Dr Milan Zi Research 1

8/16/2019 Dr Milan Zi Research 1

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MZUMBE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

Research Methods i Socia! Scieces" Theor#$ Phi!oso%h#$ Methodo!o adO'ser(atio

Montanus C.Milanzi (PhD)

Milanzi, M.C. (first draft, do not quote; November, 2002 !e"ond draft #anuar$ 200%)

&a"ult$ of Publi" 'dministration and Manaement

P *o+ 2 Mzumbe, Uited Re%)'!ic o* Ta+aiael- 0/ 12 2; 03120/14mail- m"milanzi5hotmail."om

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

b7e"tives of the 8andboo9 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... v'"9no:ledements ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... viisdom ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... vii

Cha%ter Oehiesraditions ... ... ... ... ... %he &irst Philoso>h$- Positivism ... ... ... ... ... ... %he !hort 8istor$ of estern Philoso>h$ ... ... ... ... ... 30he !e"ond Philoso>h$- Phenomenolo$ ... ... ... ... ... 32

he Problems of !o"ial !"ien"es ... ... ... ... ... ... 3Des"ri>tion, 4+>lanation, Predi"tion and Control ... ... ... ... 36bservation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36'nal$sin Do"uments ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3's9in ?uestions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3/

Cha%ter T,o!tartin the =esear"h Pro"ess ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20


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!am>le =esear"h Pro>osals ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 63ose of the 'ssinment ... ... ... ... ... ... 1!"o>e of the as9 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... '>>roa"h and Methodolo$ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6or9 Plan ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Cha%ter Si-

Data abulation and Presentation ... ... ... ... ... ... %Classifi"ation of Data ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... %abulation of Data ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... /2Data Presentation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... /1

Cha%ter Se(eData 'nal$sis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... /6Measures of Central Balue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... /6

Cha%ter Ei&htrthoonalit$ in =esear"h ... ... ... ... ... ... ... /&our Meanins of rthoonalit$ ... ... ... ... ... ... /he Closure over bservations ... ... ... ... ... ... %1Com>utabilit$ or Measurement ... ... ... ... ... ... %Defensibilit$ aainst Balues ... ... ... ... ... ... 300

Cha%ter Nie=esear"h =e>ort ritin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 301!tud$ b7e"tives ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30

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=esear"h 8$>otheses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 306Data and $>es of Data Colle"ted ... ... ... ... ... ... 30Data Colle"tion Methods ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30Data 'nal$sis and retations ... ... ... ... ... ... 30/=esults ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30%Dis"ussion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33Con"lusions and =e"ommendations ... ... ... ... ... ... 33

ort on the !u>>ort to ender 4qualit$, 8uman =ihts, Demo"ra"$ andood overnan"e in ara:e Distri"t ... ... ... ... ... 36

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O'.ecti(es o* the /ad'oo0

3) o >rovide its readers :ith tools, 9no:lede, s9ills and e+>erien"es of "ondu"tin

resear"h;

2) o hel> resear"hers or the :ouldEbe resear"hers to avoid some of the >itfalls and time

:astin false trails that "an "onsume resear"herFs time;

1) o establish and institute ood resear"h habits and "ulture amon resear"hers and

:ouldEbe resear"hers;

) o ta9e readers of this handboo9 in the resear"h >ro"ess from the stae of sele"tin a

to>i" throuh to the >rodu"tion of the :ell >lanned, methodoloi"all$ sound and :ell

:ritten final re>ort (dissertationthesis) on time.

GGG

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AC1NO2LEDGEMENTS

< 9no: that man$ >eo>le have >arti"i>ated in one :a$ or another to fa"ilitatin this

tedious :or9 :hi"h < started some months ao. he tas9 involved a lot of readin,

thin9in and oranisin some information so that the intended audien"e "an be able to read

and ras> somethin from :hat < have :ritten. !>e"ial than9s must o to all members of

m$ famil$ :ho allo:ed me to :or9 and sta$ in a solitar$ manner in order to oranise this

:or9 :hi"h seemed to me :ill be of reat use to the intended audien"e. M$ :ife,

!"olasti"a; m$ "hildren, Nehemia, Patri"ia, erard and 'manda; m$ brothersF "hildren-

4d:in, 4dson, *asuta, #ames and *runo are >raised for $our utmost su>>ort and

en"ouraement iven to me durin the :ritin and readin of this ambitious tas9. M$ :ife

:as al:a$s able to understand the "ir"umstan"es :hi"h < fa"ed durin the >re>aration of

this :or9. !he 9e>t on en"ourain me, su>>ortin and even assisted in >roof readin of the earlier draft of the :or9. roud of her.

< have :ritten this >ie"e of :or9 to serve the s>e"ial audien"e namel$ those :ho are

determined to use resear"h as one of the s"ientifi" tools. < :ill be sorr$ if < have failed to

"a>ture the demands of m$ s>e"ial audien"e. < :ill sa$ hurrahH if the audien"e e+>e"tations

are met b$ this >ie"e of :or9.

ie"es of information to the audien"e.

unished, >raised and >rized for this :or9.

Montanus C.MilanziMzumbeTa+aia#anuar$ 200%

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2isdo3

'"ademi"ians have histori"all$ been >rime aents in the eneration of 9no:lede throuh

resear"h and its dissemination throuh >ubli"ation of results and throuh tea"hin.

@niversities and institutions of hiher learnin are "on"erned :ith the "ommuni"ation and

a""reditation of 9no:lede, throuh their edu"ational role.

Creatin usable 9no:lede is be"omin an in"reasinl$ im>ortant to>i" in so"ial s"ien"es.

8uman beins need more usable 9no:lede to hel> manae inter>ersonal, "ommunit$ and

oranisational affairs. !in"e the time of Ne:ton, it has been observed that s"ien"e has been

the >reEeminent :as in :hi"h human beins have enerated reliable and "umulative

9no:lede.

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C/APTER ONEINTRODUCTION TO RESEARC/

456 Itrod)ctio

his "ha>ter introdu"es resear"h as a tool used b$ s"ientists for riorous and s$stemati"

investiations in order to advan"e 9no:lede be$ond its frontier I be$ond :hat is "urrentl$9no:n. =esear"h s"ientists or anal$sts do not have unique a""ess to the nature of the >roblem,

nor does the >roblem have a iven, >reEdefined nature. =esear"h s"ientists anal$sts build

"reativit$ into the >ro"ess of inquir$ in order to reveal ho: situations ma$ be usefull$

understood b$ those involved :ith them. f "ourse, there are different :a$s that s"ientists "an

a""om>lish s"ientifi" endeavours. &or e+am>le, resear"hers :ho use realist oriented a>>roa"h

to the >ra"ti"e of s"ien"e :ould suest that theories >ut for:ard in the >ro"ess of inquir$ "an

be tested for their "loseness to truth. lies that truth is the a"tual relationshi>s that e+ist in

realit$. =esear"h usin this "on"e>tion rests on the deree to :hi"h >ro>ositions have

underone tests in the fa"e of "om>etin "laims. =esear"h fo"uses and determines the deree

of "ertaint$ :ith :hi"h 9no:lede about the :orld "an be made. &ou"ault (3%/0- 313) states

that Jtruth is the thin of this :orld- it is >rodu"ed onl$ b$ virtue of multi>le forms of

"onstraint ... 4a"h so"iet$ has its reime of truth, its eneral >oliti"s of truth- that is the t$>es

of dis"ourse :hi"h it a""e>ts and ma9es fun"tion as true; ...F

454 The Meai& o* Research

his question "an be diffi"ult to ans:er be"ause man$ resear"h s"ientists and >eo>le :ould

tend to ans:er it differentl$. 4ver$ >erson has hisher o:n biases based on the 9no:lede,

e+>eriential and value in"linations heshe has a"quired over some time >eriods. he des"ri>tion

or definition of a thin ob7e"t must be loo9ed at its "hara"teristi"s su"h as >h$si"al settin,

qualit$, an a"tivit$ and a relation. &or instan"e, bein three sided is a definin "hara"teristi" of

trianles, sin"e nothin :ould be a trianle unless it has three sides. >lied. resentation of a "om>lete "on"e>tion of a thin

:ithin its o:n limits. letel$. lies that a definition

omits none of the mar9s or sins of :hi"h it is "om>osed (ant, 3/3- 0/ E 0%). Definitions

are anal$ses of iven "on"e>tions and the$ are used for ma9in distin"tions.


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ne "an define resear"h as a fo"used and s$stemati" enquir$ that oes be$ond enerall$

available 9no:lede to a"quire s>e"ialised and detailed information, >rovidin a basis for

anal$sis and elu"idator$ "omment on the to>i" of enquir$. ae

31). rehendin it. remises that bear u>on the oal

souht (oontz, FDonnell and eihri"h, 3%/, >ae 3%3). =esear"h des"ribes a quest for

ne: s"ientifi" or enineerin 9no:lede. Che"9land and !"holes (3%%0, >ae 2%/) define

resear"h in a ver$ meta>hori" :a$- K... :henever a reasonabl$ so>histi"ated bod$ of 9no:lede

and asso"iated methodolo$ has been internalised , then an$ KuseF "an be des"ribed as

resear"h.F

'n$ definition-

a) Must >oint out the unique attributes or qualities of :hatever is defined. lies that it

must in"lude all "ases it "overs and e+"lude all "ases not "overed;

b) !hould not be "ir"ular. erational definition (*a9er, 3%//- 332)

he real definition is used to "a>ture the ultimate or essential nature of the a"tual

>henomenon in question. 'n e+am>le is a mathemati"s definition of a trianle as a threeE

sided fiure. ' nominal definition s>e"ifies the meanin and "om>onents of the term for the

>ur>oses of riorous >hiloso>hi"al inquir$. hirdl$, the o>erational definition, :hi"h loo9s

at the various dimensions of the >henomenon to be thorouhl$ defined. e"ifies :a$s of measurin the "on"e>t.

More generally research:

3. &inds somethin out;

2. Pro"ess of inquir$;

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1. '""elerates >ro"ess of understandin;

. erien"e; and

. ants to "reate 9no:lede E Kto 9no: somethin ...F

he above statements >oints are sub7e"t to man$ inter>retations, de>endin on the

>hiloso>hi"al, ethi"al and >oliti"al issues that are lo"ated in the ba"9round. hiloso>hi"al issues "an :e defend our results aainst the "riti"ism of othersL >l$in a frame:or9 to a domain su"h as em>iri"ism, s"ientifi" method and >o>ulationro:th.

a) Intrinsic Characteristics of Research

'n$ "hara"teristi" of resear"h "an be a definin one. li"ated form of investiation, stud$ or inquir$. and

9no:lede. istemoloi"al assum>tion that truth is not iven but that it "an be

dis"overed b$ dis"ursive re"onstru"tion (ant, 3/3; and Ae$desdorff, 3%%6- 2). here is a

fundamental shift in the :a$s 9no:lede is bein >rodu"ed these da$s. his affe"ts not onl$

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:hat 9no:lede is >rodu"ed but also ho: it is >rodu"ed (!tar9e$ and Madan, 2003; and

ibbons et al, 3%%). ibbons et al (3%%) tra"e the develo>ment of this ne: form of

9no:lede. his ne: form of 9no:lede :as "alled Mode 2 no:lede (M2). Mode 3

9no:lede (M3) is the one :hi"h :e traditionall$ >rodu"e as s"ientifi" a>>roa"h to

9no:lede "reation. ibbons et al (3%%- 1) further state that J... in Mode 3 >roblems are set

and solved in the "onte+t overned b$ the larel$ a"ademi" interests of a s>e"ifi" "ommunit$.

*$ "ontrast, Mode 2 9no:lede is transEdis"i>linar$. Mode 3 is "hara"terised b$ homoeneit$,

mode 2 b$ heteroeneit$. ... Mode 3 is hierar"hi"al and transient.F

he di"tionar$ meanin of resear"h states that resear"h is a "areful stud$ or investiation

"arried out in order to dis"over ne: fa"ts or information. < re>eat on"e aain-E =esear"h is a

fo"used and s$stemati" enquir$ that oes be$ond enerall$ available 9no:lede in order to

a"quire s>e"ialised and detailed information, >rovidin a basis for anal$sis and elu"idator$

"omment on the to>i" of enquir$. lained as an attem>t to ma9e 9no:n

somethin >reviousl$ not 9no:n to humans. li"ated

form of investiation. eo>le b$ the dis"over$ of non trivial fa"ts and insihts. roblems and to e+>and 9no:lede. ared to

s"ien"e.

b) Relational or Extrinsic Characteristics of Research

ne "an define resear"h in relation to other thins, :hi"h are not resear"h. hat distinuishes

resear"h from other forms of 9no:lede "reationL b7e"tFs use is defined to sho: relational

"hara"teristi"s >ro>erties rather than its a>>earan"e. 4lias (3%/) defines resear"h in relation

to its aims.


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=esear"h involves "larifi"ation of >roblems and sometimes solutions that are useful to >eo>le

and oranisations (#ozeni, 2002). ermits an administrator or a de"ision ma9er to be a:are of the a"tual state

of affairs on the round as other sour"es of information are s9im>$ or outriht unreliable (ibid,

2002). =esear"h involves an intera"tion bet:een the s"ientist and the ob7e"t of investiation,

and that :hat the s"ientist observes is dire"tl$ related to the nature of that intera"tion

(8eisenber, 3%6/).

!"ientifi" resear"h is the t$>e of resear"h that is "ondu"ted :ithin the rules and "onventions of

s"ien"e. lies that s"ientifi" resear"h is based on loi" and reason and the s$stemati"

e+amination of eviden"e. ossible for resear"h

to be re>li"ated b$ the same or different resear"hers and for similar "on"lusions to emere. i". eo>le and their so"ial

behaviour, and >eo>le are less >redi"table than non human >henomena (Beal, 3%%2).

457 Research as a S)%%ort F)ctio i Sciece

!"ien"e is hihl$ esteemed and it bears the mar9 of the eneral. !"ien"e fo"uses on some

as>e"ts of realit$, :hi"h means that one does not "onsider realit$ as a :hole :hen "ondu"tin

a s"ientifi" investiation. e"t of realit$ is isolated for "onsideration. here is an abundan"e of eviden"e from ever$da$

life that s"ien"e is held in hih reard, in s>ite of some disen"hantment :ith s"ien"e be"ause of

"onsequen"es for :hi"h some hold it res>onsible, su"h as h$droen bombs, >ollution and the

emeren"$ of 8


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De eeu: (3%%) sees s"ien"e as "hara"terised in a form of "olle"tive learnin, :hi"h fo"uses

on observation as its main vehi"le. !"ien"e has been develo>ed as an o>>osition and treatment

of the asso"iated diffi"ulties :ith the earlier forms of "olle"tive learnin namel$ the oral and

te+tual traditions, :hi"h "on"entrated on other forms of e+"hanes (that is, narrations and

s"ri>ts). !"ien"es are not united b$ their sub7e"t matter but rather b$ their methodolo$. '

s"ientifi" methodolo$ is a s$stem of e+>li"it rules and >ro"edures u>on :hi"h resear"h is

based and aainst :hi"h "laims for 9no:lede are evaluated.

!a$er (3%%2) outlines a number of e+>lanations reardin the im>ortan"e of s"ien"e in

9no:lede eneration- &irst, it is al:a$s assumed that 9no:lede is ained >urel$ throuh

"ontem>lation or observation of the :orld. 8o:ever, 9no:lede "an be a"quired in different

:a$s. hrouhout histor$, >eo>le have a"quired 9no:lede in a number of :a$s. he s"ientifi"

a>>roa"h is b$ no means the onl$ :a$ b$ :hi"h >eo>le have attem>ted to understand their

environment and themselves. hree eneral modes of a"quirin 9no:lede have served the

>ur>ose- the authoritarian mode, the mystical mode and the rationalistic mode (&ran9fortE

Na"hmias and Na"hmias, 3%%, >ae 1). Ma7or distin"tions amon these modes (able 3.3) lie

in the :a$ ea"h vests "redibilit$ in the sour"e or >rodu"er of 9no:lede, the >ro"edure b$

:hi"h 9no:lede is >rodu"ed and the effe"t of that 9no:lede.

his "ontem>lative vie: of 9no:lede does not sho: the relationshi> of 9no:lede to

>ra"ti"e, :hi"h ma$ be intera"tive rather than >assive and >urel$ refle"tive. tion is that 9no:lede "on"erns not onl$ `hat is the case! or

`"noing#that! but also `"noing#ho$! no:inEho: means to do somethin :hether it be

>h$si"al behaviour or "ommuni"atin su""essfull$ :ith others (!a$er, 3%%2, >ae 3).able 3.3

summarises different a>>roa"hes to 9no:lede a"quisition.


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able 3.3 '>>roa"hes to 9no:lede

%noledge&Mode 'uthoritarian Mystical Rationalistic

!our"e or >rodu"er of 9no:lede

?ualifiedindividuals so"iall$

or >oliti"all$defined su"h asreliious, triballeaders ands"ientists inte"hno"rati"so"ieties

'uthorities on thesu>ernatural and

"harismati" >o:erssu"h as >ro>hets,diviners andmediums. &orinstan"e, #esus :ithChristianit$ andMohammed :ithted from various literature

8uman beins >er"eive the :orld throuh the filter of E or usin the frame:or9 of E the ideas

alread$ >resent :ithin them, that is, internal to them E the sour"e of man$ of those ideas is the

>er"eived :orld outside. ant stated that human beins stru"ture the :orld b$ means of

alread$ >resent, innate ideas. he 9no:in ho: defines the set of dis>ositions su"h as

tenden"$, "a>a"it$, >ro>ensit$ and s9ills. e of 9no:lede :hi"h refers to the

>ersonFs 9no:in :hilst the 9no:inEthat refers to the t$>e of 9no:lede about the domain as


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the result of e+er"isin about 9no:inEho: (=$le, 3%%). @nderstandin is a >art of 9no:in

ho:. he 9no:lede that is required for understandin intellient >erforman"es of a s>e"ifi"

9ind is some deree of "om>eten"e in >erforman"es of that 9ind (=$le, 3%%, >ae 6). 'n

observer "an a>>re"iate the stu>idit$ or "leverness of "hess >la$ers onl$ if he 9no:s the ame

('r$ris, et al, 3%/6, >ae 26).

!e"ondl$, it is al:a$s assumed that :hat :e 9no: "an be redu"ed to :hat :e "an sa$ and

:rite. he tenden"$ and in"lination to >edestal s>o9en or :ritten forms of 9no:lede and to

imaine that these are the onl$ :a$s in :hi"h meanin "an be "ommuni"ated and 9no:lede

"an be "arried out is a mis"on"e>tion. e 9no: that mu"h of ever$da$ 9no:lede ta9es the

>ra"ti"al form. Not all so"ial behaviour is a"quired and mediated linuisti"all$, even in the form

of tal9 internalised in our heads (!a$er, 3%%2, >ae 36). =esear"hers "annot "ontinue to

maintain the status quo b$ des"ribin the :orld as it e+ists and not on "hanin it. here is no

need to sti"9 onto the defensive routines of the :orld :hi"h ma$ sometimes aim at >rote"tin

the interests of individuals and oranisations. he >ur>ose of s"ien"e is to des"ribe realit$

throuh the eneration of 9no:lede about "hane. hus it is im>ortant to understand the

:orld if :e :ant to "hane it.

he third mis"on"e>tion is that 9no:lede "an be safel$ rearded as a thin or >rodu"t, :hi"h"an be evaluated inde>endentl$ of an$ "onsideration of its >rodu"tion and use in so"ial a"tivit$.

here is a "ommon tenden"$ to thin9 of 9no:lede as a >rodu"t or thin :hi"h e+ists outside

of us, :hi"h :e "an >osses and :hi"h is stored in finished form in our heads or in libraries. e

tend to thin9 in terms of 9no:in, :hi"h is in the >ro"ess of be"omin, in solution, as

"ons"iousness but at a thin alread$ >re"i>itated. his seems to be a stati" vie: of 9no:lede

but it is ne"essar$ to "onsider the >rodu"tion of 9no:lede as a so"ial a"tivit$.

9no:lede :e need ra: materials and tools on :hi"h and :ith :hi"h :e

"an :or9. There are linguistic( conceptual and cultural as ell as material$ on other ra: materials.

&inall$, s"ien"e "an sim>l$ be assumed to be the hihest form of 9no:lede and that other

t$>es are dis>ensable or dis>la"eable b$ s"ien"e (!a$er, 3%%2, >ae 31). !"ientists normall$

assume that s"ien"e is the hihest form of 9no:lede to :hi"h all human beins should as>ire.

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he ultimate oal of so"ial s"ien"e is to >rodu"e a "umulative bod$ of verifiable 9no:lede.

!u"h 9no:lede :ould enable us to e+>lore, des"ribe, understand, e+>lain, >redi"t, "hane,

"om>are and evaluate some as>e"ts of the so"ial :orld (=efer to able 3.2).

Table $* The functions of the social en+uiry

!No Pur>ose of =esear"h 'ttem>ts

3 4+>lore o e+>lore the "on"e>t sin"e the >henomenon is not:ell understood and to inform further staes ofinvestiation.

2 Des"ribe o >rovide the "hara"teristi"s of the >henomenonunder investiation.

1 @nderstand o >rovide the reularities of the >henomenon underinvestiation.

4+>lain o >rovide the reularities of the >henomenon underinvestiation.

6 Chane rovide the reularities of the >henomenon under investiation and also to monitorthe ob7e"t under investiation.

Predi"t o determine and e+amine the >ossible out"omesunder >arti"ular "ir"umstan"es.

Com>are o dis"lose the similarities and differen"es of some >henomena

/ 4valuate o measure the im>a"t, a"hievement, >ro"ess and >roress.

!our"e- 'da>ted from N. *lai9ie, 3%%1. 'pproaches to ,ocial En+uiry( Cambride- Polit$Press; and No. is from P.C.Ndunuru, 3%%. Ae"ture Notes on =esear"h Methodolo$,hiloso>hies namel$ positivism and phenomenology. 4a"h of

these >ositions has to some e+tent been elevated into a stereot$>e, often b$ o>>osin side.

'lthouh it is no: >ossible to dra: u> "om>rehensive lists of assum>tions and methodoloi"al

im>li"ations asso"iated :ith ea"h >osition, it is not >ossible to identif$ an$ one >hiloso>her

:ho as"ribes to all as>e"ts of one >arti"ular vie: (=ead also *urrell and Moran, 3%%

frame:or9 "alled so"ioloi"al >aradims and the boo9 b$ homas uhn on ho: s"ientifi"

revolutions >roress over time. =efer to the 8andboo9 on ranisation heor$ b$ Milanzi,

M.C. 2003).

1.3.1 The First Philosophy: Positivism

%


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he 9e$ idea of >ositivism is that the so"ial :orld e+ists e+ternall$, and that its >ro>erties

should be measured throuh ob7e"tive methods, rather than bein inferred sub7e"tivel$ throuh

sensation, refle"tion or intuition. here are t:o 9e$ issues in >ositivism- &irst, realit$ is e+ternal

and ob7e"tive; and se"ond that 9no:lede is onl$ of sinifi"an"e if it is based on observations

of this e+ternal realit$. here are a number of im>li"ations in >ositivism as >ro>osed b$ a

number of >hiloso>hers in"ludin Comte (3/61) and *a"on-

i) enden"e- he observer is inde>endent of :hat is bein observed;

ii) Balue freedom- otheti"o E dedu"tive- !"ien"e >ro"eeds from the >ro"ess of h$>othesizin fundamental

la:s and then dedu"in the 9ind of observations that :ill demonstrate the 9ind of truth or

falsit$;

v) >erationalisation- Con"e>ts need to be o>erationalised in a :a$ :hi"h enables fa"ts to be

measured quantitativel$;

vi)=edu"tionism- Problems as a :hole are better understood if the$ are redu"ed into the

sim>lest >ossible elements;vii) eneralisation- les.

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E:AMPLEThe Short /istor# o* 2ester E%iste3o!o

A5 2ester E%iste3o!o

/th Century

T/E ARRIVAL OF POSITIVISM*a"on 320alileo 312Des"artes 31%8obbes 363!>inoza 31

Ne:ton 3/Ao"9e 3%0

0th CenturyAeibniz 330Bi"o 3268ume 3/ant 3/3&i"hte 3%/

1th Century8eel 3/0Mill 3/1Comte 3/61

!>en"er 3/1Ma"h 3//'venarius 3///

ANTI;POSITIVISMMar+ 3/Dilthe$ 3/undt 3/%*rentano 3//0=i"9ett 3//%Pareto 3/%0

#ames 3/%0!immel 3/%2indelband 3/%eber 3/%Dur9heim 3/%/

*2th CenturyMead 3%268usserl 3%13rams"i 3%128eideer 3%1

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ittenstein 3%22odel 3%13Carna> 3%18em>el 3%/

CONTEMPORARY CRITICSMalino:is9i 3%2&reud 3%118or9heimer 3%1!9inner 3%1/!"hutz 3%6Parsons 3%%ittenstein 3%61oulmin 3%61*lau 3%66Mar"use 3%66

Merton 3%6Polan$i 3%6/ Nael 3%3ouldner 3%2Po>>er 3%1adamer 3%6arfin9el 3%8esse 3%0uhn 3%0&ou"ault 3%08abermas 3%3

=adnitz9$ 3%1&a$erabend 3%6iddens 3%'>el 3%/0

Note-Oou should also read other "ontributions from a number of >hiloso>hers and so"ial s"ientistssu"h as 'rdorno, Au9a"s, 8eller, ?uine, Pavlov, Deleuze, *has9ar, *urrell and Moran,Derrida, A$otard, Mbiti, 8outond7i, Dismas Masolo, dera ru9a, !odi>o, Chur"hman,iredu, old !enhor, Pla"id em>les, '"9off, Casti, 4lias, Aa9atos,

*eer, Maturana and Barela, !>en"erE*ro:n.

1.3.2 The Second Philosophy: Phenomenology

eo>le. Phenomenolo$ tradition in"ludes inter>retive

so"iolo$, naturalisti" inquir$, qualitative methodolo$ and Kne: >aradim inquir$ (=eason and

=o:an, 3%/3 "ited in 4asterb$E!mith et al, 3%%3, >ae 2). 4a"h of these ta9es a slihtl$

different stan"e in the a>>li"ation of >henomenolo$ and in the features of >ositivism that it

finds most distasteful. Phenomenolo$ states that realit$ is so"iall$ "onstru"ted rather than

ob7e"tivel$ determined. he tas9 of the resear"her is to ather fa"ts and measure ho: often

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"ertain >atterns o""ur, but to a>>re"iate the different "onstru"tions and meanins that >eo>le

>la"e u>on their e+>erien"e. ' resear"her should tr$ to understand and e+>lain :h$ >eo>le

have different e+>erien"es, rather than sear"h for e+ternal "auses and fundamental la:s to

e+>lain their behaviour. 8uman a"tion arises from the sense that >eo>le ma9e of different

situations, rather than as a dire"t res>onse from e+ternal stimuli.

he term K>aradimF has be"ome >o>ularised over the re"ent $ears to e+>lain resear"h

traditions. homas uhn (3%2) :as the first >erson to use the term in earl$ 3%0s. he :ord

>aradim has been used in man$ different :a$s (Milanzi, 2003). Mintzber (3%/, >ae 16)

"ited in 4asterb$E!mith et al (3%%3, >ae 2) states that the term >aradim is too vaue to be

>inned do:n, and it >o>s ever$:here. Moran (3%%) "riti"ises MintzberFs KheadEinEtheEsandF

attitude to terms su"h as K>aradimF and he thus >ro>oses a :a$ of tid$in u> its usae.

Moran (3%%) distinuished three levels of use- the >hiloso>hi"al level :hi"h refle"ts basi"

beliefs about the :orld; the so"ial level, :hi"h >rovides uidelines about ho: a resear"her

should "ondu"t hisher endeavour; and the te"hni"al level :hi"h involves s>e"if$in the

methods and te"hniques :hi"h should ideall$ be ado>ted in "ondu"tin resear"h (able 3.1).

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able 3.1 e$ features of >ositivist and >henomenoloi"al >aradims

!N Aevel of @se Positivist >aradim(b7e"tivist)

Phenomenoloi"al >aradim (!ub7e"tivist)

3 Philoso>hi"al Aevel(*asi" beliefs)

E he :orld is e+ternaland ob7e"tiveE bserver isinde>endent

E !"ien"e is value free

E he :orld is so"iall$"onstru"ted andsub7e"tiveE bserver is >art of:hat observedE !"ien"e is driven b$human interests

2 !o"ial Aevel (=esear"her should)

E &o"us on fa"tsE Aoo9 for "ausalit$ andfundamental la:sE =edu"e >henomena tosim>lest elementsE &ormulate h$>othesesand then test them

E &o"us on meaninsE r$ to understand :hatis ha>>eninE Aoo9 at the totalit$ ofea"h situationE Develo> ideas throuhindu"tion from data

1 e"hni"al Aevel(Preferred methodsin"lude)

E >erationalisin"on"e>ts so that the$"an be measured

E a9in lare sam>les

E @sin multi>lemethods to establishdifferent vie:s of

>henomenaE !mall sam>lesinvestiated in de>th orover time

!our"e- M. 4asterb$E!mith et al. 3%%3. Management Research: 'n Introduction( Aondon-!ae, >ae 2

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45< The Pro'!e3s o* Socia! Scieces

he Problems of so"ial s"ien"e "an be summarised in able 3. belo:-

,.o 3oals of ,cience 4ractical Implications ,ocial ,cience 4roblems

3 Des"ri>tion Measurement le "hane

'mbiuous variables

2 4+>lanation re"ise

Cannot al:a$s seeintera"tion

1 Predi"tion eneralisation from onesettin to another

@niqueness, "om>le+it$and la"9 of "om>arabilit$

bet:een human >henomena.

Control Mani>ulation Moral and leal"onstraints

!our"e- '.8u"z$ns9i and D.*u"hanan, 3%%3. 5rganisational 6ehaviour: 'n IntroductoryText( Ne: Oor9- Prenti"e 8all, >ae 3

able 3.6 he main assum>tions about the nature of so"ial s"ien"es

'ssum>tions !ub7e"tive b7e"tiventoloi"al assum>tions =ealit$ is inter>reted b$ theindividual.=ealit$ is so"iall$ "reated.

=ealit$ is e+ternal to theindividual.=ealit$ is iven (=ealism).

4>istemoloi"alassum>tions

no:lede is relative.=esear"hers should fo"uson meanin and e+aminethe totalit$ of a situation(anti >ositivism).

=esear"hers should fo"uson em>iri"al eviden"e andh$>othesis testin, loo9infor fundamental la:s and"ausal relationshi>s(>ositivism).

'ssum>tions about human

nature

8umans >ossess free :ill

and have autonom$(voluntarism).

8umans are the >rodu"t of

their environments(determinism).

Methodoloi"alassum>tions

@nderstandin the :orld is best done b$ anal$sinsub7e"tive a""ounts of asituation or >henomena

>erationalisin andmeasurin "onstru"ts,alon :ith quantitativeanal$sis te"hniques andh$>otheses testin :illun"over universal la:s thate+>lain and overn realit$(nomotheti").

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!our"e- .oles and =.8irs"hheim, 2000. Jhe >aradim is dead, the >aradim is dead ... lonlive the >aradim- he lea"$ of *urrell and Moran,F International 7ournal of Management ,cience( 5mega( 2/, 2% E 2/, able 3, >ae 262

seated stru"tural "onfli"t

!o"ietal for"es u>hold the status quo !tru"tural "ontradi"tion

Descri%tio$ E-%!aatio$ Predictio ad Cotro!

here are three :a$s, :hi"h so"ial s"ien"es >rodu"e des"ri>tions of the >henomena the$ stud$.

a) bservation;

b) 's9in questions; and

") !tud$ine+aminin :ritten do"uments

Observation

bservation as a so"ial s"ien"e resear"h method is an e+tension of :hat ha>>ens in man$ other

areas of life, and it has develo>ed out of the attem>ts to be s$stemati" both in the :a$s >eo>le

ma9e and re"ord observations in ever$da$ life and in the :a$s >eo>le inter>ret those

observations. atterns, "ondom use amon unmarried :omen or universit$ students, leadershi> roles and

de"ision ma9in in small rou>s. le :a$ to "arr$ out so"ial resear"h. arti"i>ant observation- the resear"her is >h$si"all$ >resent but onl$ as a s>e"tator :ho

does not be"ome dire"tl$ involved in the a"tivities of the >eo>le :ho are bein studied; and

• Parti"i>ant observation- the resear"her ta9es >art in the a"tivities under investiation. &or

instan"e, the resear"her "ould be"ome a bus "ondu"tor in order to "he"9 the level of

"orru>tion the >oli"e offi"ers are >arti"i>atin.

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a) bservation is a >ro"ess of be"omin familiar :ith the s>e"ial features of the settin and

>o>ulation under investiation;

b) bservation is ne"essar$ to 9ee> a "he"9 on the >roress of :or9 on the qualit$ of

information bein "olle"ted;

Problems of Observation

a) Problems of stru"ture- !o"ial s"ientists need to stru"ture observations and re"ord them

a>>ro>riatel$. e "annot observe and re"ord ever$thin :e "an see or that ta9es >la"e in

the so"ial situation :e stud$. 8en"e, observation stru"ture de>ends on- i) :hether or not :e

have a "lear idea about :hat :e :ant to observe, b) :hether or not :e have "lear

e+>e"tations about :hat :ill ta9e >la"e, ") :hether or not :e have mu"h 9no:lede about

the >eo>le to be observed, and d) :hat 9ind of situations and events :e :ish to observe.

b) he Problem of retation- 8o: do :e inter>ret the >atterns of behaviour and so"ial

relationshi>s the observer observesL Do :e rel$ entirel$ on so"ial s"ientifi" "on"e>tsL r do

:e rel$ on our o:n "ultural ba"9round and e+>erien"eL o :hat e+tent should resear"hers

ta9e a""ount of the meanins and inter>retations of the >eo>le bein observedL 8en"e,

observation is al:a$s "on"erned :ith behaviour, :hi"h has both meaninful so"ial

im>ortan"e and an ob7e"tive >h$si"al im>ortan"e. ortant to the resear"her tounderstand the behaviour and so"ial relationshi>s of hisher res>ondents. he meanin and

so"ial im>ortan"e of observable behaviour "annot be dire"tl$ obtained from :hat is

observed. - bservation involves :at"hin >eo>le

and events. he >roblem is that the >resen"e of the observer ma$ "ause >eo>le to behave

unnaturall$. 8en"e, observers ma$ be observed and behaviours and events :e observe ma$

be a res>onse to our >resen"e. his >roblem is "alled Jobserver effe"t.F he solution is

throuh the installation of different t$>es of observation :hi"h address into the observer

effe"t differentl$- >arti"i>ant observation and non >arti"i>ant observation.

Analysing oc!ments

rodu"ed in a :ide variet$ of

forms :hi"h are never >ublished in 7ournals and boo9s. ranisations and institutions are

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essentiall$ ri"h sour"es of do"umentar$ eviden"e of this 9ind. 4+am>les of do"umentar$

eviden"e "ome from-

• Diaries

• Memoranda• 4qui>ment o>eratin manuals

• Produ"tivit$ anal$ses

• Com>an$ >oli"$ statements

• Aetters

• Committee minutes

• Customer or "lient re"ords

• Com>an$ a""ounts

• 'utobiora>hies

here are t:o main >rin"i>les in @sin Do"umentar$ !our"es

a) hether the$ are biased; and

b) hether the$ are adequate and suffi"ientl$ "om>rehensive for our >ur>oses.

!ometimes :riters are sim>l$ >re7udi"ed and do not >resent a :ell rounded >oint of vie:. his

"an be deliberate but it more often o""urs either be"ause all :riters are fallible and ma$ ma9e

mista9es of fa"t and 7udement, or be"ause the$ are in"om>etent in re>ortin and ma$ ive

a""ounts :hi"h are of >oor qualit$ even if not absolutel$ :ron; an$ do"ument ma$ be

misleadin for a "ombination of all these reasons.

?uestions to as9-

3) 're the assertions and inter>retations made b$ the author su>>orted b$ eviden"eL

2) ortin "onsistentL

1) Does the re>ort enable us to "he"9 on data used for ourselvesL

) 're there other sour"es available for "ross "he"9inL

6) ho and :hat is the :riterL

) hat are the "ir"umstan"es under :hi"h the re>ort or do"ument :as :ritten and to

:hom :as it addressed in the first instan"eL

) 're definition of terms and "ateories usefulL

Examples of Inconsistent 8ocuments:

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he 3% a""ounts on the overthro: of the !ultan of anzibar- his :as a ver$ im>ortant

>oliti"al event but ho: e+a"tl$ ha>>enedL e have t:o different initial sour"es on :hat

ha>>ened. ne >ublished in he Nationalist (Dar es !alaam) "laimin that the offi"ials of the

'fro !hirazi Part$ :ere res>onsible, and the other b$ #ohn 9ello :ho "laims that he and his

follo:ers :ere res>onsible. he t:o a""ounts are "learl$ in"onsistent and even "ontradi"tor$.

hi"h, if either, are :e to believeL

As"ing #!estions

here are t:o main :a$s in :hi"h res>ondents "an be as9ed questions in so"ial s"ien"e

resear"h- a) hrouh intervie:s b) hrouh questionnaires.

he "hoi"e of the method de>ends on the t$>e of data required to be "olle"ted.

Bi'!io&ra%h#

'r$ris, C, =.Putnam and D.M. !mith. 3%/6. 'ction ,cience( !an &ran"is"o- #osse$ E *assPublishers

*a9er, .A. 3%//. 8oing ,ocial Research( Ne: Oor9; M"ra:

*lai9ie, N. 3%%1. 'pproaches to ,ocial En+uiry( Cambride- Polit$ Press

4asterb$E!mith, M., hor>e, =. and Ao:e, '. 3%%3. Management Research: 'n Introduction,Aondon- !ae

&ran9fortENa"hmias, C. and D. Na"hmias, 3%%$ Research Methods in ,ocial ,ciences(Aondon- 'rnold

ibbons, M., Aimoes, A., No:otn$, 8., !"h:artman, !., !"ott, P. and ro:, M. 3%%. The .e 4roduction of %noledge: The 8ynamics of ,cience and Research in Contemporary,ocieties( Aondon- !ae

8ofstadter, D.=., 3%/. Metamagical Themas: 9uesting for the Essence of Mind and 4attern(

oronto- *antam *oo9s

8os>ers, #. 3%61. 'n Introduction to 4hilosophical 'nalysis( Aondon- =outlede

#ozeni, '. 2002. J=esear"h- >ortEbased fun"tionLF inancial Times(Dar es !alaam, ednesda$, 'uust 3 E 20, 2002, >ae /.

ant,


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Pons, B. (4d.). 3%%2. Introduction to ,ocial Research( Dar es !alaam- D@P

=omm, N. 2003. Considerin ur =es>onsibilities as !$stemi" hin9ers- ' rustinConstru"tivist 'rument, Research Memorandum .umber */( 8ull @niversit$, Centre for

!$stems !tudies

=$le, ., 3%%. The Concept of Mind( Ne: Oor9- *arnes Noble

!a$er, '. 3%%2. Method in ,ocial ,cience( Aondon- =outlede

!tar9e$, . and Madan, P. 2003. J*ridin the relevan"e a>- alinin sta9eholders in thefuture of manaement resear"h,F 6ritish 7ournal of Management( 47$ !1 E !2

sou9as, 8. and Pa>oulias, D. 3%%. JCreativit$ in M!=- &rom e"hnique to 4>istemolo$,F Interfaces( 7= (2), 1 E %

eeu:, de, . 3%%. !e"ond rder ranisational =esear"h,


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C/APTER T2OSTARTING T/E RESEARC/ PROCESS

756 Itrod)ctio

his "ha>ter >resents the >lannin of resear"h a"tivit$, the formulation of resear"h >ro>osals,

the relationshi> bet:een >oli"$, >lannin and manaement issues or >roblems, resear"h

>roblems and resear"h desin; and the resear"h tenderin >ro"ess.

Moran (3%/1) states that resear"h >ro"ess should involve a "hoi"e bet:een modes of

enaement, :hi"h entail different relationshi>s bet:een theor$ and method, "on"e>t and

ob7e"t, and the resear"her and the resear"hed, rather than sim>l$ a "hoi"e about method alone.

8e >ro>oses a loi" of different resear"h strateies de"oded throuh a s$stemati" anal$sis of

the modes of enaement. 8is frame:or9 "onstitutes three elements namel$ "onstitutiveassum>tions (>aradims), e>istemoloi"al stan"e (meta>hors), and favoured methodolo$

(>uzzle solvin).

&irst, >aradims >rovide a rationale for a >arti"ular resear"h strate$. he assum>tions are

rounded in a net:or9 of im>li"it or e+>li"it assum>tions reardin ontolo$ and human

nature and define the resear"herFs vie: of the so"ial :orld. !e"ond, the e>istemoloi"al stan"e

or meta>hors are de>i"ted in that ho: the s"ientifi" 9no:lede is sha>ed in an effort to

"on"retise the round assum>tions that under:rite resear"hersF :or9. istemoloi"al stan"e :hi"h suests that "ertain

understandin, insiht and e+>lanation ma$ be more a>>ro>riate than the others. hird, the

favoured methodolo$ in :hi"h the imae of a >henomenon to be investiated >rovides the

basis for detailed s"ientifi" resear"h "on"erned to e+amine, and >robabl$ to o>erationalise and

measure, the e+tent to :hi"h detailed as>e"ts of the imae "hara"terise the >henomenon. he

imae enerates s>e"ifi" "on"e>ts and methods of stud$ throuh :hi"h 9no:lede of the >henomenon "an be obtained. Methodoloies are >uzzle solvin tools that bride the a>

bet:een the imae of the >henomenon and the >henomenon itself. Methodoloies lin9 the

resear"her to the situation bein studied in terms of rules, >ro"edures, and eneral >roto"ol

that o>erationalise the net:or9 of assum>tions embodied in the resear"herFs >aradim and

favoured e>istemoloi"al stan"e (Moran, 3%/1- 23).

e have to em>hasise that understandin is ver$ im>ortant if :e :ant to enae in resear"h.

e need to have a >arti"ular frame:or9 in order to uide our understandin. he e+isten"e of

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different strateies for so"ial resear"h, dra:in from various round assum>tions, and

eneratin different 9inds of 9no:lede, >oses some >roblems reardin the :a$ :e should

vie: and evaluate the resear"h >ro"ess. he vie: of resear"h as a mode of enaement

em>hasises that resear"her and resear"hed must be seen as >art of a :hole and, therefore,

questions the idea that it is >ossible to stand outside the resear"h >ro"ess and evaluate it in an$

absolute :a$. 'nother alternative "alls for the need to e+>lore the resear"h diversit$ and its

"onsequen"es throuh the model based on the idea of refle"tive dis"ourse or "onversation.

he resear"h >ro"ess "an be divided into eiht main elements as sho:n in able 2.3 belo:.

able 2.3 4lements of the resear"h >ro"ess

E!e3et Re3ar0s!ele"t to>i" he to>i" "omes from different sour"es- >ersonal interest, the

literature, >oli"$manaement, so"ial fa"tors, >o>ularmedia.

=evie: Aiterature ro"ess of identif$in and enain :ith >reviousl$ >ublished resear"h relevant to the to>i" of interest.

Devi"e "on"e>tualframe:or9

he "on"e>tual frame:or9 indi"ates ho: the resear"her vie:s the"on"e>ts involved in the stud$.

De"ide resear"hquestions

he questions hel> to ans:er or identif$ the solution of theresear"h >roblem.

Aist informationneeds

=esear"h questions and the "on"e>tual frame:or9 ive rise to alist of information needs.

De"ide resear"hstrate$

rom>t the sele"tion of resear"h to>i"-

a) 4ersonal interest: the resear"her ma$ be >ersonall$ involved in a "ertain a"tivit$ of interest.

@sin su"h an interest as a fo"us for resear"h has advantaes and disadvantaes. he

advantae lies in the 9no:lede of the >henomenon, :hi"h the resear"her alread$ has, the

>ossibilit$ of a""ess to 9e$ individuals and further information, and the hih level of

motivation :hi"h is li9el$ to be brouht to the resear"h. he disadvantae is that the

resear"her ma$ be biased and not be able to vie: the situation as ob7e"tivel$ as someone

:ith no >rior interest or 9no:lede.

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b) The literature: iri"al testin-

• eora>hi"all$ it has been tested in Morooro not else:here in anzania, or it ma$ have

been develo>ed in relation to urban areas, but not in rural areas;

• !o"iall$- it is based on resear"h on men and inores :omen;

• em>orar$- it :as last tested 30 $ears ao and so ma$ be out of date, or it has not been

full$ investiated histori"all$;

• Conte+tuall$- it :as develo>ed in another area of human a"tivit$ but has never been a>>lied,

let sa$, to lo"al overnment authorities or e+e"utive aen"ies.

• Methodoloi"all$- it :as initiall$ based on qualitative data and has not been testedquantitativel$.

") Poli"$ or manaement- '"ademi" studies are "on"erned :ith methodolo$ as :ith

substantive findins of the resear"h. 8o:ever, >oli"$ and manaement issues "an be

identified as :ell.

d) !o"ial "on"ern- i"s.

e) Po>ular issue or media- lore >o>ular beliefs or

"on"e>tions, >arti"ularl$ :here it is sus>e"ted that these ma$ be ina""urate.

Note-

The Evaluation of the 4revious 'cademic ro>osal loo9 for a s$nthesised "oheren"e. his refers to a

>ossible ne: lin9s in the area of stud$ based on the 9e$ areas of the area to be studied to

suest undevelo>ed areas. &or instan"e, ho: does em>lo$ment >oli"$ in anzania su>>ort

staffin of em>lo$ees in non anzanian institutions su"h as MN4s. he se"ond t$>e of "oheren"e is >roressive "oheren"e in :hi"h $our >a>er should sho: ho: the net:or9s of

resear"hers or :riters evolve the sub7e"t over time and the last t$>e of "oheren"e is nonE

"oheren"e. roramme, but lin9ed b$ disareements.

&or instan"e, ho: does different :riters in industrial relations lin9 or disaree on the

relationshi> bet:een industrial relations >ra"ti"es of the host "ountr$ versus that of the MN4s,


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Che"9 for three 9e$ issues in $our >ro>osal that are ne"essar$ to be addressed. &irst,

in"om>leteness, that is, sear"h for literature :hi"h is unfinished, needs to be su>>lied to ne:

areas, and $our stud$ :ill su>>l$ it. !e"ond, the inadequa"$, b$ sho:in the >ers>e"tives

:hi"h "ould have been a>>lied to the >roblem but the >revious authors havenFt. hird, $ou "an

"laim that the e+istin literature overloo9s relevant >ers>e"tives and it is :ron or inadequate.

hat is, the question of in"ommensurabilit$.

The 4roposal Itself

Oour literature revie: should fo"us around the >roblem or question leadin to the reEstatement

of question. hen either >rovide the e+>lanation or 7ustifi"ation of method; >resentation and

dis"ussion of results. r >rovide the "lear derivation of >ro>ositions.

757 Re(ie, o* Literat)re

=evie:in literature on a to>i" "an be one of the most re:ardin and even frustratin resear"h

a"tivit$. lo$ed E in"ludin

>atien"e, >ersisten"e, insiht and lateral thin9in. es of literature revie:-

3) roa"h a ste> further b$ >rovidin a

"ommentar$ on the literature in terms of its "overae and its "ontribution to 9no:lede and

understandin of the to>i".

1) 4+>lorator$- ort of resear"h.

he follo:in are the roles of literature revie: in resear"h-

a) 4nter basis of the resear"h;

b) !our"e of ideas on to>i"s for resear"h;

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e) *asis of "om>arison;

f) >ortive >art of the resear"h.

here "an be an interim literature revie: :hi"h ha>>ens at the beinnin of the resear"h

>ro"ess. here is need also to e+>lore not onl$ >ublished materials or literature but also

un>ublished or onoin :or9.

758 De(ice Coce%t)a! Fra3e,or0

loration of relationshi>s bet:een "on"e>ts;

d) >erationalisation of "on"e>ts.

75< Decide Research >)estios

he >rimar$ and subsidiar$ questions should be identified. he resear"h question needs to

e+>ress the relationshi> bet:een variables or "on"e>ts.

75? List I*or3atio Needs=esear"h questions or h$>otheses and the "on"e>tual frame:or9 must ive rise to a list of

information needs.

75= Decide Research Strate


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he :ritin u> of the results of the stud$. tual frame:or9 are >art of the re>ort "ontent.

2.9 Dissemination of the findings

2


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75 Methodo!o&ica! A%%roaches" So3e Vie,s

!"ien"e has been larel$ "reated and >ra"tised in terms of one >arti"ular >s$"he. he alternative

>s$"holoi"al forms of s"ien"e based on alternative >s$"holoi"al st$les are >ossible (=eason,

3%/3- 1).

s$"he as a universal >henomenon that is ultimatel$ >art of a

trans"endental realit$ lin9in mind to mind and mind to nature (Moran, 3%/- 221). 8e tal9

about the ar"het$>es. hese are >atterns :hi"h stru"ture thouht and hen"e ive order to the

:orld. #unFs :or9 has ma7or im>li"ations for understandin ho: >eo>le ena"t oranisational

realit$ (Moran, 3%/- 22). #un en"ouraes us to understand the eneral relations bet:een

internal and e+ternal life and the role :hi"h ar"het$>es >la$ in sha>in our understandin of the

e+ternal :orld.

here are re>ressed human side of oranisation situatin beneath the surfa"e of formal

rationalit$. #un uses the term shado: to refer to unre"onised or un:anted drives and desires.

he full develo>ment of self 9no:lede and human >ersonalit$, a >ro"ess :hi"h he des"ribes

as individuation, rests on the >ersonFs abilit$ to re"onise the rival elements hisher >ersonalit$

and to deal :ith the "ontradi"tions in a unified manner (Denhardt, 3%/3). Most of unresolved

tensions in ourselves :ere >ro7e"ted onto other >eo>le and e+ternal situations. o understand

our e+ternal realit$ :e must first understand Jthe other :ithin.F

#un distinuished t:o :a$s of >er"eivin realit$- throuh !4N!'

our intuitions throuh imaination. n the other hand, the de"isionEma9in dimension has t:o

antitheti"al >ossibilities- the thin9in () and feelin (&). ersonalisti" value 7udements b$ feelin.

hin9in eneralises :hile feelin individualises (=eason, 3%/3- ).

2


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he s"heme >rovides a ni"e illustration of ho: re>ressed elements of the >s$"he ma$ sinif$

unused s9ill and >otential :ithin the human :hi"h, if ta>>ed, "ould "ontribute mu"h to an

individualFs abilit$ to "o>e :ith the >roblems heshe fa"es (Moran, 3%/- 226).

Mitroff and ilmann (3%/) used #unFs >s$"holoi"al t$>es to anal$se >atterns of reasonin

and thouht. he un"ons"ious should be vie:ed li9e a Jbla"9 hole.F e need to understand the

role of the un"ons"ious in oranisational life as a 9ind of a bla"9 hole. eo>le involved in the oranisation >ro"ess. ossible to release tra>>ed ener$ in :a$s

that ma$ >romote "reative transformation and "hane.

2/


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&iure 2.3 Methodoloi"al '>>roa"hes to !o"ial !"ien"es

De"ision Ma9in Dimension

T=I.%I.3

'nalytical Conceptual I.3

Aa!#tica! scietist"

he basi" drive is to:ards "ertaint$. 8eshe is "on"erned :ith >re"ision, a""ura"$, valid,

redu"tionisti", "ausal, a>oliti"al, >roressive, "umulative, "lear standards for 7udement,

realisti", antiEm$sti"al, unambiuous, e+a"t and reliabilit$. he loi" is 'ristotelian, stri"t

"lassi"al loi", nonEdiale"ti"al and indeterminate.

Coce%t)a! Theorist"

he basi" drive is imaination and s>e"ulative theor$ "onstru"tion. he "on"ern is minimisin

errors of h$>othesis dis"overin. he nature of s"ientifi" 9no:lede is im>ersonal, value free,

imainative, valid, >ur>oseful ambiuit$, un"ertaint$ and >roblemati". he loi" is diale"ti"alloi"s and an em>hasis :ith multi>le >ers>e"tives.

Coce%t)a! /)3aist"

ersonal, valueE"onstituted, interested a"tivit$, holisti", >oliti"al, multi>le "ausation,

un"ertain, >roblemati" and "on"erned :ith humanit$. oeti", >oliti"al, a"tionEoriented, a "ausal, non rational.


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Gill, J. and P.Johnson (1997)Research Methods for Managers, London: Paul Chapman

Heisenberg, W. (1958)Physics and Philosophy, New York: Harper Brothers

#un, C.. (3%3) The 4ortable 7ung( Ne: Oor9- Bi9in Press

Mitroff,


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C/APTER T/REERESEARC/ DESIGN AND MET/ODOLOGY

A RESEARC/ DESIGN

856 Itrod)ctiohis >art fo"uses on the stru"tural as>e"ts of resear"h. e"ifi" ends. he aim of the desin in

resear"h is to in"rease the internal validit$ of the stud$ so that the resear"her "an be able to

>ossess an abilit$ or abilities to attain the aims of the stud$. he desin is there in order to

satisf$ the requirements of the stud$resear"h in terms of its >rodu"tivit$, o>erational effi"ien"$

and the qualit$ of the stud$. lishment.

' resear"h desin is a blue >rint that enables the investiator to "ome u> :ith solutions to

those >roblems and uides himher in various staes of the resear"h. =esear"h desin is about

oranisin of resear"h a"tivit$, in"ludin the "olle"tion of data, in :a$s that are most li9el$ to

a"hieve the resear"h aims. here are a number of >otential "hoi"es to ma9e :hen one :ants to

develo> a resear"h desin. f "ourse, there are fe: alorithms :hi"h "an uide the resear"her

into ma9in the ideal "hoi"es for a >arti"ular situation. Ndunuru (3%%, >ae 23) e+>lains that

desinin a resear"h >ro7e"t involves oranisin the "olle"tion and anal$sis of data to fulfil the

>ur>ose of resear"h.

=esear"h desin is a rand resear"h >lan :hi"h determines :hat a resear"her is oin to

observe and anal$se in the field. ro"edure (!elltiz, 3%6%, >ae60).

'le+ander (3%, >ae 36) states that the ultimate ob7e"t of desin is form. hen a >erson

s>ea9s of desin the main ob7e"t of dis"ussion is not the form alone but the ensemble

"om>risin the form and its "onte+t. 'le+ander (3%, >ae 0) sho:s some diffi"ulties in

:hi"h a desiner fa"es-

Ka9e for e+am>le, the desin of a sim>le 9ettle. 8e has to invent a 9ettle :hi"h fits

the "onte+t of its use.


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the 9it"hen.


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a) =esear"h desin should su>>ort in understandin the >roblem. lies that the "orre"t

model of the situation needs to be a>>lied or "reated, and assum>tions of the model tested;

b) !u>>ort for eneratin solutions- the eneration of >ossible "auses of a"tion is aided b$-

• he desin of resear"h;

• he validit$ of the resear"h desin sele"ted;

") !u>>ort for testin feasibilit$ of solutions- ' solution is tested for feasibilit$ b$ anal$sin it

in terms of the environments it affe"ts su"h as >roblem area, entire oranisation, "om>etition

and so"iet$. 'nother a>>roa"h is to anal$se the >ro>osed solutions usin models of the

different environments.

857 T#%es o* Research Desi&s

Most literature on s"ientifi" resear"h identif$ three main t$>es of resear"h desins namel$ "ase

stud$, surve$ and e+>erimental desins.

a) Case ,tudy 8esign

l$ an individual

>erson or res>ondent, a rou> of >ersons, a set of relationshi>s, thins, a tribe or a "ommunit$

and even a "ountr$ or rou> of "ountries. Case studies investiate the unit a"ross the variet$ of

features or "hara"teristi"s. ' "ase stud$ is "hara"terised b$ a thorouh investiation of a unit

over a rane of variables.

Case studies are detailed investiations of individuals, rou>s or de>artments in an

oranisation, or a :hole oranisation. here is no attem>t made at e+>erimental "ontrol des>ite

it is im>ortant to identif$ a""uratel$ the time order of events. he sequen"e of events "an be

used to establish "ause and effe"t relationshi>s. Case stud$ data "an be "olle"ted over an

e+tended time series to >rodu"e :hat are "alled lonitudinal studies.


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desin is a small, in"lusive and intensive stud$ of an individual in :hi"h the investiator brins

to bear all hisher s9ills and methods, or as a s$stemati" atherin of enouh information about

a >erson to >ermit one to understand ho: heshe fun"tions as a unit of so"iet$. s or de>artments in an oranisation, or a :hole oranisation.

he "onsequen"es of events in "ase studies "an be used to enerate insihts for more riorous

and s$stemati" investiation and more "arefull$ "ontrolled resear"h (8u"z$ns9i and *u"hanan,

3%%3- 10).

Merits of case studies

a) Mi"ros"o>i" stud$ of so"ial unit

he "om>lete information about the so"ial unit "an be studied throuh a "ase stud$. *oth the

eneral and s>e"ifi" "hara"teristi"s of a unit are "arefull$ studied. his t$>e of desin delves

dee>er and dee>er b$ ma9in minute investiations in order to arrive at s>e"ifi" and "orre"t

"on"lusions. s to e+tend the ro:th of our >er"e>tion and >rovides a "lear

understandin about life. othesis

his t$>e of resear"h desin "on"lusions are dra:n after a dee> and minute investiation of allrelevant fa"tors. othesis based on su"h "on"lusions are al:a$s

de"isivel$ validated.

") ' Bast &ield of 4+>erien"e for =esear"her

' resear"h studies all the varied fa"tors of life in a "ase stud$. 8eshe has to ta9e "are of

various diverent "ir"umstan"es and situations en"ountered in >ra"ti"al life. 8eshe has to

"olle"t and a""umulate a :ide variet$ of e+>erien"es at the state of anal$sis :hen ans:ers to

questions and solutions to >roblems are thorouhl$ sear"hed and investiated.

d) he @se of Bariet$ of e"hniques

' variet$ of a>>roa"hes and te"hniques are used in a "ase desin for the >ur>ose of "olle"tin

data.


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f) 8el>ful to @nderstandin of !tud$ Problem

he resear"her sele"ts some of the units and identifies the stud$ >roblem for "ase stud$. his

hel>s in understandin not onl$ the variet$ of inherent >roblems but the stud$ >roblem in its

totalit$.

) Provides *asis for eneralisation

eneralisation be"omes eas$ and >ossible on the basis of 9no:lede enerated throuh the

investiation and understandin of various situations and "ir"umstan"es in"ludin related

>roblems.

h) o &ind ut Deviant Cases

he deviant "ases are the ones, :hi"h o aainst our validated and "learl$ defined h$>otheses.

Case desin is immensel$ useful in arrivin at the "orre"t fa"ts and de"isions.

i) Cost 4ffi"ient Method

Case desin is a hihl$ "ost effi"ient method to stud$ and resear"h. he resour"es available for

resear"h are al:a$s s"ar"e and limited. he "ase desin >rovides a means of "overin a lare

amount of round for an a""e>table "ost.

b) ,urvey 8esign

o>ulation. !urve$ desin fo"uses on fe: "ases

and variables for investiation.

ne of the most >o>ular so"ial s"ien"e resear"h desin. !urve$s are "ross se"tional as the$

stud$ a rane, or variet$, or "ross se"tion of >eo>le, o""u>ations and oranisations. ' resear"h

establishes a form of "ontrol over inde>endent variables at the data anal$sis stae.

") Experimental 8esign

erimental rou> of ob7e"ts. erimental desin is to as"ertain :hether there is an$ statisti"al differen"e bet:een the

16


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e+>erimental rou> and the "ontrol rou> at the >arti"ular time in future. Oou "an relate it :ith

Professor 4lton Ma$oFs resear"h effort in the estern 4le"tri" Com>an$ in 3%10s.

4+>erimental desins are normall$ used in natural s"ien"es or first >hase s"ien"es :here

laborator$ "onditions "an easil$ be des"ribed or mani>ulated.

he desin has three elements ne"essar$ for resear"h namel$ the e+>erimental rou>, the

"ontrol rou> and the e+>erimental variable (treatment "onditions or stimuli). he e+>erimental

rou> is the rou> of >ersons or ob7e"ts :hi"h are e+>osed to the e+>erimental variable

(treatment "onditions or stimuli) in order to assess the effe"t of that variable in the rou>. he

"ontrol rou> has similar "hara"teristi"s to the e+>erimental rou> but it is not e+>osed to the

e+>erimental variable. he e+>erimental variable is a treatment "ondition to :hi"h the

e+>erimental rou> is e+>osed to see :hat ha>>ens to it as a result.

!o"ial s"ien"es use e+>erimental desin to stud$ so"ial >henomena in mu"h the same :a$ as

natural s"ien"e. he advantae of laborator$ e+>eriments lie :ith the "ontrol that the

resear"her or anal$st has over the variables that are to be studied. he real :orld tends to be

different in :a$s :hi"h ma9e it diffi"ult to establish "ause and effe"t relationshi>s "learl$. he

disadvantae of laborator$ e+>eriments lie in their artifi"ialit$. Peo>le ma$ not behave normall$

in a s"ientifi" laborator$ settin.

4+>eriments are used to measure the effe"ts of one variable on another. &or instan"e, the effe"t

of lo"al beer "onsum>tion on studentsF e+aminations at Mzumbe @niversit$. Ao"al beer

"onsum>tion is "alled an inde>endent variable :hereas e+amination >erforman"e is a

de>endent variable. endent variable de>ends on ho: mu"h lo"al beer

Mzumbe @niversit$ students have drun9.

he laborator$ settin allo:s the resear"her to measure the variables ver$ a""uratel$. 8eshe

"an "ontrol ho: mu"h ea"h student is iven to drin9 and assess ho: :ell the$ do in their

e+amination. 4ver$ student :or9s under the same e+amination "onditions and the onl$ fa"tor

that "ould "ause variations in behaviour is the quantit$ of lo"al beer s:allo:ed.

4+>eriments "an be of t:o t$>es- &irst, mani>ulated field e+>eriments and se"ondl$, naturall$

o""urrin e+>eriment.

B RESEARC/ MET/ODOLOGY

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1.1 t in resear"h is an abstra"tion or a s$mbol or a re>resentation of an ob7e"t or one of

its >ro>erties, or of a behavioural >henomenon. =esear"hers form "on"e>ts in order to des"ribe

the em>iri"al :orld.

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&un"tions of Con"e>ts

a) Con"e>ts are foundation of "ommuni"ation;

b) Con"e>ts introdu"e >ers>e"tive;

") Con"e>ts allo: s"ientists to "lassif$ and eneralise. he$ stru"ture, "ateorise, order and

eneralise s"ientistFs e+>erien"es and observations.

D) Con"e>ts serve as "om>onents of theories.

ts are "onverted into variables b$ translatin or ma>>in them

into a set of values. ' variable is an em>iri"al >ro>ert$ that "an ta9e on t:o or more values. ro>ert$ "an "hane either in quantit$ or qualit$, it "an be rearded as a variable.

' variable that "an have onl$ t:o values is "alled di"hotomous variable. he variable that the

resear"her :ishes to e+>lain is the D4P4ND4N or C=lain "hane is urious relation is a relation :hi"h "an be

e+>lained b$ variables other than those stated in the h$>othesis. iri"al relation bet:een the inde>endent and

de>endent variables is maintained, then the relation in non s>urious.

1/


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Sa3%!i& ad Sa3%!e Desi&s

Sa3%!i&

!am>lin is a >ro"ess of learnin about the >o>ulation on a basis of a sam>le dra:n from it. '

sam>le is a subset of >o>ulation units. he >ro"ess of sam>lin "onstitutes three elements-

a) !ele"tin the sam>le;

b) Colle"tin the information; and

") Ma9in an inferen"e about the >o>ulation

' sam>le desin is a definite >lan for obtainin a sam>le from a iven >o>ulation. le. here are man$ sam>le desins from :hi"h a resear"her "an sele"t. !ome desins

are relativel$ more >re"ise and easier to a>>l$ than others. he resear"h must >re>are and

sele"t a desin, :hi"h should be reliable and a>>ro>riate for hisher resear"h stud$.

Ste%s i Pre%ari& *or the Sa3%!e Desi&

he resear"her must >a$ the follo:in attention :hen >re>arin for the sam>le desin-

3. Type of the universe$ his is the first ste> in develo>in a sam>le desin. he ob7e"ts to

be studied must be "learl$ defined. he universe "an be infinite or finite.

2. The sampling -nit: ' de"ision has to be ta9en on sam>lin unit before sele"tin a

sam>le. ' sam>lin unit ma$ be eora>hi"al one su"h as a reion, distri"t, :ard,

division, villae et" or a "onstru"tion unit su"h as a house, flat et" or it ma$ be a so"ial

unit su"h as a famil$, "lub, s"hool, "ollee or it ma$ be an individual. he resear"h

anal$st has to de"ide one or more of su"h units that heshe has to sele"t from hisher

stud$.1. ,ource >ist: that is a sam>lin frame from :hi"h the sam>le is to be dra:n. !u"h list

should be "om>rehensive, "orre"t, reliable and a>>ro>riate.

. ,ample si@e: he size of the sam>le.

6. 4arameters of interest: ne must "onsider the question of s>e"ifi" >o>ulation

>arameters, :hi"h are of interest. 4+am>les- the >ro>ortion of >o>ulation of >ersons

:ith some "hara"teristi", averae or other measures "on"ernin the >o>ulation. 'll

these must have the stron im>a"t u>on the sam>le desin one :ould a""e>t.

1%


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. 6udgetary constraint: Cost "onsiderations from >ra"ti"al >oint of vie: have ma7or

im>a"t u>on the de"isions relatin to not onl$ the size of the sam>le, but also the t$>e

of the sam>le.

. ,ampling procedure: 8eshe must sele"t the t$>e of the te"hnique heshe :ill use in

sele"tin the items for the sam>le. here are several te"hniques from :hi"h the

resear"her is e+>e"ted to sele"t from. !ele"t a te"hnique, :hi"h :ill minimise "ost and

have a smaller sam>lin error.

Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure

4nsure that the >ro"edure "auses a small sam>lin error and hel>s to "ontrol s$stemati" bias in

a better :a$. lied that-

3. 'void ina>>ro>riate sam>lin frame; other:ise it :ill result in a s$stemati" bias;

2. 'void defe"tive measurin devi"e; other:ise it :ill result in a s$stemati" bias;

1. Non res>ondents- s$stemati" bias;

. le- it "an "ause s$stemati" bias. ur>oses but the$ overstate

the same if as9ed for so"ial status or their affluen"e.

Characteristics o* Good Sa3%!e

3. ' ood sam>le desin must result in a trul$ re>resentative sam>le;

2. lin error;

1. >lied for the :hole >o>ulationuniverse :ith a

reasonable level of "onfiden"e.

Two different types of Sample Designs

a) =e>resentative bias (random or non random sam>lin desins)

b) he element sele"tion te"hnique (=estri"ted or unrestri"ted)

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The purpose of most statistical investigations is to make valid generalisations or

transfer results from one context into another research context on the basis of

samples about the populations from which the samples came.

Sample

' sam>le is an$ subset of a >o>ulation. ortion of a >o>ulation that is studied to learn

about the >o>ulation.

' subset of >o>ulation members is "alled a sam>le. 4+am>les of a >o>ulation-

• he in"omes of all *'& >li"ants in Mzumbe @niversit$

• he total number of **' >lies offi"ers and auditors to estimate the

value of the total inventor$ in the stores :ithout a"tuall$ ins>e"tin all the items >h$si"all$ use

various sam>lin methodoloies. !am>lin methods "an be used to as"ertain the im>a"t of

various media of advertisin leadin to the most >rofitable "ombination of advertisin media

for a iven budet.

=esear"h anal$sts are interested to learn about s>e"ifi" "hara"teristi"s of attributes of these

>o>ulations. !am>lin is about learnin about the >o>ulation on the basis of a sam>le dra:n

from it. lies that sam>lin te"hnique or method allo:s for eneralisation of the

"on"lusions dra:n from the sam>le.

!am>lin error-he name iven to natural variabilit$ inherent amon sam>les from a >o>ulation. resent :hen sam>les are obtained.

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Non sam>lin error-he name iven to ina""ura"ies and a"tual errors or mista9es that "an and should be avoided

b$ usin sound e+>erimental te"hniques.

Why Sample?

3. Cost minimisation. ensive; &or instan"e, to stud$ the "onsumer rea"tion

before laun"hin a ne: >rodu"t I it :ill be less e+>ensive to "arr$ out a "onsumer

surve$ based on a sam>le rather than stud$in the entire >o>ulation :hi"h is the

>otential rou> of "ustomers.

2. resentation of the >o>ulation;

. ' small size of a sam>le enables the anal$sts to "olle"t data more qui"9l$ than to

surve$ all the units of the >o>ulation even if :e are :illin to s>end mone$;

6. ossible to a"hieve the reater a""ura"$ b$ usin a>>ro>riate sam>lin te"hniques

than b$ a "om>lete enumeration of all the units of the >o>ulation. Com>lete

enumeration ma$ result into ina""ura"ies of the data.

. 'voidin bias and hallo effe"t of the members of the >o>ulation;

. le has to suffi"e.

/. !ometimes a "ensus is im>ossible. ' "ensus is a "om>lete enumeration of the entire

>o>ulation, as o>>osed to a sam>le that "onsists of onl$ a >ortion of the >o>ulation.

Objectives of Sampling

a) !tatisti"al estimation

b) estin h$>otheses

") Dra:in some inferen"es about the >o>ulation

Process of Sampling

le

ii) Colle"tin the data or information

iii) Ma9in an inferen"es about the >o>ulation or universe

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Essentials of Sampling

a) =e>resentativeness

b) 'dequa"$

") enden"e

d) 8omoeneit$

Types of Sampling

here are basi"all$ t:o t$>es

a) Non >robabilit$ sam>lin

• #udemental sam>lin (>ur>osive or deliberate sam>lin). !ometimes it is "alled

"onvenient sam>lin. 4+am>les- broad"ast surve$s and man on the street

surve$s. he results of this t$>e of sam>lin "annot be used to ma9e valid

"on"lusions about the taret >o>ulation be"ause the sam>led >o>ulation is li9el$

to be quite different from the taret >o>ulation.

• Convenient sam>lin

• ?uota sam>lin

=e>resentative sam>le- it uses randomisation to remove un:anted bias, and

therefore, >robabilit$ sam>les are the onl$ sam>les that "an be anal$sed usin

statisti"al methods.

b) Probabilit$ sam>lin

• !im>le random sam>lin

• !$stemati" sam>lin

• !tratified sam>lin

• Cluster sam>lin

Process o* Sa3%!i&

3) !ele"t a !am>le

2) Colle"t data or information

a) Primar$ data

E ?uestionnaires

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E Diaries

E *oo9s

E #ournal arti"les

E =e>orts

E Minutes

1) Ma9in an inferen"es about the >o>ulation

' E Con"lusions

* E eneralisation

C E ransferabilit$ of results

PROBABILITY OR RANDOM SAMPLING

E bserves the la:s of >robabilit$

E >lied to sele"t the sam>le from the >o>ulation

E =andomness is the >ro>ert$ of the sam>lin >ro"edure

ADVANTAGES OF RANDOM SAMPLING

3. end u>on the e+isten"e of detailed information about the >o>ulation for

its effe"tiveness.

2. rovides estimates, :hi"h are essentiall$ unbiased and have measurable >re"ision1. ossible to evaluate relative effi"ien"$ of various sam>le desins I :hen

>robabilit$ sam>lin is used.

Li3itatios

3. erien"e for its use

2. lan and e+e"ute random sam>le

1. he "osts involved in >robabilit$ sam>lin are larer "om>ared to non >robabilit$

sam>lin

.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

E attern of variabilit$ in the >ro"ess of sam>lin


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SAMPLING MET/ODS

3) Rado3 %ro'a'i!it# sa3%!i& 3ethods

a) Urestricted

E !im>le random sam>lin

b) Restricted

E !tratified sam>lin

E !$stemati" sam>lin

E Cluster sam>lin

2) No Rado3 o %ro'a'i!it# sa3%!i& 3ethods

E #udemental sam>lin

E Convenien"e sam>lin

E ?uota sam>lin

E '""idental

E Deliberate

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

lin te"hnique in :hi"h ea"h and ever$ unit of the >o>ulation has an equalo>>ortunit$ of bein sele"ted in the sam>le

E ' sam>le size -

E Po>ulation N

Coditios

3) 'll items of the sam>le are sele"ted inde>endentl$ of one another and all N items

in the >o>ulation have the same "han"e of bein in"luded in the sam>le.

2) 't ea"h sele"tion, all remainin items in the >o>ulation, N, have the same "han"e of

bein dra:n-

E lin is made :ith re>la"ement I i.e. :hen ea"h unit dra:n

from the >o>ulation is returned >rior to dra:in the ne+t unit, ea"h

unititem has a >robabilit$ of 3 N of bein dra:n at ea"h sele"tion.

E lin is :ithout re>la"ement, the >robabilit$ of ea"h item

remainin in the >o>ulation at-

3st dra: 3 N

2nd dra: 3 N I 3

6


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1rd dra: 3 N I 2

.

nth dra: E 3 N I (n I 3)

1) 'll the >ossible sam>les of a iven size are equall$ li9el$ to be sele"ted

4+am>le-

' finite >o>ulation of size elements

(sa$- a, b, ", d, e, f,)

!am>le size - 1

hen there are 20 >ossible distin"t sam>les of the required size-

'b" abd abe abf

'"d a"e a"f ade

'df aef b"d b"e

Ced "df "ef def

(1 R H 1 H (E2)H


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Ta'!e o* Rado3 N)3'ers

E s-

3. 'rbitraril$ sele"t a startin >oint2. !u>>ose a startin >oint is the 3st number in the fifth "olumn1. Dro> the last 2 diits of ea"h 6 diit number . he re>eatin number to be dro>>ed.6. le of n R 36.

'n Example of a Table of Random .umbers

/30/0 1 21 22263 33 03 326 3/6/122 3/1% %/ 006 /0% 163% 013/6 60//2/ /6661 3/62 6%13 /01 663 62% 010

110% 2 3% /613 63/ %0016 //11 00%/ 110 62 //16 %20/ /66/ 2160 /%2633/ 1%3 206 3/ 31 21 //%2 1122%266 /1/ 0/%6 2/03% 0/6 026 %2 2//110632 261 316 /26 6%0 20 162%3 22/61/60 %%26 %6 330 %1%2 0612 662 %%6/2%/ 2/%% 663/ /// %66 /166 %3 362231 00160 % %// 22% 110 003 00166 02 0 /3 62%/ 62%/2 /210 %2%02166 63/3 03216 36%/ 6/%/ 3/3 631%3 33131/6/2 /02 //6/1 1011 6023 603 /16 0

366% /2/6 0%6% 0%% 3/60 //3% 310% 26031


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RESTRICTED RAD!" SA"P#I$

A. Stratified Sampling

lin methods, :hi"h b$ usin the available information "on"ernin

the >o>ulation attem>ts to desin a more effi"ient sam>le than obtained b$ sim>le random

>ro"edure. he >o>ulation is divided into different rou>s or "lasses su"h as *P' hia 8all, unambi 8all, ino 8all, Cabral =esiden"e,

Bi9ene =esiden"e et".

' resear"h anal$st is required to have a >rior 9no:lede of the traits, :hi"h the stud$

>o>ulation >ossesses. !u"h 9no:lede ma$ be based on e+>ert 7udment, >ast data and

information, >reliminar$ observation from >ilot studies "ondu"ted before the a"tual stud$ is

"ondu"ted.

i) 4+>ert 7udment;

ii) Past data or information;

iii) Preliminar$ observation

The Mai O'.ecti(es o* Strati*ied Sa3%!i&

he main >ur>ose of this t$>e of sam>lin is to in"rease the effi"ien"$ of sam>lin b$ dividin a

heteroeneous universe in su"h a :a$ that-

a) here is as reat homoeneit$ as >ossible :ithin ea"h stratum;

b) 's mar9ed a differen"e as >ossible bet:een the strata.

/


56/209

Types of ,tratified ,ampling 4lans

here are t:o t$>es of stratified sam>le.

a) Pro>ortional stratified sam>lin >lan- the number of items dra:n from ea"h stratum is

>ro>ortional to the size of the stratum. o>ulation is divided into five rou>s,

their res>e"tive sizes bein 30S, 36S, 20S, 10S and 26S of the >o>ulation and a

sam>le of 60 is dra:n, the desired >ro>ortional sam>le ma$ be obtained in the

follo:in manner-

&rom stratum < (*'& timal desin :hen-

i) he "ost of sele"tin an item is equal for ea"h stratum;

ii) here is no reat differen"e in dis>ersion from stratum to stratum;

iii) he >ur>ose of sam>lin ha>>ens to be to estimate the >o>ulation value of some

"hara"teristi".

b) NonE>ro>ortional stratified sam>lin >lan- the strata differ not onl$ in size but also in

variabilit$ and it is "onsidered reasonable to ta9e larer sam>les from a more variablestrata and smaller from the less variable strata. ossible to a""ount for both

differen"es in size and in stratum variabilit$ b$ usin the dis>ro>ortionate sam>lin

desin b$ requirin-

n3 n2 n9

TTT R TTT R U R TTT

%


57/209

N3δ3 N2δ2 N9 δ9

here δi R standard deviations of the 9 strata

Ni R sizes of the 9 strata

N3 R sam>le sizes of the 9 strata

his is "alled o>timum allo"ation in the "onte+t of dis>ro>ortionate sam>lin.

o summarise the follo:in are the res>onsible fa"tors or variables, :hi"h sho: the

differen"e :hen >re>arin for the strata in the stratified sam>lin.

i) Differen"es in stratum size

ii) Differen"es in stratum variabilit$

iii) Differen"es in stratum sam>lin "ost

le size

to ea"h stratum

'n 4+am>le-

' >o>ulation is divided into three strata so that (*P' ro>ortionate sam>lin desinL

n3 R / + 6,000 + 36

EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE R 60

(6,000 + 36) V (2,000 + 3/) V (1,000 + 6)

n2 R / + 2,000 + 3/

60


58/209

EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE R 2

32,000

n1 R / + 1,000 + 6

EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE R 30

32,000

6$ ,ystematic sampling

a"ed intervals. le are >redetermined b$ the

sam>lin interval. hi"al, numeri"al or some other order. he items or

elements are seriall$ numbered. he first itemelement is sele"ted at random b$ usin random

numbers to >i"9 u> the unit :ith :hi"h to start. hen, subsequent items are sele"ted b$ ta9in

ever$ 9 th item from the list :here J9F refers to the sam>lin interval or sam>lin ratio, the ratio

of the >o>ulation size to the size of the sam>le.

9 R N

EEE

n

:here 9 R sam>lin interval

N R >o>ulation size

n R sam>le size

4+am>le-


59/209

@se a s$stemati" sam>lin to determine the sam>le size.

!olution-

9 N 31

EE R EEEE R %./ ≈ 30

n 3

hus, the first student bet:een 3 and 30 :ill be sele"ted at random and then :e :ill o on

sele"tin ever$ 9 th (30th) student.

C$ Cluster sampling ;Multi#stage sampling)

e of sam>lin >ro"edure that is "arried out in several staes. >ens to be lare, a "onvenient :a$ in :hi"h a sam>le "an be ta9en is to divide the

area into a number of small nonEoverla>>in areas and then to randoml$ sele"t a number of

these smaller areas (usuall$ "alled "lusters). he total >o>ulation is divided into relativel$ small

subdivisions :hi"h are themselves "lusters of still smaller units and then some of these "lusters

are randoml$ sele"ted for in"lusion in the overall sam>le.

>ose :e :ould li9e to ta9e a sam>le of 36 households from ondoa Distri"t. e 9no:

that the Distri"t is divided into several ards and ea"h ard "an further be subdivided into

several villaes and a sam>le of villaes "an be ta9en at random. he ne+t stae to sele"t a

number of households at random at ea"h of the villaes sele"ted. lin.

NON;RANDOM NON;PROBABILITY SAMPLING MET/ODS

'$ 7udgmental ,ampling


60/209

7udment in the "hoi"e and in"ludes those items or elements in the sam>le, :hi"h heshe thin9s

are most t$>i"al of the >o>ulation :ith reard to the "hara"teristi"(s) under investiation.

his method of sam>lin is 7ustified for use under s>e"ifi" "ir"umstan"es-

i) hen onl$ small number of sam>lin units is in the >o>ulation, sim>le random

sam>lin ma$ miss the more im>ortant elements :hereas 7udment sele"tion :ould

"ertainl$ in"lude them in the sam>le.

ii) hen :e :ant to stud$ some un9no:n traits of a >o>ulation, some of :hose

"hara"teristi"s are 9no:n, :e ma$ then stratif$ the >o>ulation a""ordin to these

9no:n >ro>erties and sele"t sam>lin units from ea"h stratum on the basis of

7udment. his method is used to obtain more re>resentative sam>le.

iii) roblems and ma9in >ubli" >oli"$ de"isions,

e+e"utives and >ubli" offi"ials are often >ressed for time and "annot :ait for

>robabl$ sam>le desins. #udment sam>lin is then the onl$ >ra"ti"al method to

arrive at solutions to their urent >roblems.

4+am>le-

le of fifteen (36) *P' roblem at the Mzumbe @niversit$, the investiator

:ould sele"t 36 students :ho, in his o>inion, are re>resentative of the "lass.

6$ Convenient ,ampling ;the Chun")

' "onvenient sam>le is obtained b$ sele"tin "onvenient >o>ulation units. ' fra"tion of a

>o>ulation bein investiated :hi"h is sele"ted neither b$ >robabilit$ nor b$ 7udement but b$

"onvenien"e.

' sam>le is obtained from readil$ available lists su"h as student reistration from the Mzumbe

@niversit$Fs 'dmission ffi"e. le even if the sam>le is dra:n from the

list at random. Convenient sam>les are usuall$ rearded as >rovidin a lot of biases but the$

are often used for ma9in >ilot studies.

61


61/209

C$ 9uota ,ampling

e of #udment !am>lin. he quotas are set u> a""ordin to some "hara"teristi"s

su"h as in"ome rou>, ae, >oliti"al and reliious affiliations. 4a"h investiator has to deal

:ith "ertain number of res>ondents :ho "onstitute hisher quota. ithin the quota thesele"tion of the sam>le items de>end on >ersonal 7udment. ?uota sam>lin desins are often

used in >ubli" o>inion studies.

4+am>le-

he stud$ of the mass failure of students :ho sat for P@* 331 I the Prin"i>les of Manaement

sub7e"t in !emester < in the a"ademi" $ear 2001200- he intervie:ers required to administer

intervie:s to 0 >eo>le :ithin the @niversit$. hat means the$ :ere required to intervie: at

least / members of a"ademi" staff, 20 >assed students, 32 failed students, 1 members of the

!enate, 1 members of the


62/209

C/APTER FOUR

RESEARC/ PROPOSAL 2RITING

rovides a number of enerall$ a""e>ted standards of :hat a :ellE:ritten resear"h >ro>osal

should "ontain. ends, amon other thins, on a t$>e of resear"h $ou >lan to underta9e. he

a>>roa"h ma$ be oriented to:ards the theoreti"al or the more >ra"ti"al side of resear"h.

here are t:o main t$>es of resear"h >ro>osals. he first is the self enerated resear"h >ro>osal

of the t$>e >re>ared b$ a"ademi"s see9in funds for a resear"h >ro7e"t of their o:n devisin or b$

students see9in a>>roval for resear"h for a >ro7e"t or thesisdissertation on the to>i" of their o:n

"hoosin. he se"ond t$>e is the res>onsive resear"h >ro>osal >re>ared b$ "onsultants res>ondinto resear"h briefs >re>ared b$ >otential "lients.

a) !elf enerated resear"h >ro>osal;

b) =es>onsive resear"h >ro>osal or e+>ression of interest

ur>ose of resear"h as "learl$

>resented b$ Clar9 (3%2). Clar9 (3%2- %) as9s three basi" questions that :ould be ne"essar$ to

7ustif$ su"h "lassifi"ation. he first question as9s :hether resear"h :ants to resolve or "larif$ the

theoreti"al question arisin in the dis"i>line or it is oriented to the solution of a >ra"ti"al >roblem

in one enter>rise. he se"ond question "entres on the dominant "hannel for diffusin the results of

the resear"h. 4ventuall$, it fo"uses on the dire"tion of the involvement of the resear"her :ith

hisher audien"e.

hese three questions ma$ be "ombined to >rodu"e a ta+onom$ of t$>es of resear"h as des"ribed

b$ Naustdalslid (3%//a). he resear"h t$>es "an be distinuished alon the "ontinuum from basic

theoretical research( applied th

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