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Qualitative Research Techniques

Qualitative research

• Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world (Denzin and Lincoln (eds.), 2003).

• Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials: case study, personal experience, introspection, life story, interview, artifacts, cultural and historical texts, observation, focus groups, etc.

• Qualitative research emphasizes the qualities of the entities

Qualitative research: Case studies & ethnography• Single case design:

Critical case to test a well formulated theory or several theories.

Extreme or unique case - where there is no direct comparison cases.

Revelatory case – opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible.

• Multiple case design: Evidence is more compelling, but research is more time consuming.

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Choosing a research site

• Research sites are purposively selected, rather than using a random sample (quantitative research) One site may be selected or a small number

depending on the research question that is being addressed.

• For example, if trying to understand diffusion process of a technology you may choose several different sites

• When selecting a site consider : Setting – Where the research will take place.

Actors – Who will be observed or interviewed.

Events – What the actors do in the setting.

Process – Evolving nature of events undertaken by the actors within the setting.

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Identify the types of data that will be collected• Observations: Observer may be known or role concealed

First-hand knowledge of scene, actors, events Researcher may bias responses (if known)

• Interviews: Face-face or telephone, one person or group Controlled by researcher But, information obtained in a specific place rather than

in a natural setting, researcher may bias responses

• Documents: Company documents, newspaper articles, letters Thoughtful comments by participants and can be viewed

at a time convenient to researcher But, may require scanning and may be incomplete or not

accurate

• Audio-visual materials: photographs, videotapes, computer softwareBut, may be difficult to interpret

Research Design Exercise• Research question:

If you have your own defined research question and expect to use a qualitative methodology write down answers to the questions 2-6 below.

If not, consider one of the following question: “Why do some Masters level students go on to have more successful careers than others?” or “Why do some Masters level students get better grades than others?”

1. These are a very broad question and to actually find the link between the studies (or the students on a course) and career/course success you would probably need to do some narrowing. How would you narrow the above question?

2. To find evidence to support an explanation for the question what type of data would you collect?

3. How would you access the data?4. Setting – Where will the research take place?5. Actors – Who will be observed or interviewed?6. What types of events or processes would you look for?

> 6

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Qualitative tools used most commonly are :

• Interviewing

• Participation and observation (perhaps during your internships, your job, etc…?)

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I) Interview as a tool

• Individual (face-to-face or telephone) or group (face-to-face)

• Structured, semi-structured or unstructured.

• Exploratory, or for measurement purposes

• Single or multiple sessions

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Group interviews

• This is a qualitative data gathering technique that relies upon the systematic questioning of several individuals simultaneously in a formal or informal setting (Focus groups) E.g., market research where the purpose is to gather

consumer opinion on product characteristics, advertising themes or services delivery.

• Could be used for exploratory research, to pretest questionnaire wording, measurement scales or in conjunction with other data gathering techniques.

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Advantages of group interviews over individual interviews

• Relatively inexpensive to conduct

• Often produce rich data that are cumulative and elaborative.

• Aid recall

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Limitations of group interviews

• The interviewer needs to prevent one person or small coalitions of persons from dominating the group.

• The interviewer must encourage reluctant/submissive respondents to participate.

• The interviewer must obtain responses from the entire group to ensure the fullest coverage of the topic.

• May interfere with individual expression, may create ‘groupthink’.

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Structured versus unstructured interviews

• Structured interviews aim at capturing precise data that can be coded in order to explain behavior within pre-established categories.

• Unstructured interviews attempt to understand the complex behaviours of members of a society without imposing any prior categorization that may limit the field of inquiry.

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Structured interviews (Converse and Schuman, 1974).

• All respondents are asked the same series of pre-established questions with a limited set of response categories.

• Responses are recorded according to the coding scheme that has already been established.

• Interviewer plays a neutral role: never interjecting his or her opinion of a respondent’s answer

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Errors of structured interviews

• Respondent Behavior: “socially desirable” response, omit relevant information, faulty memory

• Sequence or wording of questionnaire

• The interviewer

• “Interviewing skills are not simply motor skills like riding a bicycle; rather they involve high-order combination of observation, empathic sensitivity and intellectual judgment” (Gorden, 1992, pp. 7)

• Might overlook emotional response

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Different stages of unstructured interviews • Gaining Access

• Understanding the language and culture of the respondent

• Decide on how to present oneself

• Locating an informant

• Gaining trust

• Establishing rapport: risk of “going native”

• Collecting empirical material: take field notes, note down observations even if they seem unimportant at that time, try to be inconspicuous, analyze notes frequently

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Data recording procedures for semi-structured interviews• Use a protocol, heading to include time/date, place,

interviewee. Record interview where possible, but also make notes. Ice-breaker question 4-6 key questions derived from research plan Probes for each of the questions in case interviewee

needs more prompting Space between questions to write notes Final question, e.g. who obtain more information from Thank you statement

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Interview Exercise

• Research Question: If you have your own defined research question and expect to

use a qualitative methodology write down answers to the questions below.

If not, consider the following questions: “Why do some Masters level students go on to have more successful careers than others?”

or “Why do some Masters level students get better grades than others?”

• What type of interviews would you conduct? Why?

• Design an interview protocol Heading to include time/date, place, interviewee.

Ice-breaker question 4-6 key questions derived from research plan Probes for each of the questions in case interviewee

needs more prompting

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II) Participation-observation as a tool

• Used by researchers who have deliberately set out to achieve a degree of subjective immersion in the culture they study (Cole, 1983) and yet try to be able to maintain their scientific objectivity.

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Types of participation-observation (Gold, 1958)

• The complete participant (a highly subjective stance whose only scientific validity is suspect).

• The participant-as-an-observer.

• The observer-as-a-participant.

• The complete observer.

• Ethical concern: informed consent

• IMPORTANT: Participation observation alone is not a credible method of data collection.

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Data recording procedures for observations (complete observer or observer as participant)• Use a protocol, e.g. page with a line down the middle

On one side record observations, dialogue, physical setting On other side record personal thoughts, reflections, ideas, etc.

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Data analysis

• Sensemaking of data guided by research question Iterative process. Write memos reflecting on findings as

go through process. Process is one of moving from the specific to the general.

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Sequence of activities in qualitativedata analysis……

1. Organizing and preparation of data for analysis: transcribe interviews, scan documents, type notes

2. Familiarization of data by reading through all items: Obtain a general sense of the data. Credibility, patterns, etc.

3. Coding: By hand or using computer packages: Categorization and labeling

4. Identification of themes or descriptions

5. Interrelation of themes and descriptions

6. Interpretation of meaning behind themes and descriptions

7. Checking the validity and reliability of information

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Coding steps1. Read all transcripts and jot down ideas

2. Pick one transcript and read thoroughly while thinking “what is this about”. Write thoughts in margin.

3. Repeat for several transcripts and make a list of key topics

4. Abbreviate list of topics and write codes next to appropriate passages

5. Turn codes into categories by using most descriptive word. Try to reduce categories by grouping. Look for themes

6. Make a final decision on categories

7. Assemble data belonging to each category in one place and analyze

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When coding consider the following…

Codes that people would expect to find based upon past research

Unanticipated codes

Codes that are unusual and of conceptual interest

• Coding can be done by hand or using software, e.g. MAXqda, Atlas.ti, QSR Nvivo, HyperResearch

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Limitations of content analysis

• Content analysis reify the taken-for-granted understandings persons bring to words, terms or experiences.

• Content analysis obscures the interpretive processes that turn talk into text (Silverman, 2003).

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Validity checklist (accuracy of findings)

• Check the following: Take final report or themes (not transcripts) back

to participants and review for accuracy

The extent to which you represent all relevant views: e.g., checking for deviant cases to test your interpretation

Adequate and systematic use of original data: e.g., using quotations for interviews (rich description)

Consider bias the researcher brings to the study

Reliability checklist (consistent approach by all researchers and across all projects/cases)• Demonstrate that:

Transcripts have been checked for transcription mistakes

Coding remains consistent across transcripts

Consistency of coding has been maintained by multiple researchers (inter-rater reliability)

The approach to and procedure for data analysis is appropriate in the context of your study

There has been clear documenting of the process of generating themes, concepts or theories from the data audit trail

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Thank you

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