DOWN-SHIFTA move towards Socially Responsible

Design

by Ben Swain

Module Code: XTD304

Course: 3D Design

Student Number: 10231961

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Contents

Abstract p.7-9

Introduction p.11-15

Raymond Loewy: The Professional Designer (Designing for Consumption) p.17-38

The Decline of Detroit (When Industry Fails) p.39-53

Responsible Directions for Responsible Solutions (Socially Responsible Design) p.55-85

References p.87-95

Bibliography p.96-101

List of Illustrations p.102-105

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This dissertation investigates the practice of Socially Responsible Design. Explained by Cynthia E. Smith, Curator of Socially Responsible Design at the Smithsonian Institution, there is a growing movement to design for the other 90% of the World’s population who live in poverty. Designers worldwide are seeking to provide simple, low-cost innovations for better access to education, health-care, transportation, energy, water, and sanitation.1

Less commercial approaches to design can be demonstrated by focussing primarily on the ideas conveyed by Victor Papanek. Publicised in his book; Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change,2 Papanek highlights where design has lost its course in modern society by outlining the issues and problems which still today, designers are beginning to understand and confront.

Professions are no longer needed to continue to make the mistakes of mass-production and need to be responsible in their design practices by understanding and addressing a need. The role of the designer is constantly expanding to play an important part of the world we live in. Designers need to take a holistic approach to determine the impact of their work,

1 Cooper-Hewitt. Design Revolution. Online video clip. Youtube. Youtube, 23rd Nov. 2009. [Last accessed] 14th March. 2013.2 Papanek, V. Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change. 2nd ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 1985. Blurb. Print.

Abstract

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culturally, socially, financially, and environmentally. By working in this manner they can help provide sustainable and ethical solutions which are honest and beneficial to society.

By investigating the profession of industrial design, it will aim to highlight the negative impact that industrial growth has had upon the environment, economic climate, and social equality.

If we instead step back from the design for profit approach and look at examples of social innovation. We can see design thinking, craft, the development of skills and learning are all brought together in order to benefit a community, the environment, and design for a purpose. Even though most of these projects are usually based on a small scale, they highlight the need for a balanced approach of industry in conjunction with craft, so that mass-production becomes replaced by responsible-production.

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- Albert Einstein 3

3 McDonough, W, and M Braungart. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the way we make things. 5th ed. London: Vintage Books, 2009. Front matter. Print.

‘The world will not evolve past its current state of crisis by using the same thinking that created the situation.’

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‘In an age of mass production when everything must be planned and designed, design has become the most powerful tool with which man shapes his tools and environments (and, by extension, society and himself).’

- Preface to Design for the Real World, Victor Papanek4

Design for the Real World, written by Victor Papanek (1923–1998)5, has previously been described by the New York Times and Papanek himself as ‘one of the world’s most widely read books on Design’.6

Acknowledged for his influential roles as an educator, lecturer, and writer; Papanek highlights the importance of design to benefit the human race, not only through his publications but also through his role as an industrial designer. Design for the Real World critically picks apart the profession of the industrial designer, highlighting areas where design and industry have not been performed responsibly (fig.1).

4 Papanek, V. 1985. Preface to the First Edition p.ix. Print.5 Clarke, A J. ‘Papanek Foundation.’ Victor J. Papanek. University of Applied Arts Vienna, n.d. [Last accessed] 8th Nov. 2012. <http://papanek.org/about/victor-j-papanek/>.6 Rawsthorn, A. ‘An Early Champion of Good Sense.’New York Times. 15 May 2011: n. page. Web. [Last accessed] 25th Mar. 2013.

Introduction

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‘Today, industrial design has put murder on a mass-production basis. By designing criminally unsafe automobiles that kill or maim nearly one million people around the world each year’

- Victor Papanek, 1985 7

7 Papanek, V. 1985. Preface to the First Edition p.ix. Print.

Fig.1.

Fiat-Seicento 2000, Euro NCAP crash test

awarded a 1.5 Star rating

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The majority of products that are manufactured and released into society, may have had the consumer needs considered throughout the overall concept, however the final impact of the end result can become less important, and in some cases ignored or hidden by the marketing of the product. This way of working to deliver services and objects to a market-driven consumer culture, only creates more problems for designers further down the line to tackle. It may currently have a positive impact for design education, where prospective designers can tackle issues concerning sustainability, inclusivity, change of behaviours, and consumerism. However, these types of projects can often remain conceptual visions, executed in a controlled environment, not the real world. The main constraints towards responsible solutions for modern society’s problems are the governments and industries that regulate the import and export of goods, and still support industrial growth as the driving force of the economy.

Instead of targeting existing markets and trends, responsible design should be used to guide consumer demand towards less materialistic aims, such as a product that can last forever, or has an intentional second-life designed into it. Responsible design should take a life cycle perspective to ensure that products are low-impact, low-cost, and multi-functional on as many levels as possible.8 The throw away culture has lasted long enough.

Understanding the world in which design is going to be part of; can help validate what’s worth designing

8 Birkeland, J. Design for Sustainability: A sourcebook of integrated eco-logical solutions. 1st ed. London: Earthscan Publications Limited, 2002. p.27. Print.

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in the first place. Designing the latest ‘smartphone’ with a titanium enclosure and a bigger screen than its predecessor is not responsible. It may be what the client you are designing for wants, but it is not what they, or anyone else needs.

‘designers only have one choice: to remain part of the problem or become part of the solution’

- Janis Birkeland, 2002 9

When designers, governments, and industry agree to change together, responsible design can be used to serve and benefit the population. But until this happens we should possibly take a look back at low-tech processes that reduce extraction and consumption, yet still increase jobs and the number of skilled workers. Some of the best examples of responsible design start with the poorest people, there is not an incentive to make a profit, just to improve people’s quality of life. This moral stance in design was fought for by Victor Papanek, whose interest was to serve the poor, the disabled, and the elderly. 10

Originally born in Vienna, Austria in 1923, Papanek emigrated to the United States in 1939, following the outbreak of the Second World War.11 He arrived at a time of progressive streamlining and standardization that encouraged the role of the designer to be a tool

9 Birkeland, J. 2002. p.26. Print10 Sacchetti, V. ‘Beyond the Tin Can Radio.’ Disegno: The Culture of Design. Vol.3.Autumn/Winter (2012): p.62-63. Print.11 Clarke, A J. ‘Papanek Foundation.’ Victor J. Papanek. University of Applied Arts Vienna, n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 28th Jan.2013. <http://sammlung.dieangewandte.at/jart/prj3/angewandte_sammlungen/main.jart?content-id=1311169904371&rel=de&reserve-mode=active>.

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for consumerism and embrace the machine in order to move past the aftermath of the Great Depression and Second World War. An example of the industrial designer’s direction in America can be demonstrated by looking at the work of French born designer Raymond Loewy (1893-1986).12

12 ‘The Designer Raymond Loewy.’ The Raymond Loewy Foundation. Lucky Strike, 2006. Web. [Last accessed] 28th Jan. 2013. The ‘Raymond Loewy Foundation’ was set up in 1991 in Hamburg. To commemorate Raymond Loewy, every year it bestows the Lucky Strike Designer Award, the recipient of which receives 50,000 euros. The foundation sets itself the aim of being a forum for design in Germany but also of critically discussing design as an instrument of marketing and encouraging young designers with the Lucky Strike Junior Designer Award.

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Raymond Loewy: The Professional Designer

Designing for consumption

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Described by the American journal, LIFE magazine, as the ‘World’s most successful industrial designer or packager’13 and featuring on the cover of Time Magazine with the phrase ‘He streamlines the sales curve’14 (fig.2), Raymond Loewy achieved media recognition for his work as an industrial designer, which was also a success in itself at the time. By exploiting his own image and name, it made him the industrial design celebrity that he was; even though it is quite common for successful designers to be the basis for marketing their own work today, Loewy was early to understand that much like a brand; the designers name adds value (fig.3 and fig.4).13 Kobler, J. ‘The Great Packager.’ LIFE Magazine. 2nd May 1949: p.110. Print.14 ‘Modern Living: Up from the egg.’ TIME Magazine. Vol.LIV.NO.18 (1949, October 31st): n. page. Print. Cover credit: Artzybasheff, Boris.

Fig.2.

An illustrated portrait of Loewy surrounded by his most famous designs that helped fuel post-war American consumption, featuring as the cover of Time Magazine, 1941

Cars, Trains, Planes &

Household Goods

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Fig.3.

Philippe Starck ‘50 Happy Products’ advertisement for Target, July 2003

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Fig.4.

James Dyson Air Multiplier, 2010

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For the book series Design Heroes,15 Paul Jodard relates Loewy’s success and celebrity status to his character. This can be translated from the following passage;

‘it was his very enthusiasm and flair for getting himself and his designs into the limelight that helped to bring the value of design to the notice of American industry, and establish the profession of industrial designer as an essential arm of manufacturing business.’ 16

By enforcing the relationship of design and business Loewy was able to start and run a successful design consultancy under the name Loewy and Associates,17 established in 1944 with five partners, the company expanded upon Loewy’s already extensive client list, which had been accumulated whilst working under his own name. Loewy’s true talents were as a communicator and visualizer. When he first arrived in the United States in 1919, he offered his services as a fashion and advertising illustrator for clients such as Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar and Saks Fifth Avenue. Loewy had not had the chance to practice and realise the potential of industrial design.18 It was only when he was commissioned by the British manufacturer Sigmund Gestetner in 1929, to re-model a

15 Pawley, M. Design Heroes Series. 1990-92. Print. A collection of books introducing the major figures of the design century. Titles in the Series include: Buckminster Fuller by Martin Pawley , Ettore Sottsass by Jan Burney, Harley Earl by Stephen Bayley and Raymond Loewy by Paul Jodard.16 Jodard, P. Raymond Loewy. 1st ed. London: Trefoil Publications, 1992. p.19. Print.17 Ellis, D, G Combs, et al. United States. Library of Congress. Raymond Loewy: A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress. Washington D.C: Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, 1995. Web.18 Schönberger, A, E Endt, et al. Raymond Loewy: Pioneer of American Industrial Design. 1st ed. Munich: Prestel, 1990. Print.

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duplicating machine (fig.5) when it all changed.19

19 Gestetner Duplicating Machine, 1929. Part of the Victoria and Albert Museum’s ‘Woodwork and Furniture Collection’, described as an early photocopier enabling documents to be reproduced using a stencil. Ink was pressed through a sheet of waxed paper which had been written upon beforehand with a stylus. The stylus broke the paper surface and removed the wax coating, creating a stencil which could be used again and again until sufficient copies of the document were created.

Fig.5.

Loewy’s first industrial design commission;

the Gestetner duplicating

machine, before and after

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Loewy’s solution, cited by Jodard, began by covering the original machine in clay. This enabled the designer to conceal the complex mechanisms and gears, which would also keep the dust and smell inside. He then worked on displaying the essential controls to make the machine more user-friendly. 20 Described by Penny Sparke this type of work provided ‘a new visual image appropriate to the modern age’.21

Gestetner remained as one of Loewy’s clients and gave him the push to establish his first industrial design company in 1929.22 This first commission was the beginning of a trend to make industrial products more appealing for the office and home environment. By creating objects of desire that fuelled a cycle of consumption, manufacturers and consumers would be happy with the work of the designer. Cited by Schönberger, Loewy simply described the role of industrial design with the following sentence; ‘Industrial design keeps the customer happy, his client in the black, and the designer busy’.23

The Gestetner duplicator was a success for the British manufacturer, yet it would be Loewy’s work for Sears, Roebuck and Company that would appeal to the American consumer market. Papanek later recalls how Raymond Loewy’s autobiography, Never leave Well Enough Alone portrays the activity of Loewy’s early years as ‘his crusade, a crusade to get clients…in the late twenties and thirties he, together with other designers, kept knocking on corporate doors, such as those of

20 Jodard, P. 1992. p.22. Print21 Sparke, P. An Introduction to Design & Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Routledge, 1986. p.132. Print.22 Ellis, D, G Combs, et al. 1995. Web.23 Schönberger, A, E Endt, et al. 1990. p.7. Print.

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General motors, General Electric, General Rubber…’.24 The determination to find clients was what led Loewy to Sears, Roebuck and Co, Chicago.25 After repeated contact with the company Loewy was finally given the contract of re-designing the 1934 Coldspot refrigerator. Loewy strongly advocated for the importance of aesthetics, believing that the goal of design was to sell.

This idea is demonstrated in the following quote;

‘Between two products equal in price, function, and quality, the better looking will outsell the other.’

- Raymond Loewy 26

24 Papanek, V. 1985. Chapter 2. Phylogenocide: A History of the Industrial Design Profession. p.37. Print. Papanek goes on to say: ‘In all fairness it must be admitted that he and his coworkers served their corporate masters well and, in fact still do. It is dismaying to find that all too many of today’s graduating design students also eagerly join corporate design staffs, safely wrapped in the cocoon of corporate expense accounts, company-paid country club membership, deferred annuities, retirement benefits…’ This is not necessarily the wrong direction to take when pursuing a career in design, however it can be easy to become lost in the comforts of corporations and the lengths they will strive to make a profit.25 Brands, Sears. ‘Sears History.’ Sears Archives. Sears, 21 Mar 2012. Web. [Last accessed] 8th Feb 2013. <http://www.searsarchives.com/>.Sears, Roebuck and Co. was officially formed in 1893. The company dates its history back to 1886 when Richard W. Sears, a railroad agent in Minnesota, received a box of errant watches and then sold them to other workers. By purchasing products that were sought after in high volumes and offering rural free delivery and parcel post, the company could offer an alternative to the high-priced rural stores, this was the beginning of a large mail-order company. In the early years the company adopted the motto ‘Shop at Sears and Save’.26 Loewy, R. ‘Raymond Loewy (1893-1986).’ The Raymond Loewy Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 28th Jan 2013. 

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Similar to how Loewy restyled the Gestetner duplicator, he began modelling a new form in clay; this was painted and finished with streamlined handles and an updated badge to simulate the product.27 Within one year, sales of the Coldspot increased more than 300 per cent.28 Loewy together with Sears provided a refrigerator that was finally appearance worthy to be in the average American kitchen.27 Schönberger, A, AJ Pulos, et al. 1990. p.80-81. Print.28 Brands, Sears. ‘Sears History.’ Sears Archives. Sears, 21 Mar 2012. Web. [Last accessed] 8th Feb 2013.

Fig.6.

Coldspot ‘Super Six’ refrigerator, 1935

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Loewy’s aesthetic sense continued to spread into different areas of the manufacturing industries. He was already providing electrical goods for the office and home, but transport would also form a large proportion of the designers portfolio. At the time other designers such as Henry Dreyfuss had already begun work on streamlining locomotives (fig.7). 29 The railroad companies went to designers with a need to update their services due to the growing availability of private cars and other means of public transport. The answer was to offer customers new standards of comfort and service that were modern and efficient, relevant to the time of progression.

In fear of being left behind, the management of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company worked with Loewy who would offer advice on the manufacture and designs of their locomotives. Laurence Loewy, Raymond’s daughter recalls; ‘When he was a young boy, he was inspired by beauty and speed’.30 This was

29 Jodard, P. 1992. p.48-49. Print30 Leopold, T. ‘Planes, trains, automobiles, Coke bottles: The world Raymond Loewy created.’ CNN Travel. 14th Nov 2005: n. page. Web. [Last accessed]15 Apr. 2013.

Fig.7.

Streamlined Locomotive design by Henry Dreyfuss for the New York Central System

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Fig.8.

The Commodore Vanderbilt,

designed by Carl F. Kantola,

completed 1934

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clearly emphasized in the style which he applied to the projects he undertook, but it also formed the basis for his pragmatic approach to designing transport. For the design of the steam locomotive K4-S, later renamed and better known as Engine 3768,31 Loewy was very critical of the other streamlined shapes that competing rail companies were investing in. Many of the modern locomotives that had been produced were using a shroud form such as the design for the New York Central Railroad, the Commodore Vanderbilt (fig.8).

In Loewy’s 1937 publication Locomotive, he claimed that the wind tunnel tests during the development of Engine 3768, had proved that the favourable shroud forms were less effective at deflecting smoke from the drivers cab and therefore reduced visibility.32 To overcome this issue Loewy proposed a striking torpedo inspired design that featured an aerofoil plate to deflect smoke away from the cab. The new steam powered locomotive went into service in 1938 (fig. 9 and fig.10).33

The design of Engine 3768 was a significant achievement for Loewy and the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. As cited by Pulos, in Raymond Loewy: Pioneer of American Industrial Design, Loewy was overwhelmed by its power and a sense of pride in what he had helped create as it ‘soared past him at 120 miles an hour’.34

31 Jodard, P. 1992. p.53-54. Print32 Jodard, P. 1992. p.53-54. Print33 Schönberger, A, AJ Pulos, et al. 1990. p.80-81. Print.34 Schönberger, A, AJ Pulos, et al. 1990. p.80. Print.

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Fig.9.

Technical drawings for the Patent application, regarding Engine 3768

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Fig.10.

K4-S Engine No. 3768, Builders photograph,

1936

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‘For the first time, perhaps, I realized that I had, after all, contributed something to a great nation that had taken me in.’

- Raymond Loewy, 1979 35

Highlighting Loewy’s passion for the project, Locomotive was especially dedicated to Engine 3768 with the following message;

‘My youth was charmed by the glamour of the locomotive. Never did I dream that my career as an artist-engineer would lead me some day to that glorious adventure, the designing of a steam engine…it was an even greater thrill than I had expected. To Engine 3768, my heartiest wishes for a fast and brilliant career.’36

However, this publication also serves as a good example to why Loewy’s work has been heavily criticised as the work of a ‘stylist’, not that of a designer. Relating back to Loewy’s patent application (fig.9) and the dedication message written in Locomotive, he refers to himself as an ‘artist-engineer’ and ‘inventor’. But from Jodard’s recollection; it seems that Locomotive was a mere picture book to pay homage to the Streamliners37 that were being created at the time. It used terms such as ‘railroad romance’ and ‘glamour of the Steam Age’ without mentioning in any detail the progression of locomotive engineering itself. 38 The terminology used by Loewy reminds us of his previous background in

35 Loewy, R. Industrial Design. Woodstock: Overlook, 1979. p.90. Print.36 Sandler, M.W. Riding the Rails in the USA: Trains in American Life. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. p.50-51. Print.37 The streamlined locomotives that were being produced were commonly known as ‘Streamliners’38 Jodard, P. 1992. p.17-19. Print

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advertising illustration and the marketing ethic he had adopted. Some felt that Loewy and his contemporaries were more concerned with making sure the product looked appropriate for the marketplace, rather than issues involving the technology of the product. On the other hand, it cannot be forgotten that Loewy helped to create the iconic image - and was a prime example himself - of living the American Dream.

Loewy had shown that if you - as a designer- have a vision, clients were ready to pay for it. LIFE magazine reported how the increase of consumer demand in 1948 had been the ‘highest ever before in the history of the nation’, with consumers spending a collective total of $126.3 billion.39 This was largely due to the fact that Loewy and other designers at the time were able to work through the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the resulting Great Depression by offering their services during and after the Second World War (1939-1945). At this time unemployment fell due to the rise of military production. But in order to provide the labour and manufacturing

39 Kobler, J. 1949. p.111. Print.

Fig.11.

Illustration of Loewy driving in a

1950 Studebaker Commander,

alongside his other design, the 1942

T1 Steam Powered Locomotive

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facilities required for the war-years, the production of consumer goods decreased.40 Once the Second World War had ended, American troops returned with their war-time savings to settle down in a normal life once again. The accumulated wealth of the war years for many of the troops and their families encouraged the buying of new houses, cars, and household appliances. Mass production was once again the focus to insert design into everyday life and encourage people to spend.

Note: The work of Loewy so far examined was all accomplished before the formation of his international design consultancy, Loewy and Associates (1944).41 The formation of the consultancy inevitably enabled Loewy to increase his workload and impact on industrial design - as if he hadn’t contributed enough already.

Whilst consulting for the independent American motor company Studebaker, the idea of post-war America had already inspired Loewy to question what sort of car people would buy after the war. Due to measures put into place by the War Production Board, materials essential to the demand of military use were regulated and controlled.42 The largest car manufacturers with in-house design teams were ordered to cease any new vehicle developments. This meant that the market leaders such as Ford, General Motors and Chrysler, were not able to develop new models. However the 40 Schönberger, et al. 1990. Chronology, Politics and the Economy. p.244-245. Print.41 Ellis, D, G Combs, et al. 1995. Web.42 ‘War Production Board.’ Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House. Web. [Last accessed] 17 Apr. 2013. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/war production board>.

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regulation did not apply to the sneaky Frenchman and Studebaker. When Loewy first agreed to consult for the company in 1938, he worked from an office inside the factory that was recorded under Loewy and Associates, not Studebaker. 43 This enabled Loewy to develop car models for post-war America, without any competition from the market leaders. A year after the Second World War had ended, Loewy and Associates - the streamlining stylists - and Studebaker released the 1947 Champion (fig.12).

43 Jodard, P. 1992. p.80. Print

Fig.12.

Studebaker Champion

Model, advertised with the phrase

‘Studebaker — First by far with a post-

war car’, 1947

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Loewy’s years at Studebaker created an iconic visual identity to stand out in the automobile industry. Following the Champion, Studebaker released the radical design of the ‘bullet nose’ hood presented through the 1950 models (fig.13). The new symbolically determined aesthetic gave the consumer a sense of performance and luxury, along with speed from its aircraft characteristics.

Fig.13.

Studebaker Champion Regal Starlight Coupe, 1951

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Style enabled Studebaker a temporary advantage in the automotive industry. But it did not take long for the competition of Ford, General Motors and Chrysler to catch up. Without the market advantage held during the war, style could not save the company any longer. In 1966, the last car rolled off the production line in Hamilton, Ontario.44 The decline in the American motor vehicle industry was highlighted by Papanek in the Design for the Real World chapter entitled, Design Responsibility: Five Myths and Six Directions. In this section Papanek presents the reader with the idea that most industrial design philosophies are derived from five myths that are:

1. The Myth of Mass Production

2. The Myth of Obsolescence

3. The Myth of the People’s ‘Wants’

4. The Myth of the Designer’s lack of Control

5. And The Myth That Quality No Longer Counts 45

Under the third; The Myth of People’s ‘Wants’, Papanek describes how the style obsessed car manufacturers in the United States were partly to blame for the for their own demise. Whilst the European and Japanese manufacturers provided consumers with practical compact cars, more relevant to the current society and

44 Van De Weille, Andrew. ‘History.’ Studebaker National Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 1st Feb 2013. <http://www.studebakermuseum.org/p/about/history>.45 Papanek, V. 1985. Chapter 9. Design Responsibility: Five Myths and Six Directions. p.230-234. Print.

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economy, American sales figures for ‘The Big Three’46 suffered heavily from foreign imports.

This in turn has had a growing negative effect on the United States economy and employment levels, thus highlighting designs involvement in unsustainable development. By considering the aftermath when a company or system fails, Papanek demonstrates the complications of irresponsible practice in design. Rather than just remaining as the form giver for consumables, a new understanding of how design could benefit society would follow.

46 Jodard, P. 1992. p.82. Print. ‘The Big Three’ was a term used to describe the three largest Automobile Manufacturers, which where; Ford, General Motors and Chrysler.

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The Decline of Detroit

When industry fails

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Fig.14.

City-life, Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Michigan, c.1917

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Detroit, Michigan was once one of the wealthiest cities in America due to its role in the Automotive industry. Between 1900 and 1930, the city experienced rapid growth in population size, increasing from 305,000 to 1,837,000 people.47 The growth was largely dependent on the concentrated Automobile industry operating in the city and surrounding areas, which included ‘The Big Three’; Ford, GM and Chrysler. When the demand for small cars hit America, companies were reluctant to develop new models at first. Ford finally bit the bullet and entered the new compact class with the first Mustang in 1964. It was reported how the company invested $40 million into the three year development and tooling required to get the model to showroom.48 With such high investment involved, it is clear to see the risks and problems involved with designing for consumer trends which are subject to change.

By being slow to react to the alteration in consumer demand, the Detroit Automobile firms began to lose money and become unstable. The economic and social decline of Detroit can be demonstrated in the following paragraph from a 1961 Time Magazine Article.

‘In the face of growing foreign and domestic competition, auto companies merged, or quit, or moved out of town to get closer to markets. Automation began replacing workers in the plants that remained. In the past seven years, Chrysler, the city’s biggest employer, has dropped from 130,000 to 50,000 workers. At the depth of the 1958 recession, 20% of the city’s work force

47 Klepper, S. “The Evolution of the U.S Automobile Industry and Detroit as its Capital.” (2001): p.1. Print.48 White, L.J. “The American Automobile Industry and the Small Car, 1945-70.” Journal of Industrial Economics. Vol.20.No.2 (1972): p.179. Print.

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was unemployed.”49

The over reliance on one industry left too much of the population unemployed. The consequences of such large companies decreasing had a domino effect on the other industries supplying them. John Thackara, design expert and writer,50 states how the move to automation in any industry ‘obviously eliminates manual and skilled jobs’.51 Unfortunately this has become the harsh reality of industrial progression, the logic used to help create such a city had also helped to destroy it. Today Detroit serves as a popular subject among photographers, who try to capture the decay, or in some cases beauty, portrayed in the history of the once great city.

French photographers Yves Marchand and Romain Meffre’s exhibition entitled; The Ruins of Detroit was compiled as part of a five year collaboration which started in 2005. After witnessing the abandoned ruins of the city Marchand recalls how ‘It seems like Detroit has just been left to die’.52

49 ”Michigan: Decline in Detroit.” Time Magazine. Vol.LXXVIII.NO.17 (1961): n. page. Web. [Last accessed]24th Feb. 2013. 50 Profile: For thirty years John Thackara has traveled the world in his search of stories about the practical steps taken by communities to realize a sustainable future. His research and ideas are shared through a number of design blogs (see www.doorsofperception.com) and his publications, ‘In the Bubble: Designing In A Complex World, 2005’ and ‘Design After Modernism: Beyond the Object, 1988’. Thackara, J. “Work with John Thackara.” Doors of Perception. Doors of Perception 1993-2011. Web. [Last accessed] 2nd Apr 2013.51 Thackara, J. Design After Modernism: Beyond the Object. London: Thames and Hudson, 1988. p.27. Print.52 O’Hagan, S. “Detroit in ruins: the photographs of Yves Marchand and Romain Meffre.” Guardian 2nd Jan 2011, The Observer: Art and Design n. pag. Web. [Last accessed] 20th Feb. 2013.

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Fig.15.

The Packard Motors Plant, Detroit, 2006

Fig.16.

The Fisher Body Plant Interior, 2006

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Fig.17.

Michigan Central Station,

c.1920

Opening in 1913, Michigan Central Station stood to be one of Detroit’s finest public buildings.53 The station was designed with the consult of two architect firms, Reed and Stern in conjunction with Warren and Wetmore, who had previously both worked together for the design of New York City’s iconic Grand Central Station.54 Fashioned in the Beaux-Arts Classical style of architecture, the 500,000 square-foot building included marble walls, vaulted ceilings and doric columns (fig.18 and fig.19). The extravagance of the project cost upto nearly $15 million at the time it was built. Rail companies were prepared to invest heavily into the design of their systems - just like the case of Loewy.55

53 Gray, S. “Detroit: 10 Things to Do (2. Michigan Central Station).” Time Magazine. Travel (2010): n. page. Print.54 “Grand Central Terminal History.” Grand Central Terminal. New York City. Web. [Last accessed] 28th Feb 2013. <http://www.grandcentralterminal.com/55 Austin, D. “Michigan Central Station.” Historic Detroit. N.p., n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 28th Feb 2013

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Fig.18.

Main foyer capturing the grand Chandelier, marble walls and collumns, c.1920

Station Ticket Office, now a creative environment

for the Graffiti artist

Fig.19.

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Michigan Central Station closed in 1988.56 After the Second World War ended, the station’s customer numbers largely decreased. Heavily responsible for the decline of the rail industry, were the automobile manufacturers providing private transport for the masses, along with new post-war models, such as those designed by Raymond Loewy.

Understandably the concentrated automotive industry would benefit from the station. All of the raw materials required for automobile production were transported by either rail or boat from the surrounding areas. But when the automotive industry crumbled under the competition from foreign imports, this in-turn further decreased the demand for Michigan Central Station.

In 2009 there were plans to demolish the building,57 however; students, businesses, organizations, residents and politicians joined forces to start the Save Michigan Central Project.58 The building was protected by the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. The purpose of the act is the preservation of irreplaceable heritage which is in the publics interest. This can apply to properties which demonstrate cultural, educational, aesthetic, inspirational, sustainable and economic benefits for future generations of Americans.59

56 Austin, D. “Michigan Central Station.” Historic Detroit. N.p., n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 28th Feb 201357 Gray, S. “Detroit: 10 Things to Do (2. Michigan Central Station).” Time Magazine. Travel (2010): n. page. Print.58 Mohyi, J. Save Michigan Central. Michigan Central Station Preservation Society, n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 25th Feb 2013.59 United States. Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, As amended through 2006 [With annotations]. 2009. Web. <http://www.achp.gov/docs/nhpa 2008-final.pdf>.

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Fig.20.

Fabian Theatre, Detroit

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Michigan Central Station is just one of many examples in Detroit. The abundance of abandoned properties include theatres, hotels and public buildings, which are historical landmarks and seem disconnected from our modern life. However recently built school buildings, apartments and even whole streets lie empty, highlighting the failure of modern life.

But throughout the abandonment and decay, life can still be witnessed to inhabit such an area.

As opposed to Marchand and Meffre’s portrayal of an apocalyptic ruin, Chilean born sociologist and photographer, Camilo Jose Vergara is more fascinated by the people who stayed in Detroit and the new influx of another generation.60 Discussing his exhibition; Detroit Is No Dry Bones, Vergara describes the movement of artists and other creatives, who are inspired by the dramatic landscape and cheap rent. The abandoned spaces serve as ‘sites of creative rebirth’, some of which are galleries of graffiti.61

Vergara has photographed urban America for more than four decades, primarily focussing on the rust belt cities of the Midwest, he visits key areas of interest and returns to the same spot years later. From doing this Vergara has documented the dramatic and positive changes in Detroit over the last 25 years.62

60 Vergara, C.J. “Camilo Jose Vergara: Tracking Time.” Camilo Jose Vergara. N.p.. Web. [Last accessed] 28th Feb 2013.61 Green, J. “Detroit is not a ruin.” The Dirt, Uniting the built and natural environments. American Society of Landscape Architects, 09 Jan 2013. Web. [Last accessed] 18th Feb 2013.62 Unspecified, Author. “Derelict Detroit: Gloomy pictures chart the 25-year decline of America.” Daily Mail [Detroit] 2nd Oct 2012, Online n. pag. Web. [Last accessed] 1st Mar. 2013.

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It can be hard to not see past the social problems that Detroit has had to face in the past and the present. The 12th Street riots in 1967, lasted for 4 days. It highlighted the tension caused from inequality between the white and black communities. Whilst an increasing number of white residents moved out of the city into the suburbs, the governments interest and businesses moved with them. The demographic change, along with political exclusion, the lack of educational resources and under representation of the African American community all created a purpose for the riots.63 The tension is still around today, mostly related to gang violence and drug crime. Forbes magazine reported how ‘Detroit Tops The 2012 List Of America’s Most Dangerous Cities’, in 2012. This was the fourth consecutive year that Detroit had been given the title.64

But amongst the worst conditions, residents have continued to stay, some may have not had another option, however the community has shown that it can carry on surviving after a failed system (fig.21).

63 Rucker, W.C, and J.N Upton. Encyclopedia of American Race Riots: A - M. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. p.166. Print.64 Fisher, D. “Detroit Tops The 2012 List Of America’s Most Dangerous Cities.” Forbes Magazine. October (2012): n. page. Web. [Last accessed] 18th Mar. 2013.

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Fig.21.

‘Rural life in the city’

An empty patch of land being used as a city farm, Rosa Parks Boulevard,1987

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‘Detroit was viewed as a warning of things to come, a modern-day Necropolis or city of the dead’65

Some views generated from publications concerning Detroit’s decline are rather negative. On the other hand, we can learn from the past and present inhabitants who have proven so resilient. Urban farming has long been an activity in Detroit and it continues to make an even more valuable, social presence today. Reported in 2011 by the Guardian;

‘The wide open spaces now prevalent throughout Detroit have given residents an opportunity to reconnect with their food. With supermarkets almost non-existent and drugstores selling mostly processed food (or fresh food imported from South America), civil organizations such as Earthworks are teaching local people everything about growing fruits and vegetables, including planting, harvesting, composting and canning.’66

This project run by the organization, Earthworks, is just one of many. The influx of young entrepreneurs to Detroit are responsible for buying up the abandoned residential properties in the pursuit to create sustainable business solutions for the area. Alternative energy has also helped to revive Detroit. Many neighbourhoods remain disconnected from the grid so buyers have fitted solar panels and micro wind-turbines for sustainable energy.

65 Green, J. “Detroit is not a ruin.” The Dirt, Uniting the built and natural environments. American Society of Landscape Architects, 09 Jan 2013. Web. [Last accessed] 18th Feb 2013.66 Kaye, L. “Detroit: rejuvenation through urban farms, sustainable living and innovation.” Guardian 1st Nov 2011, Guardian Sustainable Business Blog n. pag. Web. [Last accessed] 3rd Mar. 2013.

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The transition towards a greener city has helped to create jobs and improve the area. John Hantz, originally from Detroit and founder of the Hantz Group67 believes that urban farming can provide a responsible solution to save the economy.68

‘We want to demonstrate that innovation based on metropolitan food production can create new businesses and jobs’

- Detroit Mayor, Dave Bing69

Hantz Farms, with the backing of local officials have already secured areas within the city to plant a mixture of hardwood trees. To test the idea, 120 oak trees were planted in a vacant declining area. Hantz Farms cleared the dumped rubbish, which included 430 tyres before preparing the area for planting. The first notable change was that people stopped dumping rubbish. As the project continued, residents were happy to help look after the area, they also felt safer when walking their children to school.70

Mike Score, President of Hantz Farms states that the

67 “About Hantz Group.” HantzGroup, Inc. is the parent corporation to a number of wholly or partially owned subsidiary companies, including but not limited to; Finance, Taxes, Insurance, Benefits, Software, Sports & Entertainment, Racing. (see)Hantz Group. N.p., n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 5th Mar 2013. <http://www.hantzgroup.com/>.68 Kaye, L. “Detroit: rejuvenation through urban farms, sustainable living and innovation.” Guardian 1st Nov 2011, 69 Dolan, M. “New Detroit Farm Plan Taking Root: Entrepreneur Envisions Growing Trees on City’s Blighted East Side, Returning Thousand of Vacant Lots to Tax Rolls.” Wall Street Journal. Europe Edition.6th Jul (2012): n. page. Print.70 WXYZ-TV, Detroit. Hantz Woodlands. 2012. Video. Youtube, Detroit. Web. [Last accessed] 5th Mar 2013.

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main purpose is to replace ‘blight with beauty’.71 By doing so the area becomes more attractive for investments, people have an opportunity for jobs and it helps the government stabilise its debt. Hantz Group generates enough revenue to fund the whole operation, furthermore the land they acquire becomes a mutual benefit for all participants. Where previously the government would be losing maintenance costs on the vacant properties, Hantz Group pays the property tax for the land. Hantz Farms plan to create areas for food production, so that the food can be harvested and provided to local businesses and restaurants. Yet this is still under development after concerns of how safe the soil would be for crop production and whether it would attract pests. Hantz Farms have shown how to improve the quality of life in Detroit and demonstrate the importance of supplying communities with what they actually need. This also emphasizes the non-reliance on consumption and more the reliance on society and actively participating.

The positive changes that are being applied to Detroit are only possible from the following factors:

- Participation and collaboration,

- Support from Organizations,

- Ethical Investments,

- and Long-term strategies.

These factors can be applied to design solutions more responsibly.

71 ecojaunt, . Hantz Farms: Detroit’s Saving Grace. 2012. Video. Youtube, Detroit. Web. [Last accessed] 5th Mar 2013.

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Responsible Directions for Responsible Solutions

Socially Responsible Design

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Fig.22.

Streamlined Pencil

Sharpener, 1935

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Victor Papanek wanted to encourage new thinking and design that had a greater impact with-in society, as opposed to design for consumption that could not solve problems without creating them.

‘Driving all these dollars to market are many stimuli, which have nothing to do with pure need: the constant American urge to replace, the psychological compulsion to keep up with the other fellow’s new car and radio, the endless blandishments of salesmanship.’72

Consumer design in the United States had lost connection with the ideals of modern theory. The machine aesthetic itself, which began as a philosophy of design became a marketing device and encouraged the production of needless, over-designed objects. To prove that Loewy was guilty just observe his streamlined pencil sharpener (fig.22). The aerodynamic form may have had a purpose for the design of transport, such as Loewy locomotives, but does not correspond to the function of the sharpener. Sparke describes the American nature with; ‘styling follows sales’ replacing the purist idea ‘form follows function’.73

72 Kobler, J. 1949. p.111. Print.73 Sparke, P. 1986. p.49. Print.

The Responsible

Designer

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Papanek’s ideas on styling are showcased in Design for the Real World;

‘As long as design concerns itself with confecting trivial ‘toys for adults’, killing machines with gleaming tailfins, and ‘sexed-up’ shrouds for typewriters, toasters, telephones, and computers, it has lost all reason to exist.’74

As a member of the Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA), which also included the style centric Raymond Loewy,75 such claims like those of Victor Papanek were quick to be rejected by the American design community. It was not too long before Papanek found himself expelled from the IDSA. This also led to his work being banned from an exhibition of American industrial design at the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. The Industrial Designers Society of America threatened to boycott the exhibition if any of Papanek’s work was included.76

Although the American Design Community was quick to disregard the bold statements portrayed in Design for the Real World, it was a monumental turning point in Papanek’s career. Against the background of the increasing global social and ecological crises of the 1960’s and 1970’s, Papanek radicalized himself and the role of design by showing how to shape the world responsibly.77 Furthermore, it can be said that his ideas are ever more relevant today, due to the present global challenges we are faced with.

74 Papanek, V. 1985. Preface to the First Edition p.x. Print.75 Sacchetti, V. 2012. p.60. Print.76 Papanek, V. 1985. Preface to the First Edition p.xvi. Print.77 Fineder, M, and T Geisler. ‘Design Clinic: can design heal the world? Scrutinising Victor Papanek’s impact on today’s design agenda’ n. Page. (2010). Print.

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Since its release in 1971, Design for the Real World has managed to inform generations of designers for more than forty years. The fact that it has proven so resilient, indicates the growing movement and interest towards socially responsible design and anti-consumerist values. This can also be speculated from the formation and support of Non-Governmental Organizations such as Greenpeace, founded in 1971.78 But if we were to consider design activism, there have been a number of publications released suggesting alternative and subversive ideas for design to be more directly linked to society and culture. Many of these publications that have emerged after Design for the Real World, provide evidence that an alternative to design for consumption is possible. However, Margolin argues that these types of project have not had any lasting impact.

‘Compared to the “market model,” there has been little theorizing about a model of product design for social need. Theory about design for the market is extremely well developed. It cuts across many fields from design methods to management studies and the semiotics of marketing. The rich and vast literature of market design has contributed to its continued success’79

However, could this possibly just be down to the fact 78 “Greenpeace in the 1970s: The founding of Greenpeace; our first campaigns; the birth of Greenpeace UK; the growing of our fleet of vessels; and the formation of Greenpeace International..” Greenpeace. N.p.. Web. [Last accessed] 12th Mar 2013. <http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/>. About: A group of anti-war protesters chose to take non-violent direct action against US nuclear weapons testing on Amchitka Island, Alaska. They sailed a fishing vessel which was renamed Greenpeace into the restricted zone. Greenpeace campaigners grew in number around the world, however it was not until 1979 when Greenpeace International was formed.79 Margolin, V, and S Margolin. “A “Social Model” of Design: Issues of Practice and Research.” Design Issues. Vol:18.No:4 (2002): 24. Print.

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that these types of project are not in the mainstream? When design for market has proven so dominant, what have other designers learnt in order to move towards social design?

To understand the model of social practice within design, we can focus on certain factors that are shared between the examples displayed in Design for the Real World and the emerging projects and organizations that work in the field of Design today. This in turn will help to provide a brief guide of how the designer can work responsibly for social gain, rather than working to meet the demands of consumption.

Fig.23.

Shell Logo, Raymond Loewy, 1967

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Fig.24.

Irresponsible clients

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Beyond the Tin Can Radio

1. Choice of clients and partnerships

Papanek’s involvement with UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) and WHO (World Health Organization), demonstrates a responsible choice of clients and partnerships. It should be important to be aware of a companies background and ethics when accepting a project so that you can determine the moral choice; design or not to design. This way it can be beneficial for all parties; the designer, the client and society.

The UNESCO technical experts’ programme enabled Papanek to travel widely, offering him the experiences and realisation of projects that would benefit people in need.80 One famous example of this type of design can be said to be Papanek’s Tin Can Radio. In the preface to the Second Edition of Design for the Real World, Papanek recalls how he was nick-named ‘the Garbage Can Designer’ by his contemporaries.81

The Tin Can Radio (fig.25) was designed from the United States Army providing the insight of problems with communication in poorly developed countries and remote villages. The people living in these areas rarely had access to education, news or communication.

80 Brawer, W. ‘Victor Papanek.’ Message to Yale University Faculty. 23 Jan 1998. E-mail.81 Papanek, V. 1985. Preface to the Second Edition p.xvi. Print.

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Fig.25.

Tin Can Radio, UNESCO, 1965

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Papanek worked with George Seegers, an engineering student to devise the electronics and build the first prototype. The result was a one transistor radio in a tin can which would require no batteries to function. The power for the device was created from burning wax, paper, or dried cow dung. From doing this the heat was converted into energy and the fuel could easily at no-cost be refilled.82 The radio wasn’t really given a form; but adopted one from the use of a tin can. The purpose of adopting a tin can for the casing of the electronics enabled the design to be suitable for small-scale production within a village community, using tools and materials which were already available. This type of production is better known as cottage-industry manufacture.83 The significance of the project can be understood when you consider the issues that the modern world has created. One example which the object highlights would be ‘those who can easily access information and those who cannot’.84

The realization of such issues leads to the importance of Design thinking as a tool for innovation. Design thinking can help lead to solving problems and driving societies forward positively. Papanek’s skill of Design thinking can be interpreted from the portion of a flow-chart (fig.26) he designed for a conference in Copenhagen, which was held by the Scandinavian Student Design

82 Papanek, V. 1985. p.224-225. Print. ‘Assuming that one person in each village listened to a ‘national broadcast’ for five minutes daily, the unit could be used for a year until the original paraffin wax was gone...the entire unit was made for just below 9 cents’(equivalent to 65 cents, 2013)83 ‘cottage industry.’ Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged. 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003. HarperCollins Publishers. Web.84 Fineder, M, and T Geisler. ‘Design Clinic: can design heal the world? Scrutinising Victor Papanek’s impact on today’s design agenda’ n. Page. (2010). Print.

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Fig.

26.

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Flow-chart cont...

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Organization.85 The flow chart demonstrates a broad holistic analysis, implying the need to consider all aspects involved environmentally, socially and culturally, in the pursuit for design responsibility.

2. Design Thinking

Design thinking has become a powerful tool which many designers are introduced to in education, often pushing design beyond the object. This approach has been embraced by the international design consultancy, IDEO.

‘Design thinking begins with the skills designers have learned over many decades in their quest to match human needs with available technical resources within the practical constraints of business. By integrating what is desirable from a human point of view with what is technologically feasible and economically viable, designers have been able to create the products we enjoy today. Design thinking takes the next step, which is to put these tools in the hands of people who may have never thought of themselves as designers and apply them to a vastly greater range of problems.’

- Tim Brown, president and CEO 86

Integrating designers at the forefront of organizations and including Design thinking at every stage of decision making can help define new alternatives and reinforce a companies identity within a competitive market. IDEO work in a range of different areas. From branding to digital experiences and medical products to financial

85 Papanek, V. 1985. p.312-316. Print.86 Brown, T. Change by Design: How design thinking transforms organizations and inspires innovation. 1st ed. New York: HarperCollins, 2009. p.4. Print.

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services. Developing design solutions with a human centered approach, IDEO believe that any organization who commits themselves to this practice will do ‘a better job of understanding its customers’ and ‘a better job of satisfying their needs’.87 Many design companies are working in conjunction with either organizations or people to meet their needs and sustain future success.

IDEO demonstrate, that by designing for people’s needs and applying design thinking to the process, innovative solutions can be accomplished. It should be recognised that this can apply to a struggling manufacturer in the developed world (see Saving Shimano),88 or a poor community in the developing world.

87 Brown, T. 2009. p.177. Print.88 Brown, T. 2009. p.14. Print. Saving Shimano: A leading Japanese manufacturer of bicycle components, was experiencing flattening growth in its traditional high-end road racing and mountain bike segments in the United States. The company had always relied on new technology to drive its growth. Collaboration with IDEO led to learn why 90 percent of American adults don’t ride bikes - despite the fact that 90 percent of them did when they were kids!...They discovered that nearly everyone they met had happy memories of being a kid on a bike but many are deterred by cycling today - by the retail experience; by the complexity and excessive cost of the bikes...and by the demands of maintaining a sophisticated machine that might be ridden on only weekends. Inspired by the old Schwinn coaster bikes, the concept of ‘coasting’ was developed. Coasting bikes were built more for pleasure than sport. Shimano incorporated sophisticated engineering with an automatic transmission that shifts the gears as the bicycle gains speed or slows. The human centered exploration led to a huge untapped market in cycling and encouraged major manufacturers to develop models using the innovative components from Shimano.

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Fig.27.

Women carrying water

by traditional means in

rajasthan, India

‘A good example of IDEO’s work that corresponds to the ideologies of Papanek would be The Ripple Effect.

The Ripple Effect, was a collaboration between IDEO and Acumen Fund. Acumen fund founded in 2001 by Jaqueline Novogratz, aims to provide investment to social enterprises in East Africa and South Asia who are committed to serving the poor in an ongoing and sustainable way.89 The project improves access to clean drinking water for the poor by influencing innovation amongst water providing companies.90

First beginning in India (Nov 2008 - Jun 2009)91 as a pilot scheme, workshops between the water providers and villagers were organised. IDEO encouraged Design thinking so that each group could try and develop innovations to suit their own contextual needs.

One of the pilot schemes, supported by the Jal Bhagirathi 89 Brown, T. 2009. p.213-215. Print.90 Smith, C.E. Why Design Now? National Design Triennial. Communication. New York: Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, Smithsonian Institution, 2010. p.137. Print.91 ‘Ripple Effect: Access to safe drinking water for Acumen Fund and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.’. IDEO, n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 22 Feb 2013.

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Foundation (JFB), based in Marwar, Western India, realised how ‘clean water’ was not seen as a priority. To create awareness they held street performances for communities and self-help groups. Introducing new systems means that you also need to change behaviours. But this can only be done by understanding a society and its values. For example, before, villagers’ employment opportunities, especially women, were limited by the time they spent travelling to collect water. Therefore many of the schemes incorporate women self-help groups to work in the distribution of clean water, they help to supply their community and in return earn a living, whilst any profits are used to further develop the schemes. Just from the JFB pilot alone, the amount of clean water available in the Marwar region increased from 2000 litres a day, to 12,000 litres.92

The best ideas were given the ‘Ripple Effect Award’ which led to the development of ethical, social, business propositions. This is where a lasting long term solution can be ensured. By implementing the systems required for branding, community outreach schemes, 92 The Ripple Effect in India, by IDEO and Acumen Fund. Vimeo, 2010. Film. [Last accessed] 22 Feb 2013. 

Fig.28.

A woman collecting water safely and distributing it with

a low-tech trolley

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Fig.29.

Water vessel designed in partner with the Naandi Foundation

production, transportation and distribution. The small-scale schemes become a sustainable business.93 The success of the pilot schemes in India enabled the same approach to replicated in Kenya.

93 Brown, T. Tim Brown urges designers to think big. 2009. Video. TED: Ideas worth spreading, London. Web. [Last accessed] 18th Apr 2013.

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What may seem as a simple solution, such as the street performances devised in India, offer the social and business structure required for growth. This in turn leads to product design concepts, such as the Aquaduct bike (fig.30), that may not currently be technologically or economically viable for a developing country, to one day seem accessible.

Although the Aquaduct bike will remain too expensive to produce for the developing world at this time, the importance of the prototype cannot be underestimated. The creators of Aquaduct highlight how the idea is a great start at demonstrating a concept and raising awareness around the issues of clean water in developing countries.94

94 Aquaduct. Blogspot, 22 Apr 2008. Web. [Last accessed] 14th Apr. 2013.

Fig.30.

Aquaduct Concept, IDEO

‘Pedal for clean water’

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Designed as an entry for the ‘Innovate or Die Pedal-Powered Machine Contest’ sponsored by Google and the bicycle manufacturer Specialized. Teams of designers were invited to develop; ‘a design that used bicycle technology to change the world’.95

The Aquaduct, a human powered tricycle designed to filter drinking water whilst riding, won first prize. The team responsible for the design identified two main challenges apparent in the developing world, both of which are illustrated in Papanek’s flow chart (fig.26), sanitation and transportation.96 Recorded by the World Health Organization, water related diseases that lead to gastrointestinal infections can kill around 2.2 million people globally each year. The majority of those that suffer are usually children in developing countries.97

Collecting water can often require a long journey on foot by the women of the village. The traditional carrying methods of balancing water jugs or pots on the head, also limit the amount a person can collect in one journey. The Aquaduct makes the task of collecting water more efficient and less of a physical strain. If the job can be more efficient, the person involved is able to have more time to earn an income, education, or take care of their family.

By raising awareness of important issues, through competitions, exhibitions, education and media, designers are responding to demonstrate design for real human need. Cynthia E. Smith coordinated Design for the

95 Brown, T. 2009. p.22. Print.96 Aquaduct. ‘Background info.’ The Aquaduct Team Blog. Blogspot, 22 Apr 2008. Web. [Last accessed] 14th Apr. 2013. <http://theaquaduct.blogspot.co.uk/>.97 World Health Organization. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. Geneva: , 2000. Print.

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other 90%, an exhibition and publication demonstrating the re-awakening of design. One project included, particularly relates to Papanek’s Tin Can Radio and can be said to build upon the same issue of ‘those who can easily access information and those who cannot’. But it also demonstrates the concerns that are involved with designing for the other 90 percent from a western perspective.

3. Appropriate Technology

The One Laptop Per Child project, or OLPC, was founded by Nicholas Negroponte in 2005.98 Based on the constructionist theories of learning, pioneered by Seymour Papert,99 OLPC sought to provide low-cost laptops to schools in poor countries, to be used as instruments for learning and enhancing creativity.

What became the $100 laptop, was designed by Yves Behar, the founder of the design consultancy Fuseproject.100

‘when Nicholas Negroponte came to us about two and a half years ago (2005), there were some clear ideas. He wanted to bring education and he wanted to bring technology, and those are pillars of his life, but also pillars of the mission of One Laptop per Child.’

98 Abell, J.C. “Hotspots and have-nots.” Reuters, UK Edition. 25th Jan (2013): n. page. Web. [Last accessed]15th Apr. 2013.99 Negroponte, N, and Y Behar. Interview by Cynthia E. Smith. “One Laptop Per Child.” Design for the Other 90%. Cooper-Hewitt, New York. 2007. p.41-45. Print.100 Founded in 1999 by Yves Behar, fuseproject develops cohesive brand + product experiences. With a focus on establishing new markets and disrupting old ones, our work takes a long-term strategic approach to developing and enhancing our clients’ business, with teams spanning brand & market strategy, identity & naming, packaging design, product development and communications design.

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Fig.31.

OLPC, low-cost laptops to enhance

the learning experiences in poor

countries

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- Yves Behar, Talk for TED101

New advances in technology were included in the design. Powerful WI-FI antennas, allowed the laptops to interact with each other over a mesh network. This meant that each laptop extended the WI-FI network required for children to connect to their friends, schools and the internet. The screen was also an innovation towards producing a cheaper display which could be angled and read in direct sunlight.102

‘all these great technologies really happened because of the passion and the OLPC people and the engineers. They fought the suppliers, they fought the manufacturers. I mean, they fought like animals for this to remain the way it is.’103

In order to keep the costs low, but still provide a design to a high standard, the laptop was only available through Government initiatives for developing countries.104 There was no profit involved, just the idea of eradicating the digital divide between developed and undeveloped nations.

However, the good intentions of OLPC have received some criticism from the amount of laptops actually bought by Government initiatives. The numbers were far less than the project had hoped. This was partly due to the rapid technological advancements in developed

101 Behar, Y. Designing objects that tell stories. 2008. Video. TED Talks: Ideas worth spreadingWeb. [Last accessed] 18th Apr 2013.102 Negroponte, N, and Y Behar. Interview by Cynthia E. Smith. 2007. p.43. Print.103 Behar, Y. 2008. Video.104 Reis, Dalcacio. Product Design in the Sustainable Era. Cologne: Taschen, 2010. p.58-61. Print.

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Fig.33.

OLPC XO Laptop, 2007

Fig.32.

OLPC Classroom, Kenya

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nations. In 2007, just two years after the OLPC XO was released, the Apple iPhone completely revolutionised the idea of mobile computing. Then there was the reliance on mass-production to keep the cost at $100 per unit. In order for this to be achieved, OLPC wanted the developing countries to order in groups of 1 million units.105 Yet this was an unrealistic demand, many of the developing countries could not afford to risk placing such a large order without testing the product, leading to the laptop costing more than $100 per unit.

Then there is the case of ‘one laptop per child’, the same laptop for all children. Mass production was not a responsible decision when considering the multitude of cultural values and societies that OLPC wanted to help. For example, a music suite which allowed the children to create their own songs, was unable to create music which matched the traditional sounds of Uruguay.106 Children were not able to customize the program to play music which they were more accustomed to hearing, therefore decreasing the creative output from the Child.

The OLPC project highlights the impact of applying western ideologies to developing nations. In order for schemes to be successful, cultural traditions and values need to be considered in the design for a product.

105 Warschauer, M, and M Ames. “Can One Laptop Per Child Save the World’s Poor?.” Journal of International Affairs. Vol:64.No:1 (2010): p.36. Print.106 McArthur, V. “Communication Technologies and Cultural Identity: A Critical Discussion of ICTs for Development” (paper presented at the IEEE Toronto International Conference: Science and Technology for Humanity, 2009): p.913. Print

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4. Designing for a Sustainable Future...will the future be sustainable?

‘[To the cultures of Asia and the continent of Africa] it is the Western impact which has stirred up the winds of change and set the processes of modernization in motion. Education brought not only the idea of equality but also another belief which we used to take for granted in the West—the idea of progress, the idea that science and technology can be used to better human conditions. In ancient society, men tended to believe themselves fortunate if tomorrow was not worse than today and anyway, there was little they could do about it.’ 107

The action of western designers implementing new systems and products in developing countries may have its benefits, but there are also negatives to consider. In order to be a socially responsible designer, sustainability should be part of our practice without a second thought. This does not imply to just focus on the end results of a product that could cause environmental harm, such as the exhaust fumes from a car, but to consider the impact of each stage in the design process.

‘Design is concerned with the development of products, tools, machines, artefacts and other devices, and this activity has a profound and direct influence on ecology.’108

Defined by Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan as ‘any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive

107 Ward, B. “The Unity of the Free World.” Lecture at State University of Iowa. 6th Apr 1961. Lecture.108 Papanek, V. The Green Imperative: Ecology and Ethics in Design and Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson, 1995. p.29. Print.

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impacts by integrating itself with living processes’,109 ecological design urges for responsible production. In his publication; The Green Imperative (1995), Papanek provides six areas that need to be addressed when designing for a sustainable future;

1. The choice of materials

2. The manufacturing process

3. Packaging the product

4. The finished product

5. Transporting the product

6. Waste 110

At the time it was a new idea, but each area provides the basis for a product life cycle assessment. Today the best example of this forming a philosophy within design, would be the values associated with Cradle to Cradle.

Recognised by Time Magazine as ‘Heroes of the Environment’,111 architect William McDonough and scientist Michael Braungart offered a new perspective for industry. Their publication; Cradle to Cradle: Re-making the way we make things, calls for all things that are manufactured, to be designed with the intention of eventually being recycled into another product, or to fully decompose back into the soil without leaving

109 Van der Ryn, S, and S Cowan. Ecological Design. Washington D.C: Island Press, 1996. p.18. Print110 Papanek, V. 1995. p.29-32. Print.111 Lacayo, R. “Heroes of the Environment: For 2007, TIME’s annual celebration of heroes spotlights the most innovative and influential protectors of the planet.” Time Magazine. 17th Oct (2007): n. page. Print.

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WARNING: This product contains chemicals known to the State of California to cause cancer, birth Defects or other reproductive harm

Fig.34.

Toxic Toys for Children, YAY!

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contaminants. The rubber duck (fig.34) is used by McDonough in a talk, to introduce why we need Cradle to Cradle.

‘This is a bird. What kind of culture would produce a product of this kind and then label it and sell it to children? I think we have a design problem.’112

Lead based paints and other chemical compounds used in the production of consumer items were highlighted by California’s Proposition 65. This Enforcement Act was intended to protect Californians from chemicals known to cause cancer, birth defects, or other reproductive harm.113 McDonough’s reference to the common children’s toy, highlights the more sinister realisation of mass produced items.

The ideas conveyed in Cradle to Cradle provide the strategies towards sustainable industrial production. The term ‘Waste Equals Food’ is used to describe the continuous loop cycle we should consider for the development of new products and systems. The Mirra Chair (fig.35) from Herman Miller, was designed according to the Cradle to Cradle protocol. It initially uses 33% of recycled materials and the end product is easily disassembled to be 97% recyclable.114 It also demonstrates that green design can be desirable and consumable, as opposed to Papanek’s disregard of style over necessity.

112 McDonough, W. “William McDonough: Cradle to cradle design.” TED: Ideas worth spreading. California, Monterey. Apr 2007. Lecture.113 “Cancer Warning Labels Based on California’s Proposition 65.” American Cancer Society. N.p., 22 Feb 2013. Web. [Last accessed] 19th Apr 2013.114 “Mirra Chair.” Herman Miller. Herman Miller, Inc, n.d. Web. [Last accessed] 19th Apr 2013.

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Fig.35.

Mirra Chair, Herman Miller

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The transition towards a sustainable movement within business and society is becoming clearer, but it has not achieved the dominance that modernism, or other movements imposed when applied to design. Although, the abundance of design projects, exhibitions, theory and publications available - Design for the Real World and Cradle to Cradle are perfect examples - provide a model towards responsible design.

‘It is innovation that accentuates the positive impacts; the cutting-edge products that encourage consumers to make climate-smart choices.’115

Currently it can be said that the sustainable agenda has been sidelined, due to the manufacture of objects shifting into the hands of the consumer. This can be justified from the 3D printing technologies and open-source data which is growing more widely available for the purpose of mini-desktop factories. But it is a questionable topic, providing consumers the option to print the consumables they require, can just lead to the accumulation of producing more ‘stuff’ to throw away.

Collectively, societies need to be focussed on minimising the environmental impact associated with the throw-away culture we have all grown accustomed to.

In an ideal world, Cradle to Cradle Certification would not just be an achievement for manufacturers but a requirement. The opportunities of providing access to education, health-care, transportation, energy, water, or sanitation in developing countries, can also help to change the way industrialised nations grow. But only time will tell if governments, industry and consumers are

115 Reis, Dalcacio. 2010. p.6. Print.

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ready for the new systems required.

Now, at a time when the economy and environment are still a great concern and continue to become unstable, designers need to carry on trying to change the behaviours of consumers and industry by leading them to new sustainable markets. It may seem an endless battle, whilst wars are being fought, nuclear weapons tested, oil being spilt, banks going bust. We - not just designers, but the population - are left to pick up the pieces.

These pressing issues have shown to have a direct impact within the creative industry. Anti-design, anti-consumerism, anti-government, have all been experienced and presented in the form of protest, graphic campaigns and violence. As an emerging designer, this report has shown the ways in which you can work responsibly and that is all we can do, until the acceptance of a sustainable era is felt within governments and industry, a sustainable revolution will continue to lead us there.

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87. Brown, T. 2009. p.14. Print. Saving Shimano: A leading Japanese manufacturer of bicycle components, was experiencing flattening growth in its traditional high-end road racing and mountain bike segments in the United States. The company had always relied on new technology to drive its growth. Collaboration with IDEO led to learn why 90 percent of American adults don’t ride bikes - despite the fact that 90 percent of them did when they were kids!...They discovered that nearly everyone they met had happy memories of being a kid on a bike but many are deterred by cycling today - by the retail experience; by the complexity and excessive cost of the bikes...and by the demands of maintaining a sophisticated machine that might be ridden on only weekends. Inspired by the old Schwinn

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99. Founded in 1999 by Yves Behar, fuseproject develops cohesive brand + product experiences. With a focus on establishing new markets and disrupting old ones, our work takes a long-term strategic approach to developing and enhancing our clients’ business, with teams spanning brand & market strategy, identity & naming, packaging design, product development and communications

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Fig.28. Woman collecting water safely and distributing it with a low-tech trolley. 2009. Photograph. IDEO. Web. [Last accessed] 21st Feb 2013. <http://www.ideo.com/work/ripple-effect-access-to-safe-drinking-water/>.

Fig.29. Naandi Foundation water vessel. 2009. Photograph. IDEO. Web. [Last accessed] 21st Feb 2013. <http://www.ideo.com/work/ripple-effect-access-to-safe-drinking-water/>.

Fig.30. Aquaduct concept vehicle for IDEO. 2008. Photograph. IDEOWeb. [Last accessed] 18th Feb 2013. <http://www.ideo.com/work/aquaduct/>.

Fig.31. Siddiqui, Danish. Harish, 11, a school boy uses a laptop provided under the “One Laptop Per Child’ project by a non-governmental organisation (NGO) as a calf stands next to him, on the eve of International Literacy Day at Khairat village, about 90 km (56 miles) from Mumbai September 7th 2010. International Literacy Day is celebrated each year on September 8th. 2013. Photograph. Reuters, Khairat village. Web. [Last accessed] 14th Apr 2013.

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Fig.35. Mirra Chair. 2004. Photograph. Herman MillerWeb. [Last accessed] 20th Apr 2013.