“Don’t lose it, reuse it”

Re-interpreting the “Pagan”heritage from Constantine to Mussolini

Content• 1. The Arch of Constantine• 2. The Riace Bronzes• 3. Mussolini’s Triumphal Way

and Forum

1. The Arch of Constantine

• Erected in c. 315 CE. • Stands in Rome and commemorates Roman

Emperor Constantine’s victory over the Roman tyrant Maxentius on 28th October 312 CE at the battle of Milvian Bridge in Rome.

• The TRIUMPHAL ARCH was a type of Roman architectural monument built all over the Empire to commemorate military triumphs and other significant events such as the accession of a new emperor.

CONSTANTINE vs. MAXENTIUS

Son of Constantius ClorusSon of MaximianSon-in-Law of Galerius

• 313 C.E. Constantine legalized Christianity but he was NOT a Christian emperor.

• Only in 380 Emperor Theodosius DECLARED CHRISTIANITY THE OFFICIAL RELIGION OF THE EMPIRE.

• ONE EMPIRE=ONE GOD= ONE RELIGION

• The arch is first and foremost piece of political propaganda, presenting Constantine as a living continuation of the most successful Roman emperors, renowned for their military victories and good government.

• In particular Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius.

• The Arch is a huge conglomerate of imperial Roman sculpture as many parts of it were recycled from earlier 1st and 2nd century CE monuments.

• In the recycled panels the original faces of the different emperors was cut to resemble Constantine’s.

• Constantine’s is therefore portrayed ether at war, or hunting (lions, boars and bears), or conducting sacrificial ceremonies in honor of Hercules, Apollo and Diana.

• One of the panels shows Constantine being crowned by Victory and flanked by two females possibly representing Honour (dressed as an Amazon) and Virtue (in armour).

RIACE BRONZES

• The RIACE BRONZES (Italian: Bronzi di Riace), also called the Riace Warriors, are two famous full-size Greek bronzes of naked bearded warriors, cast about 460–450 BCE. (more or less when most of the temples in Agrigento were built).

• Found in the sea near Riace in 1972. RIACE

The “Dioskouri”

• CASTOR and POLLUX: twin brothers.• Their mother was Leda, but Castor was the

mortal son of Tyndareus, the king of Sparta, and Pollux the divine son of Zeus, who seduced Leda in the guise of a swan.

• They were excellent horsemen.• Mentioned in the Iliad and Odissey.• According to the myth they joined the

Argonauts in their pursue for the Golden Fleece.

• They are widely depicted as helmeted horsemen carrying spears.

• Castor and Pollux allegedly took part in a battle in the area of Riace (Locride) between the Locri and Kroton.

• According to Strabo the Dioskouri appeared and fought side by side the Locri’s army which defeated the enemies.

• Out of gratitude the inhabitants of Locri erected two altars dedicated to the twins in the area of te battle.

• They were therefore venerated by the local population.

SAINTS COSMAS AND DAMIAN• When recovered from the bottom of the sea the Bronzes

were immediately identified by the local population as two saints : Cosmas and Damian.

• Twin brothers and physicians. They practiced their profession in the Roman province of Syria.

• Accepting no payment for their services led to them being named Anarguroi (Ανάργυροι, "Unmercenaries"); it has been said that, by this, they attracted many to the Christian faith.

• Martyrized during Diocletian’s persecutions in 287 CE.

“THE CULT OF THE TWO SAINTS REPLACED THAT OF THE

DIOSKOURI WHEN CHRISTIANITY BECAME THE ONLY RELIGION OF

THE EMPIRE” [G. Roma]

Can we be sure of this?

Traditional narrative: the statues were thrown off board during a storm.

• 1. No wreckage/ other goods in the area where the Bronzes were recovered.

Traditional narrative: the statues were thrown off board during a storm.

• 1. No wreckage/ other goods in the area where the Bronzes were recovered.

• 2. The original drawing portraying the two statues immediately after their discovery (still under water) showed them lying one next to the other (40 cm.)

Traditional narrative: the statues were thrown off board during a storm.

• 1. No wreckage/ other goods in the area where the Bronzes were recovered.

• 2. The original drawing portraying the two statues immediately after their discovery (still under water) showed them lying one next to the other (40 cm.).

• 3. Every year in Riace a traditional religious procession takes place in the area where the Bronzes were found.

Traditional narrative: the statues were thrown off board during a storm.

• 1. No wreckage/ other goods in the area where the Bronzes were recovered.

• 2. The original drawing portraying the two statues immediately after their discovery (still under water) showed them lying one next to the other (40 cm.).

• 3. Every year in Riace a traditional religious procession takes place in the area where the Bronzes were found.

• 4. We have evidence of pagan idols thrown into the sea or buried by Christians both to destroy them or to neutralized their evil influxes.

Traditional narrative: the statues were thrown off board during a storm.

• 1. No wreckage/ other goods in the area where the Bronzes were recovered.

• 2. The original drawing portraying the two statues immediately after their discovery (still under water) showed them lying one next to the other (40 cm.).

• 3. Every year in Riace a traditional religious procession takes place in the area where the Bronzes were found.

• 4. We have evidence of pagan idols thrown into the sea or buried by Christians both to destroy them or to neutralized their evil influxes.

• 5. Due to the erosion the actual coastline has moved back since the Greek and Roman period.

3. ROMAN IMPERIALISM AND MUSSOLINI

• Once he got to power Mussolini implemented the idea of Fascism emphasizing not the individual but the glory and strength of the Italian state.

• In order to justify this philosophical foundation of Fascism the Fascists instituted huge reconstructions of Rome and several major building programs ALL INSPIRED BY AND HARKENED BACK TO THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

• One of the key remnants of this is the via dei Fori Imperiali.

VIA DEI FORI IMPERIALI

• Begins at the Piazza Venezia and leads to the Colosseum. • The “via dei fori Imperiali” cuts a large swath through

the center of ancient Rome, dividing the Forums of Trajan and Augustus from the Roman Forum and Caesar’s Forum and covering the Forums of Nerva and Vespavian.

• This provides for an incredible view of the most important sights in ancient Rome.

• Became the way of the Fascist regime’s triumphal ceremonies and the location of the Vittoriale (unknown soldier’s altar).

• Five maps were put there by Il Duce in order to illustrate the growth of the Roman empire, all fastened onto the Basilica of Maxentius and looking out onto the Via dei Fori Imperiali.

• FORUM (pl. FORA)= open public square often surrounded by several important ancient government buildings at the center of the Roma cities.

• It could also be used as marketplace.

Oval Forum, Jerash (Jordan)FORUM

FORO ITALICO

• Foro Italico, is a sports complex in Rome. • It was built between 1928 and 1938 as the Foro

Mussolini (Mussolini’s Forum).• Thought as the place where the new Fascist

ruling class could strengthen their body according to the Latin motto “mens sana in corpore sano”.

• In the same way the Romans used palestrae and gymnasia.