thisAction-

Potential to the Integrating-Neuron which presentinside theSpinal-Cord;

3. INTEGRATING-CENTER (INTERMEDIATED-NEURON):

1.Its a Neuron or a Group's of Neuron'swhich receive's a Sensory-

Impule's from the Sensory-Neuron's and Transmitted toward'sMotor-

Neuron's;

2.Its has also

a Connection withbrain which cause to Inhibit theTransmission ofImpule'

s toward's the Motor-Neuron;


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4.MOTOR-NEURON'S:

Its Receive's the Impule's from the Integrating-Center and Transmitte's this

Impule's to the effector's Organ's;

either gland or muscle;

5.EFFECTOR'S:

Its can be of 2-type's;

1.

Skeleton-Muscle's (Somatic-Reflex);

2.Gland's,Smooth-Muscle's,Cardiac-Muscle's(Autonomic-Reflex);

__________(FINISHED-HERE)____________

S U N D A Y , A P R I L 1 2 , 2 0 0 9

(CLASS-4 )-SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:

PHYSIOLOGY-OF-STRETCH-REFLEX:

1.NEURAL-CIRCUIT:

Receptor to Sensory-Neuron to motor-neuron to effector.


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2. TYPE:

Mono-Synaptic Only 2-Neuron's are Involved

1.Sensory-Neuron;

2.Motor-Neuron;

3. RECEPTOR'S:

Its a Specialized Structure, Called "Muscle-Spindle"; Its present at Muscle-Tendon-junction ;

4. PROCESS:

When the "Muscle-spindle" Stretched, its produce's an Action-

potential which is Transmitted through the Sensory-Neuron to

Posterior-Horn of Spinal-Cord Through which its makes a synape's

with a Motor-Neuron present in the Anterior-Gray-Horn(for Somatic-

reflex)

This "Motor-Neuron" isactivated by the Impule's, from sensory-

neuron and Transmitte's the Action-Potential to the Neuro-Muscular-

Junction of the Same-Muscle(skeleton-muscle), and Causes the

Contraction in Responce's to the Stretch produced in Its Muscle-

Spindle,

This is Called the Stretch-Reflex;

example "Pataller-Reflex(Knee-Jerk)";

e.g

1. bysep-Jerk;2. trysep-Jerk;


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MUSCLE-TONE:

Its that amount of Contraction present in Muscle when themuscle is at resting state ;

This is the function of "Spindle-fiber";_____________(finished-here)______________

TENDON-REFLEX:

1.TYPE:

Poly-Synaptic 3-Neuron's are Involved;

1.Sensory-Neuron;

2.Integration(Inhibitatory)-Neuron;

3.Motor-Neuron;

2. RECEPTOR'S:

Its a Specilized Structure present in the Tendon near its Junction with

Muscle Called "Golgi-Tendon-Organ's" ;

3. PROCESS:


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When the Tension in the Muscle Increase then "Golgi-Tendon-Organ"

is Activated, then, which cause to transmitte's the Action-Potential to

Sensory-Neuron, then sensory-neuron enter the spinal-Cord through

Posterior-Gray-Horn and Synapes with the

"Integration(Inhibitatory)-Neuron"

when this Inhibitatory-Neuron is Activated , its Inhibite's the Motor-

Neuron ( which Causing the increased Tension in muscle),

so, in this way the tension in Muscle is Decreased;

_________(finished-here)___________

FLEXOR(WITH-DRAWAL)-

REFLEX:

1.TYPE:

Poly-Synaptic;

1.Sensory-Neuron;

2.Inter-Neuron;

3.Motor-Neuron;

2. RECEPTOR'S:


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Its the "free-nerve's-ending ";

3. PROCESS:

When ever a sharp or hot Object is touches to skin surface, then, its

Stimulate's "free-Nerve's-ending" of sensory-neuron, this produce's

an Impule's in the sensory-Neuron, then thisImpule's is

transmitted to Inter-Neuron which produce's an Impule's in

the motor-Neuron, which cause's Contraction of the "Flexor-

Muscle's" which move's the body away from the pain full object;

_____________(finished-here)___________

now Enjoy hahhaha all finished , so lets do someof body-bulding

___________(SPINAL-CORD-FINISHED-HERE)______

M O N D A Y , A P R I L 1 3 , 2 0 0 9

(CLASS-1)-HUMAIN-BRAIN-PHYSIOLOGY:

HUMAIN-BRAIN-PHYSIOLOGY: BRAIN:

----> Its the Organ where Sensory-I/P , there Integration & Motor-O/P

are generated along with this the Intellectual function's are also

performed;


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Its has following part's ;

1. FORE-BRAIN:

(a).Cerebrum-Cortex;

(b).Thalamus;

(c).Hypo-Thalamus;

2.MID-BRAIN:

3.HIND-BRAIN:

(a).Pon's;

(b).Cerebellum;

(c).Medulla-Oblongata;

________________________

PROTECTION-&-COVERING: 1. BONY-PROTECTION:

--->The Brain is enclosed inside the bony-skull;

2.COVERING:

---->There are 3-types of "Meninges" (Covering) are present in Brain

Called as "Crainal-Meninge's";

(i-e)

1. Dura-Matter(outer-most);2. Arachnoid-Matter(Middle-Most);

3. Pia-Matter(Inner-Most);


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CEREBRO-SPINAL-FLUID(C.S.F): ----> Its the fluid present b/w Arachnoid & Pia Matter;

1. QUANTIE'S:--->Its 80 to 150 ml;

2.COLOUR:

---->Transparient;

3.CONTAIN'S:

--->Its contain's glucose,protein,lactic-

Acid,urea,Cation's(Na+,K+,Ca+,Mg+), & Anion's(Cl-,HCO3-);

4.ITS PROVIDE'S:

1. Mechanical-protection againsts shocket's;2. Chemical-protection's(for electrolyte's balence's);

_____________________

EMBRYOLOGICAL-DEVELOPEMENT-OF-BRAIN: 1. 1th-STAGE:

--->Neural-Tube(a single-tube);

2.2th-STAGE:

---->Primary-Brain-Vessicle's;

1. Prosen-cephalon(upper-projection);2. Mesen-cephalon(middle-projection);

3. Rhomben-cephalon(lower-projection);


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3.3th-STAGE:

---->Secondary-Brain Vessicle's;

1. Prosen-cephalon(upper)--->(Telen-cephalon & Dien-cephalon);2. Mesen-cephalon(middle)--->(Mesen-cephalon(middle));

3. Rhomben-cephalon(lower)---->(Meten-cephalon & Myelen-cephalon);

4.FINAL-STAGE:

----->Final-structure;

1. FORE-BRAIN(upper):-->(a).Telen-cephalon--->Cerebrum-Cortex;

--->(b).Dien-cephalon---->Thalamus & Hypo-Thalamus;

2.MID-BRAIN(middle):

---->(a).Mesen-cephalon---->Mid-brain;

3.HIND-BRAIN(lower):

---->(a).Meten-cephalon----->Pons & Cerebellum;

----->(b).Myelen-cephalon---->Medulla-Oblongata;

____________________

W E D N E S D A Y , A P R I L 1 5 , 2 0 0 9

(class-2)-Brain-Physiology:


30/58


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2. THE RESPIRATORY-CENTER=>Its control's the rate & depth of"respiration";

MEDULLA-CONTAIN'S-NUCLI-OF-FOLLOWING-CRANIAL-NERVE'S:

1. VIII-(VESTIBULO-COCHLEAR)-NERVE'S;2. IX-(GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL)-NERVE'S;

3. X-(VAGUS)-NERVE'S;4. XI-(ACCESSORY)-NERVE'S;

5.

XII-(HYPO-GLOSSAL)-NERVE'S;

OLIVE:---->On the Lateral-surface of Madulla there are "Oval-Projection"

called "OLIVE";

----->OLIVE contain's nucli which connects medulla to Cerebellum by

there tracts called "Inferial-Cerebellum-Peduncles (tracts)" ;

---->Through these tracts (Inferial-Cerebellum-Peduncles-[tracts])

cerebellum effect's the motor movements by increasing precegion &

maintaing;

---->"Vestibular-Nuclear-Complex" present in Medulla also take's part

in mataning equilibrium;

__________________________

PONS: TRACTS:

--->the tracts act as a bridge b/w brain & spinal-cord & other part's of

brain;


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PONS:---->The pons means bridge, its developed from "Metencephalon";

---->Its about (2.5 cm)-long;

---->Pons contain's

1. Nucli(Bundle of Neuron[cell-body of more then 1 neuron]);2. Tracts(Bundle-of-Axon's[nerve-fibre's]);

---->the Pons provides a Connection which form by 2-main Tracts;

(i-e)

1. THE TRANSFER-FIBRE'S(TRACTS)=>These fibre's are alsocalled "Middle-Cerebellar-Peduncle's"; --->They Connected right

& left lobe's of "Cerebellum";

2. THE LONGITUDINAL-FIBRE'S(TRACTS)=>These fibre's areAsscending & desscending tracte's in Pons;

PONS-CONTAINS-NUCLI-OF-CRAINAL-NERVE'S: ---->The pons contains the nucli of following crainal-nerve's;

1. V-(Trigemenal)-Nerve;

2. VI-(Abducent)-Nerve;

3. VII-(Facial)-Nerve;


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4. VIII-(Vestibular-branch-of-Vestibulor-Cochlear)-Nerve;

THE PONS HAS FOLLOWING CONTROLLED CENTER FORRESPIRATION-PROCESSES:

1. Pneumotaxic-Center;

2. Apneustic-Center;

--->These center controlled respiration-processes;

______________________________

RETICULAR-FORMATION:

---->Its a Neural-Network(network of Neuron's) present through out

the

1. Spinal-Cord;

2. Medulla-Oblongata;

3. Pons;

4. Mid-Brain;


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5. Cerebrum-Cortex;--->Its has both sensory & motor function;

--->Its receive's (motor)-input from Cortex & other higher center ofbrain & its send's sensory-signal to Cerebrum-Cortex;

ASCENDING-RETICULAR-ACTIVATING-SYSTEM(ARAS):1. ---->"ARAS" is the part which provides sensory-I/P to "Cortex" ;

2. ----->"ARAS" is responsible for maintaing "Concineous-ness" &awaking from Sleep because its stimulated by Incomming

Impules from ear,eye & skin;

(e-g)=>Alarm,light & touch cause to awake-us;

________________________

T U E S D A Y , A P R I L 2 1 , 2 0 0 9

(Class-3)-BRAIN-PHYSIOLOGY:

MID-BRAIN:1. Its known as "Mesencephalon";

2. Its extend's from "Pons" to "Diencephalon(Thalamus+Hypo-Thalamus)";

MOTOR-TRACTS-OF-MID-BRAIN: --->The Anterior-part of Mid-Brain contain fibres called "Cerebral-

pandulcas" these Pandulcas contain's "Motor-Nerve-fibre's (Motor-


35/58



tracts)" that Convey motor-impules from "Cerebral-Cortex" to

"Pons";

SENSORY-TRACTS-OF-MID-BRAIN: ---->Mid-Brain contain sensory-tracts which carry sensory-impules

from

-->Spinal-cord---->madulla--->Pons---->Mid-Brain---

>Diencephalon(Thalamus+Hypo-Thalamus);

CONNECTION-B/W-CEREBELLUM & MID-BRAIN:

---->Mid-Brain connects with Cerebellum through(via) "SUPERIOR-

CEREBELLAR-PEDUNCLES";

TECTUM-(POSTERIOR-PART-OF-MID-BRAIN): ---->Tectum contain's 4-rounded elevation's called as "Corpora-

Quadri-Gemina";

CORPORA-QUADRI-GEMINA: 1. The upper-2-elevation's of "Tectum" are called as "Superior-

Colliculi" these are the reflex-center's for the movements of

eye's,head & neck in responce to Visual-stimuli;

2. The lower-2-elevation's of "Tectum" are called "Inferior-Colliculiculi" they serves as the reflex-center for movement ofhead & trunk in responce to "Audiatory(ear)-Stimuli" ;

SUB-STANTIA-NIGRA(LARGE-DARKELY-PIGMENTED-NUCLI):


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---->The "Mid-brain" contain on both side large darkely-pigmented-

nucli near "Cerebral-Peduncle's(Motor-tracts)" called as "Sub-

Stantia-Nigra" ;

----->"Sub-Stantia-Nigra" control "Sub-Consciou's" muscle activities;

RED-NUCLEUS:---->The "Mid-Brain" contain's on its both left & right side the "RED-

NUCLEUS" (Its name because of its rich in blood supply & ironcontaining pigment's);

---->"RED-NUCLEUS"receives i/p from "Cerebral-Cortex" &

"Cerebellum" & give o/p through "Rubro-Spinal-Tracts";

---->The"RED-NUCLEUS"function with the "Basal-ganglia" &

Cerebellum to Coordinate muscle movements (for-muscle-

Coordination);

MID-BRAIN CONTAIN NUCLI OF CRINAL-NERVES:---->The "Mid-Brain" contain's nucli of following "Crinal-Nerve's"

1. III-OCCULOMOTOR-NERVES;

2. IV-TROCHLEAR-NERVES;

MEDIAL-LEMINIUCUS:


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---->Its a structure which extend's through (Madulla,Pons & Mid-

Brain ) ;

----> Its contain's nerve-fibre's that transmitted-impules

for"discriminative-touch,proprioception,pressure &

Vibration's"from Madulla through thalamus;

______________________________

DIENCEPHALON(THALAMUS+HYPO-THALAMUS): --->Its develope from "Prosencephalon" ;

---->Its consists of

1. Thalamus;2. Hypo-Thalamus;

1. THALAMUS:--->Its an Oval-structure;--->Its locates above theMid-Brain & Hypo-Thalamus ; --->The Thalamus is the main-

station b/w cortex & lower part of "Centeral-Nervous-

System(C.N.S)" for sensory & motor Impule's;---->Its contain'sNucli & Tracts;--->Its has following nucli are as followed --

>(i).Medial-Geni-Culate-Nucli=>hearing-sensation transfer in

the "Cerebrum(Cerebral)-Cortex";--->(ii).Lateral-Geni-Culate-

Nucli=>Vission-sensation transmitted to "Cerebrum(Cerebral)-

Cortex";--->(iii).Ventrial-Posterior-Nucli=>Tast & Somatic-

sensation transmitted in "Cerebrum(Cerebral)-Cortex"-->(i-e)--

>Somatic-sensation--

>Touch,pressure,Vibration,heat,cold,Pain; --->(iv).Ventrial-lateral-Nucli---->(v).Plus(+)-Ventrial-Anterial-Nucli=> They

Contain synapes for Somatic-Motor-Nervous-system; ----

>(vi).Anterior-Nucleus=> Its take part in memory &

emonation's;


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2. HYPO-THALAMUS:--->Its a part of "Diencephalon" & itslocated below the Thalamus,

---->Its has 4-major region's,

(i-e)

1. THE MAMMILLARY-REGION:=>Its the most posterior-part of"Hypo-thalamus" & its present just in front of "Mid-Brain" , its

Contain's (a).The-Mammillary-Bodie's: --->These bodies are

the relay(delay)-station's for the "sence-of-smell" ; (b).The-

posterior-hypo-thalamus-nucleus;

2.

THE-TUBERAL-REGION: =>Its the middle & widest part ofHypo-Thalamus;--->Its contain's the following nucli-->(a).the

Dorso-medial-Nucli;-->(b).Ventro-Medial-Nucli;---

>(c).Arcuate-Nucli; --->following structure are also present--

>(d).Tuber-cinereum;--->(e).Infundebulum=>Its a structure

which connects the Pituitary-gland to hypo-thalamus;----

>(f).Median-Amine's-neuron:=>Its contain neuron that

synthesis "Hypo-thalamic-regulatory-hormones";

M O N D A Y , J U N E 1 5 , 2 0 0 9

(class-4)-Brain-Physiology-(hypothalamus contineou)

3.SUPRA-OPTIC-REGION:-Its present above the Optic-Chiasma, Its

Contains following nucli,

-->(a). Para-Ventricular-Nucli;-->(b). Supra-Optic-Nucli;-->(c).

Anterior-Hypo-Thalamic-Nucli;-->(d). Supra-Chiasmatic-Nucli;

-->SUPRA-OPTICO-HYPO-PHYCAL-TRACT:-Nerve's Fibres in para-

Ventricular & Supra-Optic-Nucli form's a Tract Called as"Supra-Optico-Hypo-Phycal-Tract"This tract Transport's Oxitosin & Anti-

Diruatic(ADH) Harmone which is formed in the above nucli, &

transported to "Neuro-hypophysis" ;

FUNCTION OF HYPOTHALAMUS:-


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1. Its a higher center for Autonomic-Nervous-System(ANS) inbrain;-->(e.g)-->example of ANS-->a).heart-rate,--

>b).Intestinal-Motility,-->c).Contraction of Urinary-Bladder;

2. Its regulated body temperature;3. Its controlle's hunger, through hunger-center;4. Its contain the Thrust-center;5. Its maintains the state's of waking & sleep;

__________________________________________

M O N D A Y , J U N E 1 5 , 2 0 0 9

(class-5)-brain-physiology-The-Cortex

CEREBRUM(or CEREBRAL-CORTEX):-

-->The "Cerebrum" is the higest-centre for sensory & motor

Activities, Its composed of Right & Left Cerebral-hemisphere,

Its develop's from "Telen-Cephalon";-->Its Composed of

1. Gray-Matter(Cerebral-Cortex);

2. White-Matter(Corpus-Callosum);


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GYRU'S & SULCU'S:- The surface of Cerebrum contains"elevation's(gyrus) & depression's(sulcus)"; (i-e)-->

1. Elevation's is called "Gyru's";

2. Depression's is called "Sulcu's";

The "Large-Sulci(depression)" are called "Fissure(Longitudinal-

fissure)";

FALX-CEREBRI:-->The fold's of Menge's that goes down in the"Longitudal-fissure" is Called "Falx-cerebri";

LOBES:--->Each Hemesphere is further divided into 4-Lobe's;(i-e)-->

1. Frontal-Lobe;2. Parital-Lobe;3. Occipatal-Lobe; 4. Temporal-Lobe;

These Lobe's are separated by following Sulci(Depression), (i-e);

1. Central-Sulcu's(Its separate the Frontal/Parital-Lobe);2. Parieto-Occipital-Sulcu's(Its separate the Parital/Occipatal-

Lobe );

3. Lateral-Sulcus(Its separate the Frontal/Temporal-Lobe);


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___________________________________________

WHITE-MATTER-OF-CEREBRUM-CORTEX:-

Its contains following nerve fibre's(nerve-Tract's),(i-e)-->

1. ASSOCIATION-FIBRE'S:-They connects one-Gyru's to another-Gyru's in same Hemespher;

2. COMMISSURAL-FIBRE'S:-These fibre's connects one-Gyru'sfrom one-hemespher to the same Gyru's of Opposite[or other]-

Hemespher, 3-important group's of Commissural-fibre's

are as followed

-->(a). Corpus-Callosum;

(b). Anterior-Commissural;

(c). Posterior- Commissural;

3. PROJECTION-FIBRES:-

These fibres are the assending and decending-tracts;

-------------finished-here-----------

BASAL-GANGLIA:-1. The basal-ganglia is the several-groups of nuclei ;

2. The basal-ganglia is present in each Cerebral-hemisphere; CORPUS-STRIATUM:-

The Corpus-striatum is the largest nucleus in thebasal-ganglia the Corpus-striatum is consists of following,

that is,

1. Caudata-nucleus ;2. Lenticular-nucleus ;


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(2). LENTICULAR-NUCLEUS:-The Lenticular-nucleus is subdivided into,

a. Lateral-portion [Putamen ];b. Medial-portion [ Globus-pallidus ];

There is a portion known as Internal-Capsule passing

between the Lenticular-nucleus and Caudata-nucleus

and its also passed between the Lenticular-nucleus and

thalamus is sometimes considered part of the Corpus-

striatum.

INTERNAL-CAPSULE:-The Internal-capsule is the sensory and motor tracts that

cause to connect the cerebral-cortex with brain stem and

Spinal-cord;

OTHER-STRUCTURE-OF-BASAL-GANGLIA:-The other structure of Basal-ganglia that is ,

a.Substantia-nigra,b.Subthalamic-nuclei,c.Red-nuclei,a.SUBSTANTIA-NIGRA :-

The Substantia-nigra is the pair of larger-nucli in

the mid-brain whose connection with the

i. Caudata-nucleus;ii. Putamen;

b.SUBTHALAMIC-NUCLEI :-The Subthalamic-nuclei is lie against the

Internal-Capsule, there major connection is with

the Globus-Padlidus.


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c.RED-NUCLEI:-Its the part of human-brain,

--------------finished-here-----------

FUNCTION-OF-THE-CAUDATA-NUCLEUS-AND-PUTAMEN:The Caudata-nucleus and Putamen control large

automatic-movement of skeletal-muscle .

FUNCTION-OF-GLOBUS-PALLIDUS:-The globus-pallidus is concerned with the regulation of

muscle tone required for specific body-movements.

-------------finished-here---------

FUNCTIONAL-AREA-OF-THE-CEREBRAL-CORTEX:-The sensory,motor and integrative signals are processed

in certain cerebral-regions, that is

1.Sensory-Areas,2.Motor-Areas,3.Association-Areas,

1.SENSORY-AREAS:-In the cortex there are three areas are present that is ,

a.Primary-sensory-Areas;b.Secondary-sensory-Areas and;c.Sensory-association-Areas;

a.PRIMARY-SENSORY-AREAS:- In cortex the primary-sensory-Areas have the most direct connections with the

Peripheral-sensory-receptors.

b.SECONDARY-SENSORY-AREAS AND SENSORY-ASSOCIATION-AREAS:-

The Secondary-sensory-Areas and the Sensory-

association-Areas are often adjacent with the primary-

Areas, basically, these Secondary-sensory-Areas and

Sensory-association-Areas receives the input from


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Primary-sensory-areas, and cause to drives the other

region of brain they participate in the interpretation of

sensory expression into meaningful patterns of

recognition and awareness,

For example:-> a person with damage in the Primary-

Visual-cortex, would be blind in at least part of his

Visual-field, but on the other-hand, if a person with

damage of a visual-Association-Area might see normally

yet be unable to recognize a friend.

A. PRIMARY-SOMATO-SENSORY-AREA-OR-GENERAL-SENSORY-AREA-[OR POST-CENTRAL-GYRUS]:-

ANATOMICAL-POSITION-OF-PRIMARY-SOMATO-SENSORY-AREA:-

The primary-somato-sensory-area, located directly

posteriorly to the central-sulcus of both cerebral-

hemisphere in postcentral-gyrus of each parietal-lobe;

[note:-> the thalamus is like the secretary of the cortex.]

Its extend from longitudinal-fissure on the top of the

cerebrum and its ends at lateral-cerebral-sulcus, the

somatosensory-area is designated areas by area-1,area-

2,area-3;

FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-SOMATO-SENSORY-AREA:-The Primary-somato-sensory-Area receives nerves-impulses

from somatic-sensory receptors for touch, proprioception-

touch, pain and temperature;

Each points with in the primary-somato-sensory-area cause

to receive the sensation from a particular specific part of the

body;


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So, due to which the whole body sensation receives by

individually each part of primary-somato-sensory-area,

the size of each point in this area receiving-impules from a

particular body part, is depend on the number of sensory-

receptor whose present on the effected body parts;

MAJOR-FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-SOMATOSENSORY-AREA:-The major-function of Primary-somato-sensory-area is to

localized the exact point of the body where the sensation is

organized;

2.PRIMARY-VISUAL-AREA [AREA-17]:-

ANATOMICAL-POSITION-OF-PRIMARY-VISUAL-AREA:-The Primary-visual-area-located on the medial surface of

the occipital-lobe of brain, and its extending around the

Lateral-surface, of the occipital-lobe.

FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-VISUAL-AREA [AREA-17]:-The optic-nerve which cause to terminated in the thalamus

in lateral-geniculate-Nucli of the thalamus, then from the

thalamus the neurons carry the visual-information to wards

the primary-visual-area,[about shape, color and movements]

3. PRIMARY-AUDITORY-AREA [AREA 41 AND 42 ]:- ANATOMY-OF-PRIMARY-AUDITORY-AREA [AREA 41 AND

42]:-

The Primary-Auditory-area area 41 and 42 are located onsuperior-part of the temporal-lobe near the lateral-sulcus.

FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-AUDITORY-AREA [AREA 41 AND 42]:-


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Its interprets the basic characteristics of sound such as

Pitch and Rhythm;

4. PRIMARY-GUSTATORY-AREA[AREA-43 ]:- ANATOMY-OF-PRIMARY-GUSTATORY-AREA:-

The Primary-gustatory-area is located at the base of

Post-central-gyrus just above the Lateral-sulcus, in the

parietal-lobe.

FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-GUSTATORY-AREA [ AREA-43 ]:-It receives impules related to taste;

5.PRIMARY-OIFACTORY-AREA:-

Its located in the temporal-lobe on the medial aspect,

ITS FUNCTION:-> Its receives impulse related to smell;

MOTOR-AREAS:-Motor out-put from the cerebral-cortex flows mainly from

the anterior-portion of each hemisphere, there are two motorareas are as followes, that is ,

i. Primary-motor-area [Area-4];ii. Language-areas;

I. PRIMARY-MOTOR-AREA [AREA-4]:- ANATOMY-OF- PRIMARY-MOTOR-AREA [AREA-4]:-The Primary-motor-area [area-4], is located in the pre-

central-Gyrus of the frontal-lobe;

FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-MOTOR-AREA [AREA-4 ]:-


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Each point in the primary-motor-area[ area-4] cause to

controlled the voluntary-contraction of specific-muscle or

group of muscle in the body; if we electrical stimulation will

applied on any point in the Primary-motor-Area results in

contraction of specific skeletal muscle fibers on the opposite

side of the body.

II. LANGUAGE-AREA:-The translation of speech or written word into thought involves

both sensory and association-areas,

CEREBELLUM: [note: Its due do it your self.];[Note: human-brain physiology finished here.]

-----------------finished here------------

NERVOUS-SYSTEM:-

SYNAPES:-> the synapse is a junction between two neuron,which allows the transfer of action-potential from pre-

synaptic-neuron towards the post-synaptic-neuron.

TYPES-OF-SYNAPES: There are two types of synapse arepresent, that is

1)Electrical- synapse .2)Chemical-synapse.1.Electrical-synapse:-> In the electrical-synapse the action-

potential travels directly from pre-synaptic-neuron towardsthe post-synaptic-neuron, through the gap-junction,

2. Chemical-synapse:-> All most all the synapse in CNS[central-nervous-system] are called chemical-synapse, In the

Chemical-synapse, the action potential is transmitted from

one neuron to wards the post-synaptic-neuron like that, when


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action-potential comes at the synaptic-end-bulb, of pre-

synaptic-neuron, then it cause to open, the Voltage-gated-

Ca+ions-channels in the pre-synaptic-membrane, then it

cause to enter the Ca+ ions inside the pre-synaptic- end bulb,

which cause to move the synaptic-vesicles towards the

pre-synaptic-membrane, then, synaptic-vesicles cause to

fused with the pre-synaptic-membrane, then the

neurotransmitter which are present inside those pre-synaptic-

vesicles cause to enter inside the synaptic-cleft, than, these

neurotransmitter cause to bind with its post-synaptic-

receptors, to open the chemical-gated-Na+ ions-channels,

on the post synaptic-membrane, than when Na+-ions

channels are opened the Na+ ions cause to enter inside the

post-synaptic-neuron, than, these Na+-ions cause to

increased the internal post-synaptic-neuron potential

gradient up to its threshold voltages, it cause to increase

the resting post-synaptic-neuron-potential [that is -90mV] up

to -60mV [-60mV= threshold voltages], than the a action

potential is transmitted inside the post-synaptic-neuron.

-----------------------finished-here--------------

PRE-SYNAPTIC-TERMINALS:-The pre-synaptic-neuron, has its axon, which will continuous

and end with the multiples branches known as Telo-

dendrias, each Telo-dendrias contains a bulb-like-

structure which is known as Synaptic-end-bulbs, so, these

Synaptic-end-bulb contains two important structure, (i-e)

a.Mitochondria ;b.Synaptic-vesicles ;

A.MITOCHONDRIA:-


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The mitochondria, is provide ATP which necessary for

synthesis of neurotransmitters and also for the secretion of

neurotransmitters from pre-synaptic membrane to post-

synaptic membrane.

B. SYNAPTIC- VESICLES:-i. These vesicles contains neurotransmitters[NT];

ii. These vesicles causes to secret-out theneurotransmitters[NT] from pre-synaptic neuron towards

the synaptic-cleft in the response to Action-potential

which reach to synaptic-end-bulb;

MECHANISM-OF-TRANSMISSION-OF-ACTION-POTENTIALFROM ONE NEURON TO POST-SYNAPTIC NEURON:-

i. When the action-potential is generated in the pre-synaptic-neuron then,

ii. When these action-potential approaches towards thesynaptic-end-bulb, so as the result , there is the

voltage-gated calcium[Ca+]-ions channels will be opening

so,

iii. Then, as the result of it Ca+-ions cause to move insidethe cell pre-synaptic-end-bulb;

iv. So, as Ca+-ions enter inside the cell pre-synaptic-end-bulb, as the result of it cause to activated the synaptic-

vesicles ;

v. So then, these Activated-synaptic-vesicles cause to movetowards the pre-synaptic membrane and then these

vesicles cause to fused with the pre-synaptic-membrane;

vi. Then , these vesicles cause to released there containsneurotransmitters [NT] inside the synaptic-cleft.

---------------------------


50/58



ACTION-OF-NEURO-TRANSMITTER-ON-POST-SYNAPTIC-MEMBRANE:-

So, when neurotransmitters [NT] entered inside the

synaptic-cleft, then neurotransmitters [NT] do two jobs which

are given below,

i. Ion-channel.ii. Second [2nd]-Messenger-system.

a.ION-CHANNEL:-i. These ion-channel are located on the post-synaptic

membrane, which will be open when the neurotransmitters

[NT], cause to bind with its post-synaptic-receptors, these

are chemically-gated-Ion-channel,

ii. So, there are two types of ion-channel are present that is(1) Cat-ion-channel [Excitatory Na+, K+- ions], and (2) An-ion-

channel [ Inhibitatory Cl--ion];

iii. Example=> when the Acetylcholine [NT] are attached on theCation-channel-receptors then it cause to open the cation-

Na+-channel,

iv. When, GABA- neurotransmitters [NT] are attached on theAnion-channel-receptors then it cause to open the Anion-Cl

channel.

b.SECOND [2ND]-MESSENGER-SYSTEM:-i. In this type the neurotransmitter [NT] cause to bind with

its post-synaptic-receptors, which cause to activated the G-

Protein.

ii. When G-Protein activated then it cause to converts ATP-molecules into c-AMP [cyclic-AMP]-molecules ;

iii. Then, these c-AMP molecule cause to act as a second[2nd]-messenger-system;


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iv. Then, these c-AMP molecule which act as a 2nd-messenger-system cause to changes the Alter-cell-function;

---------------------finished here----------

EXCITATORY-OR-INHIBITORY-RECEPTORS-IN-THE-POST-SYNAPTIC-MEMBRANE:-

In the post-synaptic-membrane, there are two types of post-

synaptic-receptors are presents; that is,

i. The one of those receptors, which cause excitation on thepost-synaptic-neuron,

ii. The other one of those receptors which causes theinhibition in the post-synaptic-neuron,

Excitation-process. Inhibition-process.

1.EXCITATION-PROCESS:-in this process there are some changes occurs,

(a) . during excitation the Na+-ion-channel will be open, in the

post-synaptic-membrane then, which allow large no of Na+-ions

flow inside the post synaptic membrane, due to which causes to

rises the interior-post-synaptic-membrane potential in the

positive direction up towards the threshold-level for excitation,

(b). in this condition, the diffusion of Cl- - ions inside the post-

synaptic-neuron, will be decreased and the diffusion of K+ - ions

outside the neuron-cell membrane will be decreased,so, due to

this the internal post-synaptic membrane potential becomes

more positive then normal.


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(c). various changes in the internal metabolism of the post

synaptic neuron, to increase the number of excitatory membrane

receptors or decreased the number of inhibitory-membrane-

receptors.

2. INHIBITION-PROCESS:-

i. opening the Cl-1 ion-channel on post synaptic neuron,

by which Cl-1 ions moves inside the post-synaptic-neuron,

due to which the cell becomes inhibited .

ii. increase the transportation of K+ - ions outside the post-

synaptic-neuron, which cause the increased in negative-ions

inside the neuron, by which neuron becomes negativeinternally.

Activation of receptor enzymes that inhibit cellularmetabolic functions due to which to increased the

number of inhibitory membrane receptors or decrease

the number of excitatory membrane receptors.

--------------------finished here-----------

[ New-topic ]

SLEEP-PHYSIOLOGY:-Its the state of un- consciousness , from which the person

can be aroused by sensory-stimulation.

The sleep has two phases,

1)Slow-wave sleep.2)Rapid-eye movements sleep.

1.SLOW-WAVE-SLEEP:-a.Its the initial phase of sleep.b.Its deep sleep.


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c. There is decreased in (1). Blood-pressure, (2). Respiration.(3) . Metabolism. (4). Tone of muscle.

d.The slow-wave-sleep is the 75% of the total-sleep.e. The slow-wave-sleep occurs during for one to two hours.

2.RAPID-EYE MOVEMENTS SLEEP:-a)Its the 2ndphase of sleep.b)Its less deep.c)Aroused is difficult.d)Active drumming occurs.e)Its occurs at least for 5 to 30 minutes.f)During this sleep rapid-eye movements is occurs.g)20% increase in brain metabolism occurs.

DIFFERENT-BETWEEN-COMA-AND-SLEEP:-SLEEP: COMA

1. The person can bearoused by sensory

stimulation from

sleep

1. The person can never bearoused by any sensory

stimulation from coma.

---------------finished-here------------

PHYSIOLOGICAL-EFFECT-OF-SLEEP:-1) ON-NERVOUS-SYSTEM:-

During sleep nervous-system [NS] , required to regenerated its

neurotransmitters [NT] , this enables it to performed its

functions.

2)ON-OTHER-SYSTEM-OF-THE-BODY:-


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i. Sympathetic nervous-system, cause the expenditure ofenergy while, the Para-sympathetic-nervous-system

causes, conversation of energy.

ii. So, during sleep para-sympathetic activities will beincreased, due to which the metabolism [conversation]

of energy increased in the whole body.

iii. There fore, the sleep is responsible to decrease Arterial-blood-pressure, pulse-rate.

iv. Increase the activity of G.I.T, decreased in skeletal-muscles-tone.

------------------------finished here----------------

[new-topic]

ELECTRO-ENCEPHALO-GRAM [E.E.G]:-The EEG is called as Electro-encephalon-gram, the neuron in

brain which producing impulse on the different part of the

brain, this impulse can be recorded by placing the electrodes

on different position, of the skull, then this recording is

known as E.E.G.

CLASSIFICATION-OF-E.E.G :-Its have four different waves patterns of E.E.G.

That is ,

i. Alpha-waves,ii. Beta-waves.

iii. Delta-waves.iv. Theta-waves.


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i. ALPHA-WAVES:-1. The alpha-waves have about 8 to 13 Hz frequency

patterns.

2. This waves is found in brain during the conditionwhen the person is awake but having close eyes.

ii. BETA-WAVES:-1. The beta-waves have about 14 to 30 Hz frequency

pattern.

2. This waves is found in brain during active-period withsensory stimulation input. [when the person awake with

eyes open ].

iii. DELTA-WAVES:-1. Delta-waves have about 1 to 5 Hz frequency pattern.2.In normal adults, these waves are found in brain during

deep sleep but , if this delta-waves found in adults

during awakens , then this shows us a brain-damage.

3. These Delta-waves should found in awake faints [1 yearold child].

iv. THETA-WAVES:-1. This theta-waves have about 4 to 7 Hz frequency patterns.2.It normally found in children.3. These waves found in Adults with emoinational stress.4.Also, it found in brain indicates brain disorders .

----------------finished-here--------

[new-topics]

EPILEPSY:-Its the un-controlled activities of any one part of the brain

or the whole brain,

It has three major types


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1. Grand-mal-epilepsy.2.Focal-epilepsy.3.Petit-mal-epilepsy.

1 GRAND-MAL-EPILEPSY:-Its characterized by

a)Abnormal-activities of all parts of brain for 2 to 3 minutes .b)Convulsion[its mean in urdu dora-parna] of whole body.c)Loss of conscious ness .

2 FOCAL-EPILEPSY:-Its characterized by

a.Abnormal activities of any one part of brain for 2 to 3minutes.

b.Convulsion [its mean in urdu dora-parna] on any one partof body.

c.No loss of consciousness.3 PETIT-MAL-EPILEPSY:-

Its characterized by

a)Abnormal activity of whole brain for 3 to 30 seconds.b)No convulsion [its mean in urdu dora-parna].c) No loss of conscious-ness.

------finished here-------

Note: all bio-medical engineering physiology-2 finished here.

----finished---------


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