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Draft version (Please do not cite)
Actions for inclusion at a local level
The case of the “Work Integration Social Enterprises” in Quebec
Marco Alberio
Diane-Gabrielle Tremblay
Paper for the Participatory local welfare, citizenship and third sector organizations.
What is at stake?
Pisa (Italy), 31st January - 1st February, 2013
Marco Alberio
Assistant Professor at Université Sainte Anne; Church Point, Nova Scotia – Canada
Researcher at Aruc Gats – Teluq – Université du Québec; Montréal, Québec – Canada
Diane Gabrielle Tremblay
Director of the CURA (Community-University Research Alliance) on work-life balance over the
lifecourse (SSHRC) Teluq – Université du Québec; Montréal, Québec –Canada
Canada Research Chair on the socio-organizational challenges of the Knowledge Economy)-
Professor at the school of management Télé-université, Université du Québec
2
Introduction
After having provided a picture of the general negative situation that is affecting youth in most
countries, we will propose an analysis of what we could define as a “best practice”: the
“Entreprises d’ insertion” - Work Integration Social Entreprises (WISE) in Canada and Quebec in
particular, which contribute to socio professional integration of youth.
Our general focus will be on Europe, on the US and Canada. To contextualize our research, we
will present data for different years, and we will observe how youth is extremely touched by the
current economic crisis. We will present some recent data on unemployment rates and other
elements concerning the quality of jobs and the position of the youngest population in the labour
market, which is quite often the most precarious and at risk.
The hypothesis that we will try to defend is that despite the economic, institutional, cultural and
social differences, we can generally observe, in particular in western European countries, a sort of
“generational waste” and as we will argue, the already difficult generational situation can be even
harder depending on the vulnerability and profile of individuals.
However, of course, when talking about young people, the risk is to consider them as just one
homogeneous group, having all similar characteristics: something which is not at all the case.
This is the reason why in our article, we will distinguish the different profiles and variables that
can worsen the situation of an individual (age group, social background, level of education, ethnic
origin, immigrant status...).
In Europe (in particular) and North America we have observed a rising unemployment in recent
years; especially after the economic and financial crisis, many countries have adopted measures
to try to boost employment and growth, but this has not had the expected effects. Governments
tried to reduce the high and persistent unemployment, stimulating the creation of low-wage jobs
for unskilled workers who were previously assisted by traditional welfare programs. In many
cases, they have created lower level, less protected and less paid jobs. All these changes in
Western economies, being mainly the outcome of unemployment and strong competitive
pressures, have significantly changed the labor market, causing a worsening of the quality and
protection of employment and a higher inequality among workers.
As many studies have shown, there are inequalities between individuals and groups based on
various factors including, among others: age, gender, nationality / ethnicity, language and
residence. Taking into consideration the variable of age, there is for instance in many European
3
countries a strong generational fracture between adults and young people. Young people become
to a certain extent "outsiders", often being excluded from the labor market. The situation has been
generally less severe in North America and two main factors can explain this difference in youth
unemployment compared to Europe. The first is the flexibility of the labour market which, despite
the significant recent changes in Europe, still remains higher in North America; this translates
into precarious jobs, but it seems in the end also to favour a certain integration in the labour
market.
The second element, which is true especially in the case of Canada (Quebec), is the presence of
local community initiatives, supported by the State, such as the “Entreprises d’insertion” or Work
Integration Social Enterprises (WISE). These organizations have been developed at a local level,
mainly in the area of Montreal and aim in particular at the socio professional integration of young
people, having experienced major difficulties in education, in integration in the labour market,
personal and family life.
Our observations are based on a literature review on local initiatives and socio territorial
development in Quebec (Tremblay and Fontan 1994; Tremblay, Klein and Fontan 2009) and on
two researches that we have recently conducted on the WISE (Alberio, Tremblay 2012)1.
The Work Integration Social Entreprises (WISE) in Quebec have been first created in the early
eighties and have grown during the nineties, when a new generation of companies from several
sectors, including information technology, have added to those already present in more traditional
areas such as restaurants and catering, cleaning services etc. These community organizations are
supported by the State2, with a clear mission of social and professional integration. They are part
of the social economy sector and to be recognized as such, they must meet seven criteria set by
the “Collective des Entreprises d`Insertion du Québec” and recognized by the provincial
Government: social integration mission; difficult characteristics of the participants; employee
status for the workers in training, personalized support, comprehensive training (personal, social
and technical); partnership with stakeholders and local communities; to be a real business. As all
other firms, therefore, next to their integration tasks, they need to manage human, material and
financial issues and produce services or products following the normal standards of quality
specific to their sector of activity. « On fait partie de l’économie, je suis une entreprise
manufacturière qui est un sous-traitant industriel d’autres entreprises. Je fais partie du marché,
1 Please see for example: Alberio M. and Tremblay D-G. Les aspirations chez les jeunes de classe populaire
en formation dans les entreprises d’insertion au Québec. Défi Jeunesse (CJM et Université de Montréal)
forthcoming.
2 To be more precise it is about an agreement between the government of Quebec and the “entreprises
d`insertion” for the provision of services (of socio professional integration).
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mais ma finalité n’est pas le rendement» (Formétal – Director).
They have a double function: socio professional integration and training on one side and the real
economic activity (with a profit objective) on the other3. These work integration enterprises target
(young) people in serious socio-economic difficulties, who need a strong support and training to
integrate the labour market and have shown particularly effective during the last period of
economic crisis (CEIQ 20114), that even if to lesser extent compared to Europe, has also affected
Canada and the province of Quebec. They provide an average working experience of about 26
weeks, enabling people to acquire skills and specific knowledge. They are considered as a
"bridge" giving these workers a complete training from a professional but also a psycho-social
perspective.
To conclude our introduction, as we will observe in a specific section of this article, the Work
Integration Social Entreprises have been first created in Europe and in particular in Belgium and
France but in the Canadian – Quebec experience they developed differently, targeting through
several actions in most cases young people, with great difficulties on a personal, family and
socio-professional level and it is from this perspective that we consider them as a positive
example of local/national5 initiatives.
Youth, between the right to citizenship and the current situation of the labour market
In most developed societies, population aging represents a major challenge in demographic,
social and economic terms. The presence of youth is therefore an important index: “a youthful
population is considered a formidable asset for innovation and creativity in economies and
societies. However in order for countries to fully realize this potential and capitalize on the
“youth dividend” young people need to be productively employed and integrated in the society”
(ILO report V; 2012 p. 8).
On the contrary the general situation seems to be far distant from this. As some recent strikes,
protests and in some cases revolutions have also shown, the situation of young people seems to be
difficult in many countries all around the world. These are very different social phenomena, since
of course we cannot compare the protests in Egypt, Tunisia, the “indignados” movement in Spain
and consequently in Greece and Italy, or the “Occupy Wall Street” in the US. Some of these
movements also developed in Canada and Québec, where the average situation of young people
seems to be less dramatic compared for example to Europe. In Canada and Québec the students’
3 The pure economic activity should self-sufficient and does not receive any incentive or governmental
support. 4 Étude d’impacts socio-économiques des entreprises d’insertion au Québec.
5 Due to the role of the Quebec government through “Emploi Quebec”.
5
protest against the increase of university fees became for example a real protest movement,
mobilizing thousands of people all around Québec. However, all these phenomena are very
different, but a common element can be underlined: most of them are youth-led movements and
represent in part an answer to the generational crisis.
Beside these events, which are only the visible and socio-political responses, the most important
element to consider in the analysis of this generational crisis is the situation of employment and
the labour market.
In particular, in Western industrialized countries the situation of the youth labour market and their
prospects appear to be very negative also compared to previous generations.
The problem is double, concerning on the one hand the very high unemployment rates for young
people, and on the other the quality of jobs and working instability.
In addition, this situation of the labour market is also accompanied by the problems of many
welfare states and their capacity to ensure social protection, before, during and after work.
It is indeed from this perspective that we can underline significant inter-generational inequalities,
often placing youth as the most vulnerable part of the population.
At the same time, besides considering the inter-generational inequalities, it is also decisive to take
into account the rising inequalities within the same cohort and the different risk profiles. Over
several decades inequalities among youth, due to the differences in education, social background,
origins etc. have become an issue and nowadays, in the current context of the employment crisis,
these inequalities seem to have also increased in many countries (ILO report V; 2012).
Youth and unemployment
In most countries we observe a decline in the employment and participation rates of young
people. As the ILO 2012 data indicate, between 2000 and 2011 the labour force participation rate
decreased globally from 52.9 to 48.7 %. In absolute terms, the employed youth has increased by
16 million between 2001 and 2011. However, taking the growth of the young population into
account, there is a consequent decrease of youth employment at a global level; this is all the more
preoccupying as we observe an increase in the participation in education (ILO: Global
employment trends).
6
Global youth and adult unemployment rates and youth unemployment, 1991–20126
Comparison of youth unemployment in the 1990s and 2008 recession7 in some EU countries
6 Cited in “The Youth employment crisis: Time for action” (ILO 2012)
7 Young people and NEETs in Europe: First findings
(http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2011/72/en/1/EF1172EN.pdf)
7
Official youth unemployment rates and adjusted rates accounting for reduced labour force
participation, 20108
As we can observe from the first graph, at a global level youth unemployment is far from being a
recent phenomenon, since also during the nineties it already represented an issue. However, the
last 5 years, mainly due to the economic global crisis determined a net increase (Wold Bank
2003; ILO 2010), although the period of 2001-2005 was about as difficult.
The data presented provide a global picture of the situation. It is important to note that these
values are much higher for Western industrialized countries, especially in Europe. There has been
a great increase at an average European level, up to 18,1% in 2010 with some peaks in those
countries most hardly touched by the economic and financial crisis: Greece (42%), Spain (46%),
Ireland (31,9 %), Portugal and Italy (both over 25%). In other European countries the situation
appears less dramatic but nevertheless the youth unemployment rate is very high as is the case of
France, Sweden or Finland for instance. In some countries such as France, youth are not
traditionally very present in employment and thus do not necessarily present themselves on the
labour market and are not counted as unemployed, so the data has to be considered taking all
these variations into account.
Despite the fact that, some other countries such as Belgium, Germany, Austria9 and Luxembourg,
registered on the contrary a decrease of the youth unemployment rate (which may be explained
8 Cited in “The Youth employment crisis: Time for action” (ILO 2012)
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by their integration into apprenticeship schemes as in Germany), the general situation of
industrialized and in particular European countries remains quite critical.
As far as North America is concerned the situation seems to be less difficult compared to most
European countries and there also some differences between the US and Canada.
According to the Bureau of Labour Statistics data, youth unemployment10
was 4.1 million in July
201111
and decreased from the 4,4 million of 2010, passing from 19,1 to 18,1 % in the US.
As we will observe later on, the unemployment rate changes depending on the characteristics of
the individuals involved: “among major demographic groups, unemployment rates were lower
than a year earlier for young men (18.3 percent) and Asians (15.3 percent), while jobless rates
were little changed for young women (17.8 percent), whites (15.9 percent), blacks (31.0 percent),
and Hispanics (20.1 percent)” 12
.
Canadian Labor force between 15 – 24 years old – Seasonally adjusted
Source Labor Force Information Canada – March 2011
9 Please see the 2012 ILO Report: The Youth Employment Crisis: Time for action.
10 In the case of the US, youth refers to people between 16 and 24 years old.
11 However, taking into consideration the characteristics of the US labour market it is important to notice
that the fact of considering the month of July and the summer may contribute to the increase of the
participation rate, since: “During these months, large numbers of high school and college students search
for or take summer jobs, and many graduates enter the labor market to look for or begin permanent
employment” (BLS Economic News Release 2011).
12 BLS Economic News Release 2011: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/youth.nr0.htm
9
Source: Statistics Canada. Labour force survey estimates (LFS), supplementary unemployment rates by sex and age
group, annual (Table CANSIM 282-0086). Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2012
As we can observe, despite the fact that youth unemployment in Canada is lower compared to the
European average and the US, youth is the age group which is still mostly concerned by the
employment crisis. If we compared for instance youth unemployment with the adult population
(25-54) the rate is almost double. In addition, as we will observe in the next section dealing with
the position in the labour market, we know that in Canada, as in most other countries, young
people often occupy the most vulnerable and precarious position in the labour market and are also
segmented in less paying and less protected sectors, such as services (Fournier and Bourassa
2000; Tremblay 2004).
When dealing with youth unemployment, it is important to consider those young people who are
neither enrolled in school nor employed and that are defined as “NEET” (“Not in Employment,
Education or Training). Considering the objectives of this article, this population is very
important and it is the one experiencing the highest risk of labour market and social exclusion and
for this reason it also represents the focus of the “Entreprises d`insertion”, who target those
individuals who are most detached and far from the labor market.
According to Statistics Canada (201213
), in 2011 some 13% of young people between 15 and 29
years old did not attend school nor had a job. This represents 904,000 young people classified as
NEET: 391,000 were looking for a job while 513,000 were not. The other part of the 15-29 years
old in Canada, some 87%, were equally split into those at school and those at work. The long-
13
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/120523/dq120523b-eng.pdf
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term unemployed among youth in Canada represented 1% of all youth and 14% of all
unemployed youth: the lowest proportion of long-term unemployed young people among the G7
nations, as for the general NEET proportion.
An important element confirming age as a decisive risk profile is the fact that young people
between 15 and 24 years olds (in particular men) were more at risk of unemployment compared
to the 25-29 (Statistic Canada 2012).
The NEET concept is very important for Europe as well and has been indeed conceptualized in
particular in the UK during the 80’s, before being produced annually by the OECD.
However, differently from Canada, it generally includes young people between 15 and 24 years
old.
NEET Rates in Europe; Source EUROFOUND 201116
NEET youth 2007-2010 in some OECD countries17
16 Young people and NEETs in Europe: First findings
(http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2011/72/en/1/EF1172EN.pdf) 17
Source: OECD Employment policies and data 2012
(http://www.oecd.org/employment/employmentpoliciesanddata/50304960.pdf)
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The NEET youth in the all EU is of about 7.5 million people, equal to 12.8 % in 2010 with an
increase of 2 percentage points from 2008 (ILO 2012).
The NEET rate in different countries generally follows the unemployment trends. We therefore
observe the highest rates in Ireland, Italy, Spain, Greece and Eastern Europe (Bulgaria and
Romania).
Based on the 2008 European Values Survey, a EUROFOUND research on the European NEET
population (2011) investigated the potential risk factors for individuals and reported the main
factors:
- Disabilities (disabled individuals have 40% more risks to become part of the NEET
population)
- Immigration (immigrant or immigrant origin people have 70% more risks)
- Low education (low educated individuals are three times more likely to become NEET
compared to those with tertiary education)
- Low household income
- Parents who experienced unemployment
- Parents’ low education
- Divorced parents
- People living in remote areas
Although it is important to keep in mind all these potential risk factors, we should pay attention
not to consider this population as just one homogeneous group (EUROFOUND 2011). We can
find indeed at the same time people with high and low education, different social backgrounds,
long term or short term NEET, etc.
To conclude on youth unemployment, it is clear, as we argued, that this situation may represent
an evident generational waste, in terms of capabilities and skills (since unemployment also
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concern educated young people). At the same time it poses problems of increasing inequalities
among generations as also within the same cohort. In addition, there is an important cost of long-
term unemployment: “According to one estimate, in 2008 the cost of long-term unemployment or
inactivity among young people in EU Member States for which data was available amounted to
the equivalent of 1.1 per cent of GDP (ILO 2012 p. 19). It is in this perspective that we will look
at the local initiatives of “Entreprise d`insertion” in Quebec, as a common investment of the State
and local communities to reduce unemployment and its social and economic costs.
Avoiding the waste of a generation and social group: the case of the “Entreprises d’
insertion” in Quebec
The aim of the following sections is to present and explain the reality of the “Enterprises
d`insertion” in Quebec, as an important initiative of socio-professional integration for young
people with vulnerable socio-economic profiles: in order to avoid those phenomena that we have
defined as “generational waste”.
After a quick overview on European WISEs and on the major differences and similarities, we will
explain their mission, work and main target. In order to achieve this objective, we will mobilise
part of our empirical data: some of the results of interviews with more than fifty young people
working in these companies as interns, as well as with ten company managers.
Methodology
In this article we try to take into account a double perspective: the point of view of the
“Entreprises d`insertion”, perceived as an institution having at the same time an economic and a
social task, as well as that of individuals, having their own personal story, trajectory and making
their own experience of socio-professional integration.
When using in-depth interviews with managers, we wanted to understand their daily management
experiences, practices, difficulties and strategies to achieve a double objective: economic
performance and attainment of their social mission (socio-professional integration).
In so doing, we adopted the perspective of organisational ethnography (Schwartzman 1992)
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considering it an important tool to give “insightful descriptions and presenting phenomena in new
and revealing ways» (Hammersley: 1992, p. 13).
A fundamental concept that is often mobilized in ethnographic approaches applied to
organizations is culture and in particular the culture of business and organisations.
“About culture, we can say that it is both rational and irrational; has formal and informal sides;
has both a statically conservative and a highly dynamic and process-driven character; is used
strategically and has a highly emotional and irrational charge; provides clarity by offering
standard rules and solutions while remaining opaque; reflects unity, diversity and ambiguity; is
homogeneous as well as heterogeneous”(Koot and Boessenkool, 1994, p.56).
In order to study culture, we must assume the perspective and rationale of the actor and
understand how he makes sense of the mission and events that happen within the organization
(Koot and Boessenkool, 1994, p.60).
Another key aspect related to the concept of culture is that of the values. In this article our
starting point will be the mission and daily life of the “Entreprises d`insertion”. In fact, they have
been created around specific ideals and a clearly defined mission: social inclusion and socio-
professional integration.
At the same time, through the qualitative approach of in-depth interviews, we will analyse the
trajectories and experiences of young people, before and during the period of socio-professional
integration. This will allow us to better frame and describe these organizations. Although our
objective is not to evaluate this tools but simply to give an insight description and show in details
how it works and why we could define it as a “best practice”.
From this perspective we opted again for a qualitative and ethnographic approach, since it works
best on the basis of individual experiences and can capture the true essence and living experience
of social reality (Dal Lago, De Biasi 2002). In particular, social and professional exclusion, as
also the process of socio-professional integration itself is far from being smooth and can be quite
difficult for the individual, bringing into action several factors (social background, personal,
social, educational and professional status etc.).
This is the reason why we believe that our qualitative approach is the best in order to better
understand the individual and the organizational views.
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WISEs in a comparative perspective
As we mentioned, the WISEs/Entreprises d`insertion are not something new for Europe. They
have indeed been first created during the eighties in Belgium, France and the UK and have
recently become an issue in the European debate about high unemployment (Davister, Defourny,
Gregoire 2011).
As we will observe in this and in the next section, the WISEs of Quebec seem to be in some way
different compared to the European ones. However, showing the best practice of the WISEs in
Quebec, our objective is not to argue that they are better or more efficient than the European
ones. Our aim is rather to observe how the WISEs can represent a good and useful tool to fight
against youth unemployment and more generally to avoid what has been defined as the
“generational waste” as they have apparently contributed to a better integration of youth into the
labour market in Quebec, although macro-economic factors also come into play. We also need to
stress the variability of contexts and the importance of path dependency, ie. how similar
initiatives can take different forms, and have different impacts, depending on the historical,
institutional19
and social frame .
Both in Europe and Quebec the WISEs are part of the social economy or third sector economy as
often called in Belgium and France (“tiers secteur”) and are initiatives aiming at socio-
professional integration. In Europe as in Quebec the WISEs are autonomous economic actors,
with a task of socio-professional integration, which is attained through a real activity of
production, individual support and professional/vocational education.
Differently from Quebec, where there are also a good number of companies working in the new
technology and other advanced sectors, most of the European WISEs are in the manual labor
market, in areas such as construction, carpentry, sorting and recycling, gardening and
manufacture (Davister, Defourny, Gregoire 2011). From this point of view, we could consider the
“Entreprises d’insertion” of Quebec, as a good option for socio-professional integration
programs, as they target a vulnerable youth population but try to avoid the reproduction of
segmentation in the labor market by confining them in traditional low paid occupations.
Before going into the details and providing a quick overview of the WISEs in Europe, it is
important to mention that talking generally about European WISEs is not an easy task, since, as
we mentioned, in various countries there might be significant differences and peculiarities.
Therefore, our objective here is simply to providing a general frame of the situation, based on the
specialised literature (Eme, Gardin 2002; Spear and Bidet 2003; Borzaga and Defourny).
19
Such as for example the importance that local communities have had in the development of social
economy and in particular of the WISEs in Quebec.
15
In a research report on the WISEs in ten different European countries (Davister, Defourny,
Gregoire 2011) thirty nine different categories have been counted, based on various criteria. In
order to introduce an elmeent of comparison between the generality of European WISEs and
those of Quebec, we will essentially take into consideration the modalities of integration and in so
doing, we will also introduce other elements such as the typology and characteristics of workers,
the type of contract and the role and terms of public supports.
The first type has been defined as “Transitional Jobs WISEs”. As the above mentioned report
underlines, the focus here is about the difference existing between a real employment/work and
jobs as something more transitional.
The objective of this type of WISE is to provide to all participants a job experience or training, in
order to enable a successful integration in the real labor market. This includes people with an
internship or fixed-term contract. This is the case for instance of the «Entreprises de Formation
par le Travail » in Belgium (Nyssens, Grégoire 2002) or the WISE in Portugal (Perista, Nogueira
2004) whose objective is to provide people with social and professional tools to improve their
skills and increase their opportunities and employability in the labour market.
Similar activities are also offered by the WISEs in Quebec. As we will observe in the next
sections, these activities are a fundamental and well integrated part of their professional
integration program. However, the aim of the “Entreprises d`insertion”, as the one of Emploi
Quebec, financing the workers' participation, is to provide real working experiences; something
which makes the difference in Quebec between the WISEs and other forms of local community
initiatives (centres communautaires).
A second type of WISE in Europe aims at the creation of permanent self-funded jobs. Their aim
is to create stable and real employment opportunities in the short-medium term for a population
which is excluded and extremely vulnerable in the labour market.
In the beginning public subsidies are granted to compensate the workers’ lack of productivity,
while after that, the company should earn profit and be self-subsistent. From this perspective
workers remain the same and therefore, compared to the WISEs of Quebec, offering a 26 weeks
experience, this second typology of WISE has a rather limited target: those workers who have
been included in the program from the beginning and a more restricted number of people who
may join the company later.
This form of socio-professional integration can be found in the case of the French “Entreprises
Insérantes” or the Social Firms in Germany and the UK, providing the participants stable job
opportunities, but less socio-psychological or larger support, centering rather on the task.
On the contrary, in the case of Quebec the objective is not simply to stabilise the employment in a
16
WISE (although some companies can freely decide to hire some of their interns). Their focus
seems to be rather on the process of socio-professional integration of the workers: on their
difficulties and problems, in order to provide them with the right tools to overcome a negative
situation; and finally make them closer and compatible to the values and needs of the labor
market and offer them a possibly better employment trajectory precisely because of this
supplementary support offered to them.
Unlike this second typology of WISE, public support in Quebec is constant. However, it takes the
form of an agreement (to be renewed each year) between the “Entreprise d’insertion” and the
State, through Emploi Quebec (Labour Dept). In this perspective, we can once again observe that
the focus is not on the WISE itself, but rather on the participants. In fact, Emploi Quebec finances
the participation of workers/interns, covering the total costs of the socio-professional integration
program (wages of interns, educators, social and psychological professionals etc.20
). The
businesses and economic activity including the wages of regular workers should however be
completely autonomous and self-standing.
An element which makes the difference and underlines the centrality of the intern is the fact that
participants are not only considered as workers but also as clients of the WISE, since they are the
“users” of a public service (socio-professional integration) supported by the State.
A third typology of European WISE, targets people with disabilities as also other individuals
experiencing strong social disadvantages. For example, through a significant public support the
“Entreprises de Travail Adapté” offer participation in various productive activities to physically
and mentally disable workers. On the contrary, the majority of WISEs in Quebec do not
specifically target people with disabilities, but more generally individuals with a socially
vulnerable profile and in many cases (depending on the target and mission chosen by the
company) the target is rather young, which marks a difference with most European WISEs. In
addition, although these young people usually have a significantly vulnerable profile and often
cumulate different problems, as we will observe in one of the following sections, participants
must still be functional at work and be compatible with social life.
The last typology is composed by those WISEs providing "Socialization through productive
activity" (Davister, Defourny, Gregoire 2011). The objective of these companies is not a
professional integration in the regular labour market, rather a (re) socialization of the participants.
The activity is considered as "semi-informal" and does not provide an official contract or status.
The participants are mainly alcoholics, drug addicts or people with criminal records, serious
physical or mental disabilities.
20
http://www.collectif.qc.ca/
17
On the contrary in Quebec, as we will observe in one of the next sections, the focus is also on the
socialization of young people having possibly such characteristics; the WISEs should always try
to find a balance between their three main activities: social inclusion, professional and vocational
training and production. The element of production is one of the key and cannot be neglected: the
“Entreprises d’insertion” should offer a true working experience in the labour market, although it
can be adjusted to the individual needs of each participant, through a personalised follow up.
As the research on European WISEs has underlined (Davister, Defourny, Gregoire 2011)
although the majority of WISEs (26 of 39 categories) mainly focus on one of the four described
typologies, others may combine different models within the same company. Something also
happening in the case of Quebec, which had the opportunity to learn from the first European
experiences, created during the seventies and eighties, in order to propose its own "hybrid"
model, best adapted to its socio-institutional context.
In Europe, the most common combination is for example the one putting together a presence of
transitional jobs with permanent self-funded employment. This is for example the case of the
Italian “Cooperative sociali di tipo b” or the “Régies de Quartier” in France. In the case of the
"Entreprises d’insertion" in Quebec, this choice for the company remains possible but it is not
statutorily regulated. This underlines once again a significant difference with Europe: in Quebec
the focus seems to be more on socio-professional integration as a process and not simply on the
creation of employment, as it appears to be the case for European WISEs. This last objective
becomes however often viable, as the consequence of a positive path and a constant follow up,
lasting two years after the experience in the “Entreprise d’insertion” and having a double aim:
social integration (through a professional socio-psychological support, encouraging in most cases
a return to school and education) and professional inclusion through assistance and support in job
search.
To conclude this comparative overview: an element marking the difference between Quebec and
most European WISEs is the constant, simultaneous presence of three important components:
social integration, professional integration and employability and a real working experience,
under the form of internship. A working experience which is recognized in Quebec through a real
(minimum) wage and not just a simple reimbursement, as it is often the case in Europe. A salary
that even in symbolic terms represents a key element, becoming much more than an economic
reward but perceived as a first important achievement towards social and professional integration.
The mission of the “Entreprises d`insertion” between discourse and daily practice
18
Although WISE’s managers in Quebec always take into account all the three main areas of their
business (social, professional integration and production), the social integration often seems to
have a primary role in their discourse. At the same time, it becomes more and more evident in the
evolution of the discourse that the fundamental challenge is to find a balance between these
various aspects.
«Une entreprise d’insertion il faut savoir la définir. Il y a trois volets à respecter. Le premier est
celui de l’intégration et de l’insertion sociale. Le deuxième c’est la formation professionnelle et
le troisième c’est la production… Donc on n’est pas un centre communautaire, mais on le fait. Il
faut le faire et le réussir. On n’est pas une école, mais on le fait et il faut le réussir, on n’est pas
un privé, mais on doit le réussir. C’est l’entreprise d’insertion. Si tu n’arrives pas à gérer un de
ces trois volets ensemble et au même niveau, tu ne peux pas réussir la mission de l’entreprise
d’insertion. C’est la base. Mais bien entendu, tout ce qu’on fait, même la production, est pour
notre mission, qui est d’aider les gens à intégrer la société ». (Petites Mains – Operational
Director)
Every one of the “Entreprises d`insertion” can find its own balance in several ways. As for
example through a "modulated" and limited business development, which represents the major
difference they identify between themselves and traditional market, and in most cases through a
constant socio-psychological intervention: taking place before, during and after the professional
experience.
«Ces activités coexistent en même temps dans l’entreprise. Mais notre activité de production est
au service de notre mission de formation et on la met en avant. On n’a pas la volonté et une
stratégie de développement qui pourrait augmenter de façon importante notre chiffre d’affaire et
qui pourrait mettre en difficulté nos capacités à accueillir des gens en formation». (Imprime
Emploi - Director)
And again:
« Comparativement aux autres entreprises privées, je te dirais qu’on a les mêmes impératifs au
niveau financier et au niveau performance de l’entreprise. Pour maintenir la formation que l’on
offre, il faut que l’entreprise soit rentable. Une des différences avec l’entreprise privée et que
notre finalité n’est pas d’engranger un maximum de profit pour les besoins personnels.» (Buffet
Insert Jeunes – Director)
19
What distinguishes the “Entreprises d`insertion” from the traditional market is the mission.
Private companies are centered on profit and can therefore develop without limits (at least in
theory) their business volume. On the contrary, the “entreprises d`insertion” must combine the
economic and the social performance, the latter being perceived as their first mission, taking into
account the characteristics of their workers: «Pour arriver au même niveau qu’une entreprise
privée du même service, j’ai besoin de beaucoup plus de staff, car ici on commence tout le temps
avec des jeunes qui partent de zéro. Donc il y a toute la partie du travail à leur apprendre ».
(Buffet Insert Jeunes – Director)
The costs of socio-professional integration - including the wages of interns, those of professional
educators and all the activities and follow up during and after the internship are supported by
Emploi Québec, a provincial governmental body, which is the equivalent of the »Labour
Department. At the same time, it is important to remember that these funds are based on estimates
and therefore costs can, in the daily practice, be even higher.
The complexity of certain activities is also what makes the difference among these companies.
Some of them are active in more traditional areas, such as manufacturing, recycling, restaurants
and cleaning, while others are on the contrary more specialized, such as for example in the
computer, digital printing, and audiovisual industry. As we will observe, the richness of profiles
and sectors is one of the peculiarities of the “Entreprises d’ Insertion” in Quebec, compared for
example to most European WISEs. This also informs us on a strategic labor market choice at the
local community and also governmental level (through the agreements and State support).
Enlarging these companies’ field of action and their programs of socio-professional integration to
more professional and specialized areas may also have a role in the regulation of the labor
market, in particular decreasing “segmentation” and allowing working class groups, and (in many
cases) population of immigrant origin the access to a better quality labor market.
« Au départ on s’était lancés dans une activité économique où il n’y avait pas vraiment de
précédents. On ne savait pas comment faire. Plusieurs nous ont déconseillé ce choix, en disant
qu’il s’agissait d’une activité beaucoup trop complexe pour ce public.
Tout le monde, c’était un consensus. On s’est entêtés, mais même nous, on n’avait pas une idée
très claire de ce que les jeunes pourraient faire. Il y a beaucoup de choses qu’on ne faisait pas au
départ et que l’on fait maintenant. Ils font de la réparation de moniteurs, sans soucis aucuns, on
n’a jamais eu d’accidents. Nous avons compris que si tu montes un bon programme, si tu le
structures, si tu es clair au niveau des consignes, ils peuvent le faire. Si je compare à d’autres
20
entreprises d’insertion où l’activité en elle-même est plus simple, où ils font un catalogue, nous
avons une activité qui évolue constamment, alors nous n’avons pas de catalogue qui sera valide
pour un ou deux ans. ». (Insertech – Director)
Of course, each activity has its own challenges working with inexperienced workers, having not
only professional but also social difficulties. This is why the socio-psychological intervention is
part of the program and should always be integrated to the economic and professional objectives.
For this reason, another characteristic of these companies, which is linked to their nature and
mission, is the double concept of customer. They have to serve two clients: the worker taking part
in the integration process thanks to the agreements between Emploi Québec and the WISEs, as
also the businesses client, who buys their products, services and allows the economic
sustainability of the company.
The profile of workers
The people taking part in the programs of socio-professional integration in the “Entreprises d’
insertion” need to have an official approval by “Emploi Quebec” who should acknowledge their
real need. At the same time, as we argued, the WISEs can also refuse some participants. They
generally experience great difficulty integrating the labor market, as also at a personal and social
level. In most cases these workers are young people between 18 and 30, men and women with
several vulnerabilities such as low income families, immigration, mental health issues, etc. In this
perspective, it is important to consider the phenomenon of social exclusion as a multidimensional
phenomenon (Townsend 1979).
They have difficulties related to the characteristics of the family and social background: in many
cases (but not all) have immigrant origins, with low-income parents and often single parent
households.
They have generally cumulated several experiences of failure: at school (a majority did not
graduate from high school), and also difficulties in labor market integration etc. Their profile is
considered as distant from the labor market (“éloigné du marché du travail”) due to different
variables: the influence of the family background, the low educational level and other individual
characteristics. A very important variable is health, particularly mental health, but also other
problems related to the use of drugs, alcohol and other dependencies including those related to
video games and gambling.
21
In addition, some of them may also have criminal records, due to some experiences, usually
small forms of crime, which may have developed either in the family (brothers, cousins etc.) or in
the peer group at the neighborhood level, contributing to determine social and professional
exclusion.
The neighborhood is a significant variable. First of all because most of the WISE’s in Quebec
developed at a local community level in working class areas; secondly, because it is in these
neighborhoods that we observe a concentration of socio-professional exclusion, concerning
specifically young people.
Despite the fact of being complicated to analyze, and sometimes controversial from an
epistemological point of view, the neighborhood effect is a very important element in the
structuring of the characteristics of this population (Alberio 2011). In this article we cannot
explore this issue, but the fact that many of these young people (immigrant or not) live in
neighborhoods with homogeneous social and economic characteristics, remains a decisive
element.
Another important issue is the institutional structure. In a study on different European local
systems of social protection, Kazepov (and al.1997) noted how, following a model of path
dependency (Polanyi 1949) the specificity of institutions (labor market, State and family),
traditions, familiar networks and the local socio-demographic situation may have a fundamental
role in the structuring and development of phenomena of social exclusion.
It is in this perspective, that we can once again set the example of the “Entreprises d’insertion” as
a local and national response to the phenomenon of the socio-professional exclusion of youth,
with a rather multidimensional approach (social and economic support and integration), while
European initiatives tend to be more mono dimensional and centered usually somewhat more on
work integration.
A decisive variable making a difference in the structuring of the profile and vulnerability of each
participant is age. We must mention that some companies receive a very young population, from
16 to 25 years old, while the majority has an older target (18-30) and just few of them receive
people aged over 35, in particular immigrant women, having therefore very different needs and
difficulties, often related to their parenthood situation, often being lone mothers.
To conclude this section: we should remind that an element which is the key to the success of
socio-professional integration in the “Entreprises d’insertion” of Quebec is the coordination of all
22
the three main tasks: professional integration and education, real economic experience to provide
credentials to be spent in the “real” labor market and a constant socio-psycological support.
From this point of view, all the elements of the “Entreprises d’insertion” are decisive in order to
assure this coordination. In the same way, workers having different functions in the WISE often
become an integral part of this project. Many companies share their mission with all employees,
including those who do not work directly with interns. There are meetings (on general topics)
open to secretaries, as well as managers or social workers. In these companies everyone relates to
the interns and should therefore be able understand their specificities and needs.
On the contrary, in other companies the relationship with interns is something limited to
specialized educators and psycho-social operators. All workers without an educational or training
function are therefore excluded from most processes, although they have to be committed and
respect the basic values of an “Entreprise d’insertion”.
In any case, there is always a strong respect of the privacy of each invidual taking part in the
program: « Ce qui touche les aspects plus personnels ou psychosociaux n’est pas transmis à
l’équipe. C’est dans le domaine de la confidentialité. Les seules trois personnes ici qui ont accès
à la vie personnelle des jeunes c’est l’intervenant, la conseillère en emploi et moi » (Buffet Insert
Jeunes–Director).
The individual experience
There are at least two ways through which an individual can arrive to a WISE in Quebec.
One may be through Emploi Quebec, which evaluates the needs of a participant and proposes the
hiring (through a contract of internship at a minimum wage) to one or more WISEs. At the same
time, a first selection can also be made by the WISE itself. In this case the formal approval of
Emploi Quebec is necessary to verify the real needs of the individual and the potential benefits to
take part in the program21
.
« On a les deux, Emploi Québec travaille avec des gens qui sont sur la sécurité du revenu et
l’assurance emploi. À partir de là ils connaissent notre réseau et quand ils voient que quelqu’un
a un certain intérêt ils vont nous référer un candidat. Ce n’est pas la majorité qui est référée par
Emploi Québec, mais on n’a pas de problèmes de recrutement. » (Formétal – Director).
In general, most managers, even when their company is responsible for the first selection, due to
21
Source : Collectif des entreprises d'insertion du Québec (CEIQ) : http://www.collectif.qc.ca
23
the fact that many young people arrive through a “word of mouth”, do not have the same criteria
as a traditional private company. Their selection process reflects the main mission of the WISE.
The choice cannot be focused on the skills, rather on individual needs and generally takes into
account the real benefit of the participant.
Once again, we see how the WISE of Quebec emphasizes first of all the role and integration of a
participant; despite the fact that they have also an important task of production and economic
self-sustainability. It is significant to note that unlike traditional companies, a CV is not required
during the selection process. They begin with a group presentation on their activities and values,
followed by individual interviews, conducted by a socio-psychological professional, in order to
estimate the profile and needs of the candidate.
For all companies the basic criteria is the individual motivation to start and successfully conclude
their experience of socio-professional integration and to measure it, they implement specific
strategies:
« On fait une sorte de pré parcours, même avant la période de probation22
. Des fois, pour tester
la motivation, ça peut être aussi : ‘les deux prochains jours tu vas arriver à 7 h 30 juste pour que
je voie que tu es capable d’arriver à 7 h 30. Ça nous démontre la capacité de cette personne de
se prendre en main et sa motivation aussi. On part de l’idée que si on accepte un jeune ici c’est
parce qu’on sait qu’on va lui faire vivre une réussite et non un échec.» (Ateliers d’Antoine –
Managing Director).
The main objective of the WISEs is the success of the experience of socio-professional
integration. This success becomes the key concept, since their mission is to allow socio-
professional integration thanks to a first successful experience, able to “produce” other positive
events.
For this reason, even if managers say they select the most vulnerable profiles, the criteria of
functionality should still be present. The person should fit the social context and at the same time
be able to adapt and integrate all the three areas of intervention, including production (although
this is done gradually and under a constant monitoring from both a technical/vocational and a
socio-psychological point of view).
« Ce qu’on va regarder au niveau du recrutement est si la personne a besoin de faire un parcours
d’insertion, elle a besoin de ce qu’on lui propose, elle a la capacité de faire une démarche
d’apprentissage. La capacité physique et psychologique. Mais c’est une évaluation qui est très
22
Most companies have a probationary period, where it is still possible to end the program without
compromising the possibility of another future experience in the same or another company. In some cases
the WISE can also refuse the participant if they estimate that he is not ready yet for this experience. This
happens for example in case of strong dependencies, strong invalidating illness (including mental illness).
24
sommaire, il y a des choses qui nous échappent (..). On rencontre des gens éloignés du marché du
travail, mais il faut qu’ils aient la capacité de suivre une formation, d’apprendre ce qu’on peut
leur proposer et d’avancer. Il y a des personnes qui ont besoin d’un apprentissage ‘one to one’,
ils vont avoir besoin de recevoir une formation où on va travailler avec eux de façon individuelle,
du matin au soir. On n’est pas capable de faire ça ici. Nous avons une mission et des
compétences d’accompagnement, d’aide et de soutien mais nous ne sommes pas un lieu
thérapeutique. Nous n’hésitons à proposer à la personne, selon ses besoins, à aller vers des
ressources appropriées». (Imprime Emploi – Managing Director)
As we have mentioned, one of the most important variables to be accepted in a program is the
individual motivation, rather than the experience or professional skills. Therefore, participation
should be on a voluntary basis. Despite this, in some cases people can be “encouraged” to the
take part in such programs by institutions such as Emploi Quebec itself or a judge and tribunals.
In case of a criminal record the experience in a WISE can indeed be seen as a process of social
rehabilitation.
«Maintenant je suis là parce que j’avais besoin de stimulant dans le genre, j’avais des comptes à
rendre à certaines personnes et prouver que j’étais capable de faire un truc bien. À ma mère,
mon agent de probation et mes amis». (Man, 18 years old, Haitian origin).
On the basis of the personal experience that an individual can have in a WISE, it is about
providing some experiences as well as a “set of possibilities” and inspirations. This is the reason
why, especially at the beginning, the participant may be not completely aware of the objectives of
the programs, nor of his/her ambitions and professional preferences (Alberio, Tremblay 2012).
« Je n’ai pas de rêve, je n’ai pas d’objectif d’accomplissement de travail. Il est tôt, je ne pourrais
pas prendre une décision ‘live’ de ce que je ferai pour le restant de mes jours. Je suis ici pour
m`encadrer et arrêter avec mes conneries ». (Man, 18 years old, Haitian origin)
Some young people may attend a special program called “Intégration”, lasting one month before
their entrance in a WISE. It is organized and handled by the “Collectif des Entreprises d’Insertion
du Quebec” and targets those people who experience even more difficulties than the average:
«On se voit chaque jour pour s’améliorer et prendre une routine de travail en se levant tôt. Ils
nous paient pour venir ici et faire des sorties, ils nous apprennent beaucoup de choses sur nous-
mêmes. On parle avec l`intervenant et il nous aide à être bien avec nous-même ». (Man, 20 years
old, Haitian origin).
As we have observed in the course of our research, the experience of socio-professional
integration can be long and may require time and several steps. It is common that a person takes
part in more than one program of socio-professional integration in different WISEs and this is not
25
considered by all the actors involved - Emploi Quebec (State), managers of the WISEs, social
operators and the interns themselves – as a negative event, waste or failure. On the contrary, it
allows the individual to progress over time. If he or she is able to continue the program until the
end and even start a second or third experience of socio-professional integration, it means that the
person might be “ready” to integrate the labour market very soon after this, and be better prepared
for this. Another option is to improve and complete the social integration path, through a return to
education, having thus more chances to succeed, thanks to the experience, commitment, and all
other personal and social tools acquired in the WISE.
«En étant dans un autre projet auparavant: Jeunes en Action, j’ai découvert que c’est tout ce qui
touchait les arts qui m’intéressait, de la coiffure, de la pâtisserie, de l’aménagement paysager
j’ai tout adoré ça. Tout de la création. Fait qu’on a vu et le multimédia m’intéressait beaucoup
vu que j’avais fait du dessin et j’adore faire de l’infographie. Donc ils m’ont proposé X qui est un
programme de réinsertion. Ça m’intéressait au bout, c’était magnifique les projets. Je suis
retournée voir la madame et ils ont signé mes papiers pour 9 mois. Après X je suis venue ici faire
un autre programme d`insertion » (Girl, 20 years old, Canadian origin).
Conclusion
In this article we started from a general problem, the exclusion and precarious situation of young
people in most countries, dealing in particular with Europe, the US and Canada. The objective has
been here to show how, despite different forms, volumes and economic and labor market
situations, there is in most countries an important generational issue, taking the form of a global
challenge in order to avoid what could be defined as a “generational waste”.
Of course, as we argued, we should also keep into account other important variables, such as
individual characteristics (in order to not consider the youth as a completely homogenous group),
the institutional and local contexts etc. It is indeed in this perspective that we analyzed the WISEs
as a mixed initiative (local community and public support) and response: active at the local
territorial level but having also a potential impact on the general labor market situation.
In particular, we focused on the WISEs of Quebec, as a good example and possible “best
practice”. Having been first created in some European contexts, we presented the main
characteristics of European WISEs, according to the literature, trying to underline similarities,
differences and some interesting peculiarities of the “Entreprises d’insertion” of Quebec, that as
we argued, have also re-interpreted some European experiences, proposing their own model,
adapting it to the specific Québec socio-political, institutional and economic context.
26
We have presented an overview of the difficulties facing youth in Québec/Canada and Europe.
The present situation sees Quebec in a rather favorable position in comparison to Europe, in terms
of unemployment and youth unemployment as well; although it remains higher than adult
unemployment, it was much higher in the 80’s crisis and it is today far from that observed in
Europe, France, Italy, Greece and Spain in particular. Over the years, and particularly in a
context of high unemployment in Europe as in the Americas, States have tried to develop modes
of intervention to try to favor integration of youth in the labor market, and in Europe as in
Quebec, this has taken the form of WISE, amongst other interventions.
In the case of Quebec WISE, we observed that they are institutional actors having a double
mission: the socio-professional integration and a real economic activity in the labor market. We
started from an internal institutional perspective, presenting also the point of view of managers,
their objectives, achievements and difficulties.
At the same time, remaining on a micro perspective but focusing on the individuals, we looked at
the effects of socio-professional integration as a process, highlighting, from a qualitative
perspective, the impact that the WISEs and their programs can have on the life, experiences and
working trajectories of young people with significant socially disadvantaged characteristics.
In the context of Quebec, the peculiarity may be the very strong presence and activism of the
social economy sector, which has been well recognized by the State since a large national summit
on employment in 1996 after years of activism and concertation building (Tremblay, 1994),
which gave the social economy sector much legitimacy and increased the State’s support to it
various activities, including WISE (Tremblay, Klein, Fontan, 2009).
While the mode of intervention of WISE may seem similar in both zones, it appears to us that in
Quebec the focus seems to be more on socio-professional integration as a process and not only on
the job creation, as it appears to be the case for European WISEs. However, this last objective
becomes viable, on a more long term perspective, as the consequence of a positive path and a
constant follow up, lasting two years after the experience in the “Entreprise d’insertion” and
having a double aim: social integration (through a professional socio-psychological support,
encouraging in most cases a return to school and education) and professional inclusion through
assistance and support in job search.
To conclude our comparative analysis, we can say that the possibly major element making the
difference between Quebec and most European WISEs is the constant, simultaneous presence of
the three above-mentioned components: social integration, professional integration and
employability and a real working experience, under the form of internship. This working
experience is recognized in Quebec by paying a real (minimum) wage and not just a simple
27
allocation, as it is often the case in Europe. The salary is important for these young people in
symbolic terms and not only for the money it represents as it is a key element, being perceived
not only as pay for the work done, but more importantly as a first important achievement towards
social and professional integration.
In this perspective, it appears that the professional integration and education, the very real
working experience to provide credentials to be spent in the “real” labor market and the constant
socio-psychological support are the source of success of the Quebec WISE. Although apparently
less frequent, as the initiatives in Europe seem more specialized and specifically work-oriented,
some of them may however adopt this approach and it appears that this may be a possible
solution to ensure long term social and professional integration of youth. Given the very high
unemployment rates in many European countries presently, the most vulnerable youth will have
to compete with the more educated, and it will surely be important to offer them more support
and provide chances to integrate the labor market in such a difficult context.
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