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United Nations Development Programme
DROUGHT RISK MANAGEMENT:
PRACTITIONERS PERSPECTIVES
FROM AFRICA AND ASIA
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Disclaimer
The views expressed in this publication are those o the author and do not necessarily represent
those o the United Nations, including UNDP, or its Member States.
Copyright 2012 United Nations Development Programme,
One United Nations Plaza,
New York, NY, 10017, USA
All rights reserved
January 2012
Design
Jinita Shah/UNON
Layout
Cathrine Kimeu/UNON
PrintingUnited Nations Ofce at Nairobi, Publishing Services Section, ISO 14001:2004 certied.
Author
Paul Venton
This publication has been made possible by unding rom the Government o Japan. The views
expressed herein can in no way be taken to reect the ofcial opinion o the donor.
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DROUGHT RISKMANAGEMENT:
PRACTITIONERSPERSPECTIVESFROMAFRICAANDASIA
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ii
UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme (UNDP)
UNDPpartnerswithpeopleatall levelsosocietytohelp buildnationsthat canwithstand
crisis,anddriveandsustainthekindogrowththatimprovesthe qualityolieoreveryone.
Onthegroundin 177 countriesandterritories,weoferglobal perspectiveand local insightto
helpempower livesand buildresilientnations.
The UNDP Drylands Development Centre is a unique global thematic centre that provides
technical expertise,practical policyadviceandprogrammesupportorpovertyreductionand
developmentinthedrylandsotheworld. The Centresworkbridges betweenglobal policy
issuesandon-the-groundactivities,andhelpsgovernmentstoestablishandinstitutionalize
the link between grassroots development activities and pro-poor policy reorm. The main
areasoocusaremainstreamingodrylandsissuesintonational developmentrameworks;
land governance; marking markets work or the poor; decentralized governance o naturalresources; anddroughtriskmanagement.
www.undp.org/drylands
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Acronyms
AADP Arica-AsiaDrought RiskManagementPeerAssistanceNetwork
ADAF AricaDroughtAdaptation ForumADDN AricanDrought RiskandDevelopmentNetwork
DDC DrylandsDevelopment Centre
DRM Drought RiskManagement
EWS Early WarningSystem
FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganisation
GIS Geographic InormationSystem
HFA Hyogo FrameworkorAction
IRIN Integrated Regional InormationNetworks
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
NGO Non-Governmental OrganizationSSC South-South Cooperation
TSN Trans-NzoiaSocio-Economic Network
UNCCD UnitedNations Conventionto CombatDesertication
UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
UNFCCC UnitedNations FrameworkConventionon Climate Change
UNISDR UnitedNations International StrategyorDisaster Reduction
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TableoContents
Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................................vi
Executive Summary .........................................................................................................................vii
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Drought Impacts and Causes......................................................................................................4
2.1 Drought Impacts.....................................................................................................................................4
2.2 Root CausesoDrought Impacts......................................................................................................6
2.3 TrendsinDrought Impactsand Their Causes............................................................................10
2.4 BarrierstoAddressing CausesoDrought Impacts................................................................. 11
3. Drought RiskManagement .......................................................................................................143.1 ApproachesandPractices................................................................................................................14
3.2 Progressand Gapsin CoreAreasoDrought RiskManagement.......................................17
3.2.1 Policy FrameworksandPlans.............................................................................................18
3.2.2 Drought RiskAssessmentandDisseminationoEarly Warning............................20
3.2.3 Awarenessand Knowledge.................................................................................................21
3.3 Proposalsor Replicable GoodPracticeDrought RiskManagement................................23
3.3.1 Introductionto GoodPractice...........................................................................................23
3.3.2 ExamplesoGoodPracticeDrought RiskManagement........................................... 25
4. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................304.1 OpportunitiesorArica-AsiaDrought RiskManagementPeerAssistance....................30
4.1.1 RaisingAwarenessothe ValueoIndigenous Knowledge....................................31
4.1.2 Promotionoa MultiacetedApproachtoDeal withDriversoDrought Risk. 32
4.1.3 ExpandingAwarenessotheEconomic ImpactoDroughtand How This
InuencesPolitical Decision-Making...............................................................................33
4.1.4 Investigatingthe IntegrationintoEarly WarningSystemsoNon-climatic
IndicatorsoDrought............................................................................................................33
4.1.5 KeepingPacewiththeEmergenceoNewDrought RiskIssuesand Trends....34
4.2 Final Remarks........................................................................................................................................34
Reerence ...........................................................................................................................................35
Annex A Survey Response ...........................................................................................................36
Annex B Survey Questionnaire ...................................................................................................39
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Figures
Figure 1: Drought Impacts............................................................................................................................5
Figure 2: Relationship between Meteorological,Agricultural, Hydrological andSocio-Economic Drought........................................................................................................................6
Figure 3: Root CausesoDrought Impacts.............................................................................................7
Figure 4: BarrierstoAddressingthe CausesoDrought Impacts.................................................13
Figure 5: ApproachestoDrought RiskManagement.......................................................................16
Figure 6: Policy FrameworksandPlans..................................................................................................19
Figure 7: Drought RiskAssessmentandtheDisseminationoEarly Warning.........................21
Figure 8: Awarenessand Knowledge......................................................................................................23
Figure 9: Proposed MainElementsorDrought RiskReduction Framework...........................25
Figure 10: ApproachtoDrought RiskManagement............................................................................32
Figure A-1: Regional Response......................................................................................................................36
Figure A-2: FieldsoExpertise........................................................................................................................37
Figure A3: TypeoOrganization..................................................................................................................37
Tables
Table 1: Comparingthe Root CausesoDrought Impacts betweenAricaandAsia...................8
Table 2: PerceptionsontheEfectivenessoDrought RiskAssessmentandEarly Warning.......20
Table 3: ExamplesoReplicable GoodPracticeDrought RiskManagement................................27
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Acknowledgements
The United Nations Development Programme Drylands Development Centre (UNDP DDC)
grateully appreciates the generous contributions provided by the Government o Japan
throughthe Japan-UNDPPartnership FundortheimplementationotheArica-AsiaDrought
Risk ManagementPeerAssistanceNetwork (AADP) andtheorganizationothe FirstArica-
AsiaDroughtAdaptation Forum.
Special gratitudegoestoEric Patrick,Yuko KurauchiandAnne Juepner,UNDPDDC,ortheir
generous support and expert insights throughout the stocktaking exercise that orms the
basisothisreport.
Theauthorisgrateul ortheotherindividualswhohelpedinormthedesignothestocktaking
exerciseandprovidedvariousotherrecommendations.Withthanksto:AlainLambert,AseemAndrews, ClaraAriza, Cody Knutson,Douglas Merrey, Feng Min Kan, Kai Kim Chiang,Loy Rego,
Marcus Moench, Michael Ernst,NickMiddleton,PakSumLow, Rajib Shaw, RicardoBiancalani,
Sanny Jegillosand Ts Munkhjargal.
Weareverypleasedtohavereceived 400onlinesurveyresponsesandweare indebtedto
all otheindividualswho contributedinthisway,asthisinormationisthe backboneothe
report. Furthermore,thesurveywaskindlydistributedtothemembersotheAADP,theAsian
University Network o Environment and Disaster Risk Management and the Asian Disaster
Reductionand ResponseNetwork. ItwaspromotedthroughtheAADPnewsletterandonthe
UNDPDDC website,viathe Climate-LDigestandthroughtheAdaptationLearning Mechanism,
includingits TwitterProgramme. Wethankall oyouwhohelpedwiththisdistribution.
ThestocktakingexerciseandAADPmore broadly benetedromtheenthusiastic debateand
engagement o the participants at the Arica-Asia Drought Adaptation Forum, held on 14-
15 June 2011 inBangkok. Thisgroupwasengagedintheparticipatoryinterpretationothe
surveydataandpresentedimportantissues.
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ExecutiveSummary
The AricaAsia Drought Risk Management Peer Assistance Project seeks to acilitate the
sharing o knowledge and technical cooperation among drought-prone countries in
AricaandAsiaandthustopromote best practices indroughtriskmanagement (DRM) or
development in the two regions. In order to establish a baseline to guide this activity, the
United Nations Development Programme Drylands Development Centre (UNDP DDC)
undertookastocktakingexercise between Marchand June 2011 ondroughtimpacts, causes,
trendsandsolutionsinAricaandAsia.
Thisreport, baseduponthe ndingsothestocktakingexercise,goes beyondpresentinga
sense o the similarities and diferences among drought experiences in Arica and Asia, by
painting a more detailed picture. This was made possible through consultations with key
individuals in both continents, an online survey o some 400 people working in drought-related elds (collectively ofering about 3,000 years o experience), the First Arica-Asia
DroughtAdaptation Forumand literaturereview.
Drought Impactsand Causes
Thestocktakingexercise rst consideredand comparedtheimpactsodroughtonAricaand
Asia,whythereappearsto beanincreasingimpactodroughts (theroot causes) andhowthis
is likelyto changeoverthenext 10to 20years.
According to the practitioners surveyed, Arica and Asia share many common experiences
involvingdroughtimpacts, buttheimpactodroughtinAricaismoderatelymoreseverethan
inAsia.Adeclinein cropyields,ariseinoodinsecurityandadepletionowaterorhuman
use (e.g., or drinking, cooking and cleaning) most severely afect both regions. However,
divergenceodrought impacts betweentheregions ispronouncedwithrespectto amine
andimplicationsonnational economies,withAricasignicantlymoreadverselyafected.
Both regions overwhelmingly consider environmental degradation, poor water resource
management and poor governance to be either a very important or the most important
contributing causeodrought impacts. InArica,environmental degradationisthegreatestcauseand,inAsia,itisonlymarginally lessimportantthanpoorwaterresourcemanagement.
As anaggregate actor or bothregions,environmental degradation isthemost important
root causeodroughtimpact.Anadditional observationisthatgovernmentsregard climate
changeandpopulationgrowthpressuresmoreseriouslythanotherrespondents.
The current clear and overwhelming consensus is that drought impacts and their causes
will worsenoverthe coming 10to 20years. Thevastmajorityorespondentswhoholdthis
view cite climate changeas a majordrivero uturerisk.A lack opolitical will isstymying
anadequateresponseeventoexistingrisks.Sotheadditional threattoalreadystressedand
over-burdened contextsodroughtappearstointensiytheeelingthatDRM isill-equipped
toaceuturerisks,asthesearegreaterthanexistingones. The beliethatdroughtisinevitableD
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viii
uels a tendency to ocus on devising better responses to drought rather than on taking
preventiveapproachessuchasimproved landandwatermanagement. Furthermore, because
government respondents consider climate change to be the top cause o drought impact,
thereisatendencytoshirknational ownershipodroughtmitigationmeasuresinavouro
demandingnewandadditional international adaptation nance.
Thereisaverysignicant lackopolitical will toengageinholistic DRM inAricaandAsia,even
thoughdroughtisperceived byrespondentsto constituteahigh (inArica) or quitehigh (in
Asia) risktonational economies.
AmongthedisincentivesorDRM areitsinherent complexity; itsgradual andelusiveefects;
and its non-structural nature, which together can create a political vacuum wheresuitable
interventions lose their lustre in comparison with other political priorities. Butthese issues
mask, or generate, persistent and even more challenging deterrents. Calls or action ondrought are irrelevant i they are not in step with political needs and desires. The classic
example o mere political expediency is the provision o ood aid or drought relie just in
orderto boostgovernmentpopularity.
In both Arica and Asia, insucient local capacity is cited as being a bigger barrier than
insucient national technical capacity. In tandem with this, poor local awareness is
consideredarelativelyimportant barrierin bothregions. Inthisregard,theunderminingo
local knowledgeandpracticeonDRM hasadoublynegativeefect:itpartially causesdrought
impactsandimpedesactiontoreducerisk.
Drought RiskManagement
Thestocktakingexercisealsohighlightedhowdrought impactsandtheir causesare being
addressedintheregionsandwhatefectthisishaving.
The lackointegrationothevariousapproachestoDRM,suchasthroughsustainable land
management, water resource management, ood security and so on, is highlighted as a
weakness,particularlyatthenational level,whichisseparatedalongsectoral lines. However,
theDRM approachatthe local level isgenerally consideredmoreintegrated (andassuchisthusalsorequentlyregardedasgoodpractice).Local approachestendto betteremphasize
vulnerabilityactorsinrelationto livelihoodstrategiesandefortstomanagenatural resources.
Furthermore,thereiswideagreementthatgreatertractionorDRM occursat lower levelsand
that eforts must go hand-in-hand with opportunities presented through democratization
anddecentralizationreorms. Thereisalsorecognitionotheenduringgap betweentopand
bottom levels:themeso-level isa crucial linkinthe chain,with boundaryorganizations (e.g.,
small- ormedium-sizedriver basinmanagement committees) playingapivotal roleasa basis
or smartpartnership (i.e., cooperationamongthepartnerswheretheyshare clearstrategic
roles,responsibilitiesand contributionstowardthemanagementocommonlyexperienced
issues).
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While there are various approaches to DRM, drought in Arica and Asia is dealt with
predominantly as a ood security and water resource issue and in relation to climate
changeandvariability.Although climate change can beusedasascapegoattomaskother
development challenges, it is largelyacknowledgedto beanopportunityto improveDRM.
This is because it illuminates climate variability and associated climatic disasters, includingdrought,while broadeningthe basisorresourcemobilization. Consequently,workrelatedto
adaptationto climate changeisrampedupwhile longer-established, butrelateddisciplines,
suchas climate-relateddisasterriskreduction,are bypassed (orre-branded). Itisinteresting
tonotethatdrought inAricaandAsia isalreadymore commonlydealtwith inrelationto
climate change and variability than as a disaster issue. Still, the main approaches seem to
be a response to the main impacts o drought (e.g., decreased crop yields, increased ood
insecurityanddepletioninwaterorhumanuse) ratherthananattempttoaddressthemain
causesodroughtitsel.
Toindicatehowefectivelythe combinationodeployedDRM approacheshasreducedrisko
droughtandespeciallythe causesoitsimpacts,inAricaandAsia,thestocktakingexercise
consideredspecic keyareaswhereprogressisrequired:policyrameworksandplans; drought
riskassessmentandthedisseminationoearlywarning; andawarenessandknowledge.
With respect to policy rameworks and plans, results indicate largely ad hoc, non-
institutionalized approaches to DRM in both regions: Attention to DRM evaporates soon
ater the rstrain dropshitthe parched ground.A small, butnot negligible, proportion o
respondents,however, believethattrendsindroughtimpactwill improve.Suchopinionsare
basedonrecentornewpolicyshitstowardDRM aswell asobservationolocal goodpractice.
Possibly indicatingapositivetrend,thegreatestprogressregardingpolicyrameworksand
plansrelates inAricatotheencouragementopublic andnon-governmental organization
(NGO) participationandinAsiatoimprovedincorporationwithinnational rameworksothe
local aspectsodrought.
Withrespecttodroughtriskassessmentandthedisseminationoearlywarning,thestrong
beliethatwell-establishedandhighlyregardedsystemsandprocessesareeithernon-existent
ornegligibleismostapparent.
A representative statement o the stocktaking is that more work is needed to bring short-
term weather orecasting and longer-term projections o climate change down to a local
level,wheremeaningul managementdecisions can betaken. Thisneedstohappenwitha
simultaneousrecognitionthat changingsocial,economic andenvironmental conditionsare
undermining local knowledge and awareness about what to do and when to do it. This is
especiallythe casein contextswhere local peoplearemoreheavilydependentonword-o-
mouthtoshareinormation,suchasinremotedryland communities.
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Additionally, the stocktaking highlighted that, i monitoring is not expanded to include all
importantindicatorsopendingdroughtrisk,includingnon-climatic ones,oriitisnot better
linkedwithdecision-makingprocesses,thenitshould benosurpriseiearlywarningdoesnot
resultintimelyaction.
With respect to awareness and knowledge, awareness-raising about efective approaches,
especially those highlighting cross-sectoral relationships, is commonly regarded as an
essential rststepinDRM. However,mostsurveyresponsespaintadiferentpictureowhat
isactually beingpracticed: Mostpeople inAricaandAsiaeel thatdroughtawarenessand
knowledgearerarelyshared.Ontheotherhand,theemergenceomany caseswheregood
practice, new issues and other important inormation are widely disseminated through
establishedinstitutionsandnetworksis challengingthispattern.
Despitethegeneral prevalenceosignicantdroughtimpacts,trendstowardgreaterimpactsandpoorprogresstoward comprehensiveDRM inkeyareas,therearereportsogoodpractice.
Themostsuccessul DRM practiceisthe cultivationoa community basisoraction. Withthis
ismind,anumberokey conceptsraisedwere:
r "OFFEGPSBOJOUFHSBUFEEFWFMPQNFOUBQQSPBDIDFOUSFEBSPVOETVTUBJOBCMFMBOEXBUFS
resource management practices (i.e., not a segregated drought project based upon a
distinctstand-aloneperspective,specialism,orsector)
r 5IFJNQPSUBODFPGJOEJHFOPVTLOPXMFEHFOPUPOMZBTBTQFDJDBSFBPGJNQPSUBODFCVU
asathreadrunningthroughoutall community-based considerations)r 5IFJNQPSUBODFPGOVNFSPVTNFUIPETPGMPDBMDPNNVOJUZBXBSFOFTTSBJTJOHPOESPVHIU
relatedissues
r 5IF JNQPSUBODF PG B DPNNVOJUZMFE QBSUJDJQBUPSZ BQQSPBDI BOE VTF PG DPNNVOJUZ
organizations (e.g.,armers groupsandwateruserassociations),especiallyinrelationto
sustainable local natural resourcemanagement
r "OFFEGPSBTUSPOHFSGPDVTPOEJWFSTJDBUJPOPGMJWFMJIPPETJODMVEJOHDSPQBOEMJWFTUPDL
varietiesandotherincome-generatingactivities
OpportunitiesorArica-AsiaDrought RiskManagementPeerAssistance
Thisstocktakingexercise concludes bypullingtheissuestogetherin lightotheaspirationo
theinterregional peerassistancenetworkandparticularlyin lightoitsdesireto bedemand-
driven. Opportunities exist where replicable good practice can ll gaps in key areas. The
specic topicsthatemergedasopportunitiesortheArica-AsiaDrought RiskManagement
PeerAssistanceNetwork(AADP) to contributeare:
t 3BJTJOHBXBSFOFTTBCPVUUIFWBMVFPGJOEJHFOPVTLOPXMFEHF Thestocktakingexercise
strongly emphasized that there must be a rm ocus on identiying, analysing and
documenting indigenous knowledge and techniques in particular locations to help
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raiseawarenessabouttheir contributionstoDRM. Thiswill likelyhingeuponsustainable
natural resourcemanagementand livelihoodresilience. Thereore,AADPshouldurther
extenditsreachto community-basedpractitionerstoidentiyandextracttheindigenous
knowledgeand locallyprovenpracticesmoreefectivelyandeciently.Atthesametime,
high-level decision-makersneedto bemoreawareothepotential ocommunity-baseddevelopmentprocessesandapproachesinDRM, justastheyneedgreater capacitytotap
thatpotential.
t 1SPNPUJOHBNVMUJGBDFUFEBQQSPBDIUPEFBMXJUIESJWFSTPGESPVHIUSJTLTomitigate
the root causes and impacts o drought, the stocktaking exercise showed the need to
strengthen links among environmental management, water resource management,
governance and adaptation to climate change. Applying a combination o these
approachestoaplace inparticulardangerodroughtwould beagoodentrypointor
leveragingpositive change.
t &YQBOEJOH BXBSFOFTT BCPVU UIF FDPOPNJD JNQBDU PG ESPVHIU BOE XIFUIFS UIJT
infuences political decision-making: AADP can promote the inclusion o economic
considerations in DRM planning and implementation while also exploring the
juxtaposition betweeneconomic argumentsorinvestmentinDRM,ontheonehandand
continuedwidespreadpolitical apathy,ontheother.
t *OWFTUJHBUJOHUIFJOUFHSBUJPOJOUPFBSMZXBSOJOHTZTUFNTPGOPODMJNBUJDJOEJDBUPSTPG
drought: AADP can considerhownon-climatic indicators can beintegratedwithexisting
earlywarningsystemstorenderthemmorepragmatic.
t ,FFQJOHQBDFXJUI UIFFNFSHFODFPGOFXJTTVFTBOEUSFOETJOUIFBSFBPGESPVHIU
risk: Examplesinclude casesourbandrought,inwhichperceptionsandissuesarevery
diferentromthoseinvolvingrural droughtandthe considerationoneworworsening
droughthotspots,suchasmonsoonanddeltaregionsoAsia.
Thestocktakingexercisewasarareopportunitytohearromavarietyoveryexperienced
practitioners working in drought-related elds across Arica, Asia and elsewhere. Overall,
there are many important similarities between DRM issues across the regions, which open
up areas where greater knowledge-sharing will be efective. Furthermore, the stocktaking
exerciseshowedspecic themesogoodpracticethat can beemphasizedasAADPworksto
strengthenDRM inthemoststrategic areas.
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Introduction
1Awealthoknowledge-basedresourcesondroughtriskmanagement (DRM) existsinArica
and Asia, yet the opportunities or sharing successul experiences, disseminating lessons
learntandscalingupinnovativepracticeswithinandespeciallyacrosstheregionsare limited.
InArica,theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeDrylandsDevelopment Centre (UNDP
DDC),with co-sponsorship bytheUN International StrategyorDisaster Reduction (UNISDR),
has been leading the Arican Drought Risk and Development Network (ADDN) since 2005.
ADDNaimsto bridgethegaps betweenknowledgeproducersandusers bypromotingapplied
discussionandimprovingstakeholders accesstoinormationthatwill helpthem betterreact
totheincreasedthreatsodroughtand climate changeinthedrylandsoArica.
Based on the benets o the implementation o ADDN, the Arica-Asia Drought Risk
Management Peer Assistance Project was developed with nancial support rom the
GovernmentoJapan in late 2010. Theprojectseeksto createanenablingenvironmentor
interregional knowledge-sharingandtechnical cooperationamongdrought-prone countriesinAricaandAsiaandisthusdesignedtoencourageandtoacilitatetheuseobestpractices
inDRM ordevelopmentinthetworegions.
Inter alia, the project is establishing an applied interregional Arica-Asia Drought Risk
Management Peer Assistance Network (AADP), building on the pool o experiences and
expertise o ADDN and drawing on its well-established capabilities. This broad-based
networkisintendedtoserveasa clearinghouseoridentiying,documentingandpromoting
the application o experiences, expertise and models o good practice in DRM among
regional,national and local developmentpractitioners in Arica and Asia. It also intends to
improve the capacity o decision makers and practitioners in their eforts involving policy-
making, development planning and programme/project implementation in both regions.D
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Theestablishmentoa baselineortheproject rstrequiredthegatheringoinormationon
theimpacts, causes,trends,solutionsandneedsoDRM in bothregions. Forthis,astocktaking
exercisewasrequired,theresultsowhichareinthisreport.
The stocktaking exercise was undertaken between March and June 2011. Findings wereestablished through consultationswith key individuals in Arica and Asia, an online survey
undertaken bysome 400people1working indrought-related elds (seeAnnex B),the First
Arica-Asia Drought Adaptation Forum2 (reerred to rom this point as the Forum) and
literaturereview.
The ocus o the stocktaking exercise was especially guided by the recommendations o
thepriorthreeAricaDroughtAdaptation Forums (ADAFs),especiallythemostrecent3,the
developmentotheDrought RiskReduction FrameworkandPracticespublication (UNISDR,
2009) andtheviewsoexpertsromvariousinstitutionsinAricaandAsiaand,tosomeextent,rominstitutionselsewherethathaverelevantregional experience.
Key themes that emerged as being pivotal to DRM and thus the target o the stocktaking
researchwere:
r 5IFSPPUDBVTFTPGWVMOFSBCJMJUZUPESPVHIU
r 5IF QSFTFODF PG OFDFTTBSZ QPMJDZ BOE HPWFSOBODF GSBNFXPSLT JODMVEJOH QPMJUJDBM
commitmentandresponsibilitiesromnational to local levelsordroughtriskreduction
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governmentandamongthegeneral public
The stocktaking exercise also needed to be mindul o socio-economic and environmental
trendssuchaspopulationgrowth,poverty,waterdemand (e.g.,duetoindustrializationand
growthinagribusiness),soil degradation, climatevariabilityand climate change.
Furthermore,inrecognitionotheaccumulatedinormationanddatainAricathroughADDN,
special attentionothestocktakingexercisewasorientedtotheAsiaregion. Itthusattempted
toensureahealthy coverageoperspectivesandexperiencesromdroughthotspot countries
in South and South-east Asia, especially Aghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Myanmar,
Vietnam and Indonesia (Ehrhart, Thow, de Blois and Warhurst, 2008). The Near and Middle
East, MongoliaandAustraliaalsoreceivedattentionortheuniqueinsightstheyprovide. In
Arica,thesub-Saharanregionisa clearlyrecognizeddroughthotspotamongotherArican
high-risksubregions.
1 Othe 400participantsothesurvey, 324 were completedinentiretywithin-depthresponses.
2 The FirstArica-AsiaDroughtAdaptation Forum, 14-15 June 2011 inBangkok, Thailand.
3 The 3rdADAF, 17-19 September 2008 inAddisAbaba,Ethiopia.
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TherecentUnitedNations Global Assessment ReportonDisaster RiskReduction 2011 (UN,
2011) includeda chapterondrought becauseoitssignicantimplicationsordevelopment
andtherelative lackoemphasisandattentionthat itreceives comparedwithrapid-onset
natural hazards. The chapterexplainsthat,intheabsenceosystematic data,itisimpossible
toprovideaglobal assessmentopatternsandtrendsindroughtimpactsand loss. ThesameistrueregardinganacceptedunderstandingoDRM benets.Evidenceisthusmainlypresented
asvariousormsoobservation, casestudyand contextspecic research.Overall,thismasks
theseriousnessodrought.
Consequently, the ndings presented in this report are important because they provide
insightsregardingtheDRM landscapeinthetworegionsthatareotherwisehardto capture.
Similarly,itisunlikelythata comparisonoviewsonDRM betweenAricaandAsiahashitherto
beenassimilated,otherthanviaadhoc meetingsand correspondenceamongahandul o
individualsinterestedandengagedinnetworksandtheirestablishment.
Therobustnessothereportderivesromthedesignoitsocus (who,whatandwhere) andthe
collectionothe (subjective) opinionsomanyindividualsworkingondrought-relatedissues
orawiderangeo institutionsacrossArica,Asiaandelsewhere. Indeed,theaccumulated
number o years o experience o those individuals who participated in the online survey
amountstosome 3,000years. Thisreportisthereoreabletogo beyondgeneratinga senseo
whatthesimilaritiesanddiferencesmight be, bypaintingamoredetailedpicture.
Chapter 2 considersand comparestheimpactsdroughtishavinginAricaandAsia,whythis
ishappening (theroot causes) andhowthisis likelyto changeoverthenext 10to 20years.Italso considerswhat is impedingthereduction inrisk (i.e.,the barrierstoaddressingroot
causes).
Chapter 3 goes on to explain how various approaches being deployed in the regions are
addressingthissituationandtheefectthatthisishaving. Thestocktakingalsoexplainswhat
goodpracticeDRM is consideredto beandwhataspectsarereplicable.
Chapter 4 concludesthereport by consideringhowgoodpracticesmayactuallyhelp ll the
identiedgapsandareasogreatest concern. Thereore,thereport brings ndingstogether
with some suggestions regarding opportunities where AADP could ocus attention based
uponthestocktakingexercise. Inthisway,itattemptstosetthesceneorthepeerassistance
networkinawaythatisdemand-driven.
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Drought Impactsand Causes
2
2.1 Drought Impacts
Droughtmayhaveanumberodiferentandinterconnectedsocial,economic andenvironmental
impacts.Someotheseinclude: re; declinein cropyieldsandthusincreasedoodinsecurity;
livestocklosses; orcedsaleohouseholdassets; orcedsaleoland; increased crime; depletionowaterorhumanuse (e.g.,ordrinking, cookingand cleaning); declineinhealth (e.g.,through
malnutritionor lackosaedrinkingwater); displacement/migration; civil unrest/conict; amine;
depletioninwaterorusein business/industry (e.g.,hydropower); andnational economic impact.
As can beseenin Figure 1,theoverall patternillustratingtheseverityodroughtimpactsin
Arica isverysimilar in broadtermstothat inAsia, butwithAricaexperiencingmarginally
moresignicantimpacts. Thus,AricaandAsiasharemanyexperienceswithdroughtimpacts.
Comparingindividual typesopossibledroughtimpacts (i.e., re,declinein cropyieldsand
thusincreasedoodinsecurity, livestocklosses) betweentheregionsreinorcesthismessage.
It can beseenthattheperceivedsignicance (i.e., low,medium,highandveryhigh4) oeach
potential impactissimilarinAricaandAsia.
Both regions are impactedmostsignicantly by declines in cropyieldsandthus increased
oodinsecurityand bythedepletionowaterorhumanuse (e.g.,ordrinking, cookingand
cleaning).5 In Asia, no respondent elt that declines in crop yields and thus increased ood
insecuritywereunusual orunlikely.
4 Low: Itisunusual/unlikelyorthisimpacttooccur. Medium: Impactis limitedandrecoveryisswit. High: Impactiswidespreadand
long-lasting. Very High: Impactisverysevere,widespreadandhas long-lastingimplications.
5 Thereisnoevidentreasonwhy,inasmall numberocases,outlyingopinion consideredthesedroughtimpactsto beolow (or
medium) severity.
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A divergence between the regions is noticeable with respect to amine and the impact o
droughtonnational economies,asArica issignicantlymoreadverselyafectedthanAsia.
Civil unrest/conictandadeclineinhealth (e.g.,throughmalnutritionora lackosaedrinking
water) arealsomorewidespreadinAricathaninAsia.
Somerespondentsreportedthatviolenceagainstwomeninahouseholdisoten linkedwith
pressures broughtaboutthroughdrought.
Figure 1: Drought Impacts
Arica
Asia
VERY HIGH: Impactisverysevere,widespreadandhaslong lastingimplications
MEDIUM: Impactis limitedinscaleandrecoveryisswit
HIGH: Impactiswidespreadand long lasting LOW: Itisunusual/unlikelyorthisimpacttooccur
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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Decline in crop yields/increase in ood insecurity
Depletion in water or human use
Decline in health
National economic impact
Livestock losses
Famine
Displacement/migration
Depletion in water or us in business/industry
Forced sale o household assets
Civil unrest/confict
Fire
Increase in crime
Forced sale o land
Decline in crop yields/increase in ood insecurity
Depletion in water or human use
Decline in health
National economic impact
Livestock losses
Famine
Displacement/migration
Depletion in water or us in business/industry
Forced sale o household assets
Civil unrest/confict
Fire
Increase in crime
Forced sale o land
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
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2.2 Root CausesoDrought Impacts
Thedroughtimpactsstemroma combinationoactors,asillustratedin Figure 2.Anincrease
in rainall variability is one aspect, but how this afects communities and nations depends
uponhowwell people,theeconomyandtheenvironment can cope.
Figure 2: Relationship between Meteorological,Agricultural, Hydrological andSocio-Economic Drought
Source:UNISDR (2009)
Climate variability
Soil water deciency
Economic impacts Social impacts
Hydrological
drought
Agricultural
drought
Metrolog
ical
drough
t
Socioeconomicdrought
Environmental impacts
Precipitation deciency
(amount, intensity, timing)
Reduced inltration, runo,
deep percolation, and
ground water recharge
High temp., high winds, low
relative humidity, greater sunshine,
less cloud cover
Increased evaporation
and transpiration
Plant water stress, reduced biomass
and yield
Reduced streamfow, infow to
reservoirs, lakes, and ponds;
reduced wetlands, wildlie habitat
Time(duration)
Therearemanyissues,especiallywhenpoverty-related,thatunderminetheabilitytowithstand
reducedwateravailability (ameteorological drought) andtopreventitromdevelopinginto
agricultural and hydrological drought with social, economic and environmental impacts.
Thesedeep-rootedproblemsdriveandsustaindroughtrisk.As can beseenin Figure 3,this
stocktakingexerciseocusedona considerationo:
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r 4PDJBMJOFRVBMJUJFTFHCFUXFFOUIFSJDIBOEQPPSPSCFUXFFONFOBOEXPNFOr 1PPSXBUFSSFTPVSDFNBOBHFNFOU
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r &OWJSPONFOUBMEFHSBEBUJPOFHMPTTPGUPQTPJMEFGPSFTUBUJPO
r 1PPS HPWFSOBODF FH JOBCJMJUZ PG UIF WVMOFSBCMF UP JOVFODF HPWFSONFOU EFDJTJPO
making)
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Figure 3: Root CausesoDrought Impacts
Arica
Asia
MOST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisa/theundamental,deep-rootedproblem
SOME IMPORTANCE: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisrelativelyimportant
VERY IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissuehaswidespreadsignicanceor causingdrought losses
LEAST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisisnotamajorissueoconcern
100%80%60%40%20%0%
Environmental degradation (e.g., loss o topsoil,deorastation)
Poor water resource management
Poor governance (e.g., the inability othe vulnerable toinfuence governement decision-making)
Climate change
Lakc o access by communities to inormation on howto reduce drought impacts
Population growth pressures on natural resources
Detrimental cultural practices (e.g., overgrazing)
Social inequalities (e.g., between the rich and poor orbetween men and women)
Confict/insecurity
Poor health limiting household productivity (e.g.,HIV/AIDS
10080%60%40%20%0%
Environmental degradation (e.g., loss o topsoil,deorastation)
Poor water resource management
Poor governance (e.g., the inability othe vulnerable toinfuence governement decision-making)
Climate change
Lakc o access by communities to inormation on howto reduce drought impacts
Population growth pressures on natural resources
Detrimental cultural practices (e.g., overgrazing)
Social inequalities (e.g., between the rich and poor orbetween men and women)
Confict/insecurity
Poor health limiting household productivity (e.g.,HIV/AIDS
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Table 1 summarizesa comparisonothe ndingsontheroot causes behinddroughtimpacts
betweenregionsoutlinedin Figure 3. Thehighlighted cellsindicatethemostimportantissues,
reectedin bothAricaandAsia, butwithslightlydiferingemphases.
Both regions overwhelmingly consider environmental degradation, poor water resourcemanagement and poor governance to be either a very important or the most important
contributing causeodrought impacts. InArica,environmental degradationisthehighest-
ranking root cause and, in Asia, it ranks only marginally lower than poor water resource
management. Combinedor bothregions,environmental degradationisthemostimportant
root causeodroughtimpact.
Table 1: Comparingthe Root CausesoDrought Impacts betweenAricaandAsia
Root causes Summary comparison o ndings between Aricaand Asia
Poor health limiting household productivity(e.g., HIV/AIDS)
Not considered to be particularly important in eitherregion (ranking the least important overall), with mostrespondents in Asia viewing it as least important
Lack o access by communities to inormationon how to reduce drought impacts
A relatively important issue overall, especially in Arica,where a greater proportion o respondents consider thisto be most important.
Detrimental cultural practices (e.g.,overgrazing)
Broadly similar
Social inequalities (e.g., between the rich andpoor or between men and women)
Broadly similar
Poor water resource management Broadly similar, with both regions overwhelminglyconsidering this to be very important or most importantoverall. In Asia, it is the highest-ranking root cause and, inArica, it is among the top three.
Environmental degradation (e.g., loss otopsoil, deorestation)
Broadly similar, with both regions overwhelminglyconsidering this to be very important or most importantoverall. In Arica, it is the highest-ranking root cause and,
in Asia, it ranks only marginally lower than poor waterresource management. Combined or both regions, this isthe most important root cause o drought impact.
Poor governance (e.g., the inability o thevulnerable to inuence government decision-making)
A top-three root cause in both regions, with slightlygreater emphasis in Arica.
Population growth pressures on naturalresources
Broadly similar and, overall, most consider this to be animportant issue.
Climate change Overall, among the most important o issues in bothregions, but especially in Arica
Conict/Insecurity The majority o respondents in both regions do notconsider this to be among the more important root causes.
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Climate changeisalsorecognizedasaveryimportantissue. Inact,governmentocialsrank
climate changeasthe leadingroot causeodroughtimpact. Thisissueisimportanttoanalyse
ingreaterdepthtogaugeitsmeaningandimplicationsorDRM.
The Forum debated the propensity to attribute drought impacts to climate change andwhetherthiswas justied, complimentarytourtherDRM progress,oractuallyobstructiveto
workonexistingdeep-rooted causesodroughtrisk. Forexample,the Forumdebatedwhether
itispossiblethat climate changeis beingusedasapolitical scapegoatindeveloping countries
to mask development shortcomings that should and could be better managed. This was
alsoatopic odiscussionata Water IntegrityNetworkmeeting. One case presentedduring
themeetingexplainedhowa countrys Ministryo Irrigationand Water Resourceshad been
sceptical oclimate change,whichwas laterusedto justiyproblemswithwaterprovision. The
ministrydidthisdespiteanearlierstudyhighlightingsiltingproblemsandarecommendation
toimproveriver owinordertohelpavertsuchwatershortage (Water IntegrityNetwork, 2010).
Inpractice,itisveryhardtoidentiy,organizeandexplainhowthevarious causesodrought
impactsinterrelate. Thispresentsasignicant challenge. Climate changeimpactsaresimilarly
complex. Thereore,ascertaininghowdroughtand climate changeare connectedinagiven
environmentisespeciallydicult,asthe combinedrelationship can be quiteambiguous.
Forexample,inreerencetothehumanitarian crisisinthe HornoAricain 2011, Integrated
Regional Inormation Networks (IRIN) stated that, as the subregion experiences its driest
periodsin 60years,asituationthatwill pushthenumbersneedingaidto beyond 10million,
somehave been quickto blame climate change.Butthe IRINreportneverthelessstatesthatnosingleevent can beattributedto climate change (IRIN, 2011).
While there have been concerted eforts to raise awareness about climate change and to
promoteadvocacy,ongoingdialoguesanddebatesocusmostlyonscientic andtechnical
inormation at the global and regional levels. Consequently, emphasis tends to be on
centralized broad-brushthinkingabouttheimplicationsandwhatshouldor could bedone.
Failure to integrate indigenous knowledge and practices into such discourse oten creates
the impression that an increasing risk o drought is inevitable. This may explain the great
concernamongsurveyparticipantsabout climate changeasaroot causeodroughtimpact,
despiteuncertaintyaboututure climateprojections. Inanyevent,the beliethatdroughtis
inevitableuelsatendencytoocusondevising betterresponsestodroughtratherthanon
takingpreventiveapproachessuchasimproved landandwatermanagement.
InAricaandAsia, local practiceasa basisorDRM isveryvaluable.Anyunderminingolocal
resiliencetomanagedrought isdetrimental and isaroot causeoanydrought impacts. In
particular the stocktaking highlights the loss o traditional knowledge about coping with
droughtasa critical impediment.Such loss could betheresultoorcedseasonal migration,
changesinaccessibilityto land,increasinglyunpredictableweatherpatternsassociatedwith
climate changeandanincreaseininvasivespeciesoplants.
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2.3 TrendsinDrought Impactsand Their Causes
The clearandoverwhelming consensusamongsurveyrespondentsandintervieweesisthat,
becausethere is insucientpolitical will to arrestexistingrisks, drought impacts andtheir
causeswill worseninthe coming 10to 20years. Thevastmajorityorespondentswhohold
thisview cite climate changeasamajordriverouturerisk. Thisadditional threattoalready
stressed and overburdened drought-stricken places appears to strengthen the belie that
existingdroughtmanagementrameworksandpracticesareill-equippedtoaceuturerisks,
whichwill beevengreaterthan currentones.
Theull listoissuesthatare consideredto bedriversodeteriorating conditionsareincluded
under:
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development, leading especially to withdrawal o groundwater (e.g., or irrigation,
livestock,humanandindustrial use) andoverall damagetothehydrological cycle
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accelerationodeorestation)
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poor landmanagement (e.g.,impoverishedsoil,salinization,industrial pollution)
Asmall, butnotnegligible,proportionorespondents believethattrendsindroughtimpact
will improve.Suchopinionsare basedona belieineventual benetsorecentandnewpolicy
shitstowardDRM andobservationolocal goodpractice.
Governmentrespondents citeastrengthenedpolicy landscapein Indiaasaprimeexample
owhydroughttrendswill improve inthat country,whereoverall oodproductionandthe
capacity to distribute ood rom areas o surplus to decit, combined with employment
guaranteeschemesandthedeploymentogroundwatermanagement basedtechnologies,
arethekeyapproachessupportingthisview. However,there isanunusuallyhighvariationbetween the government and non-government views regarding the status o DRM in the
country. Theormer believesthat considerableheadwayhas beenmadeandwill continue,
butevidenceonthegroundinvulnerable communitiesvia civil societyorganizationsis quite
diferent.Anotheractorthat canmaskthereasonorimprovingdroughtimpactdataorone
population isthepossiblemitigationooodsecurityrisks inone locationtothedetriment
o another through expanding agribusiness, which has local social and environmental
implications.
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2.4 BarrierstoAddressing CausesoDrought Impacts
Inadditiontoappreciatingthe conditionsthat createdroughtriskand leadtodroughtimpacts,
itisnecessarytounderstandwhatishinderingorpreventingtheirremoval. Theactors could
bea lacko:
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r 5FDIOJDBMDBQBDJUZBUUIFOBUJPOBMMFWFM
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As has been reported or several decades and as Figure 4 illustrates, a lack o political willor DRM is still considered to be a very signicant actor in both Arica and Asia. Some o
thedisincentivesorDRM (thathavealso beenunderstoodorsometime) arethe inherent
complexityodroughtasamultiacetedphenomenonthatstretches beyondanunderstanding
ometeorological conditionsaloneanditsgradual,elusiveefects,theseriousnessowhich
takes a while to become apparent. The non-structural nature o drought can also create a
political vacuum in which suitable interventions lose their lustre in comparison to other
political priorities. But these issues may mask, or generate, persistent and even more
challengingdeterrents.Sothe Forumwentastepurtherintryingtoarticulatewhy lacko
political will issuchastubborn barrierandwhatitreallymeans.
Withrespecttodata,thereisno linearanddirectrelationship betweentheprovisionotimely
andaccuratescientic data (evenacrossmeteorological,hydrological,agricultural,social and
economic issues) predictingdroughtimpacts,ontheonehandandanincreaseinthepolitical
will tomobilizeresourcesandprevent losses,ontheother. Thisisimportantorthediscussion
on barrierstoriskmanagement.
Evenwhen benetsoariskmanagementapproachseem clearandeconomicallyandmorally
sound, callsoractionareirrelevantitheyarenotinstepwithpolitical needsanddesires. The
classic exampleomerepolitical expediencyistheprovisionooodaidordroughtreliejustinorderto boostgovernmentpopularity. Insome countries,therehave beenreportsthatthis
happensevenwhenthere isneithertheexistencenorthreatodrought. Consequently,the
Forumsuggestedthepossibilitythatdroughtwarningsystemsmaynot bemonitoringall o
therightthings:therearepoliticallyrelatedtriggersatworkthat caninuencedroughtrisk.
Theseneedto be betterunderstoodand circumvented (see Chapter 3.2.2).
Additional observationsregardingthe ndingsincludetheactthata lackotechnical capacity
atthe local level isagreater barrierinAricathaninAsia, but,in both cases, local capacityis
citedas beinga larger barrierthannational technical capacity.Linkedwiththisviewpoint,a
lackolocal awarenessis consideredto bearelativelyimportant barrierin bothregions. Inthissense,theunderminingolocal knowledgeandpracticeonDRM hasadoublynegativeefect:
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it causesdroughtimpacts (astheprevioussectiondiscusses) anditpreventsthedeployment
oefectivestrategiestoreducerisk(asthissectiondiscusses).
Inordertoensurethetranserocapacityromhigherto lower levels,efortsmustgohand-in-
handwithdemocratizationanddecentralizationreorms. The currentuprisingsinsomeArabStateswere citedasopeningnewopportunities. The Forumalsonotedhowgreatertraction
or DRM occursat lower levels, such as in theexperienceo UNDP Morocco. Decentralized
efortsare commonlyperceivedto bemoreefectiveinactually bearingresults. Thereisalso
recognitionthatthegap betweentopand bottom levelshasto be better bridged:themeso-
level isa crucial linkinthe chain.Assuch, boundaryorganizations thatoperateatthemeso-
level (e.g.,small- ormedium-sizedriver basinmanagement committeesasappliedinNamibia
undertheapproachothe Forumor Integrated Resource Management) canplayapivotal role
asa basisor smartpartnership (i.e., collaborationamongpartnerswhoshare clearstrategic
rolesandresponsibilitiesandwho contributetowardthemanagementocommonproblems).
In Arica, insucient unding is cited as a severe barrier to addressing causes o drought
impacts, even though government, donors, the private sector and the public mobilize
signicant unding during periods o drought-incurred severe ood insecurity, such as that
whichthe HornoArica is currentlyenduring. Thisposesa questionowhetherthe unds
raisedareusedefectivelyandecientlytoalsotackle causesandtomitigateutureriskso
droughtdisasters.
Finally,ageneral observationonthe ndings isthatthere isasensethatmany barriersare
slightlymoredeeplyentrenchedinAricathaninAsia.
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Figure 4:BarrierstoAddressingthe CausesoDrought Impacts
Arica
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MOST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisa/theundamental,deep-rootedproblem
SOME IMPORTANCE: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisrelativelyimportant
VERY IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissuehaswidespreadsignicanceor causingdrought losses
LEAST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisisnotamajorissueoconcern
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100%80%60%40%20%0%
Lack o unding
Lack o technical capacity at the local level
Lack o political will
Lack o local awareness
Lack o technical capacity at the national level
Other priorities
80% 100%60%40%20%0%
Lack o unding
Lack o technical capacity at the local level
Lack o political will
Lack o local awareness
Lack o technical capacity at the national level
Other priorities
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3.1 ApproachesandPractices
ThereiswideappreciationotheactthatamultiacetedapproachtoDRM isrequired. The
approachmustrecognizethewidescopeodroughtandthustheimplicationsor coherent
strategiesto manage itacrosssectors, levels and disciplines. Furthermore, theapplicabilityo a particular approach depends on the timing o interventions (beore, during and ater
impact). Box 1 contains an indicative list o DRM activities that may be necessary. During
theexercise,itwasunderscoredseveral timesthattherestorationothewholehydrological
cycleisa broadobjectivethat can be contextualizedandusedasa basisor connectingkey
approaches complimentarily.
In practice, the lack o integration o the various approaches, such as through sustainable
landmanagement,waterresourcemanagement,oodsecurityandsoon,ishighlightedasa
weakness,particularlyatthenational level,whichisseparatedalongsectoral lines. However,
the DRM approach at the local level is generally perceived more integrated (and, as such,
is also requently regarded as good practice). Local approaches tend to better emphasize
vulnerability actors in relation to livelihood strategies and natural resource management
eforts.
Withrespecttotheperceptionsohowdroughtisactuallymanagedinpracticeratherthanin
theory,observationinAricaandAsiaagainmakesit clearthatthe ndingsorthetworegions
are correlated,asisevidentin Figure 5. InAricaandAsia,droughtisdealtwithpredominantly
as a ood security issue and a water resource issue and in relation to climate change and
variability,whilethe least commonapproaches concerntheefectsodroughton businessandindustryandtheirrelationto local governanceand landdegradation.
Drought RiskManagement
3
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Box 1: IndicativeListoDRM Activities
Immediate saety net measures:r Supplying ood aid and other non-ood items to aected communitiesr Providing emergency livestock purchases and subsidies to transport animals to marketr Providing supplementary livestock eeding (odder, orage, hay distribution, water hauling, opening
o strategic grazing area, etc.)r Promoting emergency vaccination and de-worming
r Providing seed distribution, stockpiling cereals and low-interest agriculture loans and emergencyassistance programmes
r Facilitating borehole rehabilitation and water-truckingr Establishing a local coordinating body to ensure emergency response based upon priorities
Short-term measures:r Developing water use guidelines based on the types and duration o droughtr
Developing emergency water allocation strategiesr Increasing communication o climate-related inormation, with specic advisoriesr Increasing local drought monitoring capacity and inrastructurer Providing support to armers or purchase o drought and crop insurancer Establishing ood subsidy programmes or drought-aected individualsr Providing support to most vulnerable groups, such as women and youth
Mid-term measures:r Expanding eorts to promote rainwater harvesting
r Introducing improved soil management techniques that decrease soil erosion and increase water-holding capacity o soil
r Adopting alternative cultivars or crops that are more drought-resistant or heat-tolerantr Addressing bottlenecks in seed delivery systemsr Establishing a system or sharing o experience and capacity development or vulnerable groups in
their adaptation measures/responses
Long-term measures:
r Investigating business and arm/ranch diversication strategies (e.g., selecting drought-tolerantvarieties, implementing irrigation where easible and diversiying away rom rain-ed crops to lesswater-dependent products, such as honey rom bee-keeping)
r Addressing deorestation and desertication (land degradation in drylands)r Reviewing the eectiveness o mid-term measures and strengthening capacities as neededr Strengthening market access and rural inrastructurer
Reinorcing legal, policy and institutional rameworks or drought risk mitigation and drylanddevelopment
Source: UNDP (2011).
The predominant approaches appear to reect a response to the major drought impacts
observed (e.g.,declinein cropyieldsandincreasedoodinsecurityanddepletionowateror
humanuse) ratherthantotheirmain causes. Inparticular,althoughenvironmental degradation
andpoorgovernanceare consideredto beveryimportant causesodroughtimpacts,drought
isnot commonlyapproachedwiththese causesdirectlyinmind. However,these causesare
arguably cross-cuttingissuesthat can beapartothepredominantapproaches.Opossible
importance or the search or strong entry points, poor water resource management isD
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Figure 5:ApproachestoDrought RiskManagement
Arica
Asia
50% 60% 70% 80%30% 40%10% 20%0%
As ood security issue
As a water resource issue
In relation to climate change and variability
As a disaster/emergency/humanitaria concern
About land degradation
Predominantly about local governance
In terms o its implications on business/industry
50% 60% 70% 80%30% 40%10% 20%0%
As ood security issue
As a water resource issue
In relation to climate change and variability
As a disaster/emergency/humanitaria concern
About land degradation
Predominantly about local governance
In terms o its implications on business/industry
notedasaveryimportant causeodroughtrisk, butwaterresourcemanagementisalsoan
established common approach to deal with drought. As a cross-cutting theme, it is highly
appropriate. Integratedwaterresourcemanagement (IWRM) complementstherestorationo
thehydrological cycleprinciplealreadymentioned.
Although climate changeandvariabilityarenot currently consideredto beadominant cause
odroughtimpact,predictionsorthenext 10to 20yearsstronglyemphasizeits likelyharm.
Itappearsthatdrought-relatedpractitionersareresponsivetothis concernandarealreadyocusing considerable attention on this issue, despite uncertainty over uture implications.
Indeed, climate change is largely acknowledgedto beanopportunitytoenhanceDRM,as
it is seen to shed renewed light on the issues o climate variabilityand associated climatic
disasters,includingdrought,while broadeningthe basisorresourcemobilization. Thisresults
inanaccelerationoworkrelatedtoadaptationto climate changewhile longer-established
but related disciplines, such as climate-related disaster risk reduction, are bypassed (or re-
branded). Indeed,itisinterestingtonotethatdroughtisalreadydealtwithinAricaandAsia
more commonlyasanissueoclimate changeandvariabilityratherthanasadisasterissue.
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Forestry, orms o diversication o livelihood, the introduction o drought-resistant crops
andeducation/awarenesswerethemost commonexamplesoDRM amongmanyimportant
contributions.6
3.2 Progressand Gapsin CoreAreasoDrought Risk
Management
Thissectionindicateshowefectivethe combinationoDRM approacheshas beeninreducing
droughtriskinAricaandAsia. The Hyogo FrameworkorAction (HFA),auniqueinteraceor
paradigmson climate change,variabilityanddisasters,wasatemplateorthedesignothis
aspectothestocktakingexercise.Box 2 summarizesthe HFAinthe contextothiswork.
Box 2: Capturing ConceptsoDrought RiskManagementwithinthe Hyogo FrameworkorAction
According to a strong majority o views obtained through consultation with selected experts, thecommitment o nations to the HFA is suited to promote DRM.
There has been considerable progress toward better understanding the relation between drought riskreduction rameworks and the multi-hazard disaster risk reduction HFA. For example, an ad hoc groupon drought was convened in China in June 2006. At this meeting, the members discussed elements ordrought policies in line with the priorities o the HFA. In October 2006, ndings were presented at the2nd ADAF as part o the ADDN or deliberation and renement. There has since been urther review byexperts and organizations, including at the 3rd ADAF in Ethiopia in September 2008.
Meanwhile, awareness and understanding o adaptation to climate change has been rapidly growing.The relationship between climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction has receivedconsiderable attention and unding or the two issue areas has so ar been closely overlapping.7 Indeed,the negotiating text or the post-2012 agreement invites United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) Parties to support an Adaptation Framework by enhancing climate changerelated disaster risk reduction strategies, considering the HFA where appropriate (UNISDR, 2010).
Such processes have strengthened the relevance o the HFA as a conceptual basis or drought discourse.8Progress on the HFA, as presented in the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2011, canoer insight into progress in DRM. However, some arguments claim that, drought, as a slow onset andmulti-aceted hazard with particularly subtle and complex impacts, can require some unique eorts
compared with other natural hazard types, such as oods or cyclones (UNDP, 2011). Mindul o this, thelatest thinking regarding the links between drought and the HFA has inormed the design o some coreelements o the stocktaking survey, especially those concerning the issues covered in this section.
6 Othersinclude:irrigationschemes; droughtasahealthissue; waterharvestingandsaving; oodreserves; mainstreamingecosystem
services; wastemanagement; biodiversityandresource conservation; index-basedinsuranceordroughtimpactsonagriculture;
andemergencyunds.
7 AsoOctober 2010,the KyotoProtocolsAdaptation Fundhadapprovedtwoprojectsandendorsedsix more all owhichare
undamentallydisasterriskreductioninitiativeswhose componentsoverlapwiththe HFApriorities (UNISDR, 2010).
8 Alternatives include rameworks under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertication (UNCCD), natural resource
managementand livelihoods-basedrameworks.D
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3.2.1 Policy FrameworksandPlans
EfectiveDRM thatdealswithdeep-rootedproblemsrequires broadsupportromnational to
local levels.Akeyarea isthe integrationoDRM conceptsandprinciples intodevelopment
planningandpractices. Withoutthisintegration,societywill nditdiculttodomorethan
respondtotheimpactsodroughtastheyareelt.
Establishment o national drought policies and plans is imperative to guide this agenda
across sectors and administrative levels and various tools have been produced to help
in this process (UNDP, 2011). In the words o Mr. Michel Jarraud, Secretary-General o the
World Meteorological Organization, Ourabilityto lessenormitigatetheimpactsassociated
with drought is contingent on putting in place comprehensive national drought policies.9
However,theestablishmentosuchpoliciesdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthosepolicieswill
beimplementedorappropriatelyunded,assurveyrespondentsreport.
The propriety o key aspects o policy and planning or the needs o DRM depends upon
answersto questionsthatinclude:
r %PUIFZFNQIBTJ[FQSFWFOUJPOPGESPVHIUJNQBDUTPWFSSFTQPOTF
r %PUIFZEFBMXJUIOFXESPVHIUSJTLTFHCFDBVTFPGDMJNBUFDIBOHFJOVSCBOBSFBTJO
UIFDPOUFYUPGEFMUBSFHJPOT
r %PUIFZTVQQPSUMPOHUFSNJOWFTUNFOUUPPWFSDPNFEFFQSPPUFEQSPCMFNT
r %PUIFZFODPVSBHFQVCMJDBOEOPOHPWFSONFOUBMPSHBOJ[BUJPO/(0QBSUJDJQBUJPO
r %P UIFZ GBDJMJUBUF DPPSEJOBUJPO BNPOH OVNFSPVT HPWFSONFOU BOE OPOHPWFSONFOUTUBLFIPMEFST
r "SFUIFZCBTFEPOSFBMMPDBMJTTVFT
Findings basedonanswerstothese questionsareshownin Figure 6.
Overall,theresults indicatethat approaches to DRM areadhoc andnon-institutionalized in
bothregions:AttentiontoDRM evaporatessoonaterthe rstraindropshittheparchedground.
Most respondents stated that only occasional eforts were made to reect DRM principleswithin policy and planning rameworks. The topic o greatest concern in Arica involves
long-term investment to overcome deep-rooted problems. In this case, nearly 40 percent
orespondentseltthat long-term investment isnotrepresentedatall. InAsia,theweakest
aspectregardingtheintegrationoDRM inpoliciesandplansinvolvestheresponsetonew
droughtrisksassociatedwithrecentsocio-economic andenvironmental trends.
In bothregions,a core concernisthattheemphasisisonresponseratherthanonprevention.
Indeed,thisisa commonthemeotheentirestocktakingexerciseandismentionedinrelation
9 Anexpertmeetingwas convenedin Virginia,USA,in July 2011 orthepreparationoa CompendiumonNational DroughtPolicy.
See:http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/press_releases/pr_921_en.html
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Figure 6: Policy FrameworksandPlans
Arica
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toall mannerodroughttopicsandissues,not justpoliciesandplans.Asreportedearlier,a
lackopreventionisusuallyattributedtodisincentives particularly comparedwithpolitically
popularrelieaid.
Thenumberorespondentswhoeel thatthere isasystematic incorporationo issues into
policyandplanningisveryslimin bothregions. Whereissuesareotenintegral topolicyand
planning,thegreatestprogressinAricahas beenintheencouragementopublic andNGOparticipation. InAsia,ithas beeninimprovedincorporationothereal local aspectsodrought
intonational-level rameworks.
NO: Thisisnotrepresentedatall OFTEN: Inmanywaysthisisgenuinelysupportedandresultsinsomepractical reductionsindroughtimpacts
OCCASSIONALLY: Insomeaspectsthisisincluded, butitisadhoc anddoesnotreallyinuencepractice
COMPLETELY: Thisissystematicallyincorporatedinpolicyandplanning, clearlyhelpingtoestablisha cultureodroughtprevention
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Do they emphasize prevention o droughtimpacts over response?
Are they supportive o long-term investmentto overcome deep rooted problems?
Based on real local issues?
Facilitating coordination among multiplegovernnment stakeholders?
Are they dealing with new drought risks(e.g., climate change)?
Encouraging o public and NGO participation?
60% 80% 100%40%20%0%
Do they emphasize prevention o droughtimpacts over response?
Are they supportive o long-term investmentto overcome deep rooted problems?
Based on real local issues?
Facilitating coordination among multiplegovernnment stakeholders?
Are they dealing with new drought risks(e.g., climate change)?
Encouraging o public and NGO participation?
80% 100%40% 60%20%0%
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3.2.2 Drought RiskAssessmentandDisseminationoEarly Warning
Anassessmentoriskisthe basisordecision-making. Itheriskisnotknown,thenitisnot
possibletomanageandreduceiteciently. Further,awarenessoriskshould leadtoaction.
Withtheseprinciplesinmind,thestocktakingexerciseinvestigatedthesekey questions:
r )PXFFDUJWFMZ EPFT BESPVHIUXBSOJOHHFOFSBUF GVOEJOH UIBU DBOCF VTFE UP BWPJE
MPTTFT
r )PXXFMMJTBOJEFOUJFEUISFBUPGESPVHIUDPNNVOJDBUFEUPWVMOFSBCMFDPNNVOJUJFT
r )PXXFMMEPFTUIJTMFBEUPMPDBMBDUJPOUIBUIFMQTSFEVDFBOZJNQBDUT
Overall,thepatternoresultsissimilarorthetworegions. Mostapparentisthestrongeeling
thatthereareveryewexamplesosystemsandprocessesordroughtriskassessmentand
thedisseminationoearlywarning beingwell establishedandhighlyregarded (see Table 2).
Table 2: PerceptionsontheEfectivenessoDrought RiskAssessmentandEarly Warning
Topic
Number o people who eel the topic is
well established and highly regarded
Arica Asia Elsewhere
Eectiveness o a drought warning to generate unding 0 2 0
Communication o drought to vulnerable communities 0 4 0
Likelihood o warning leading to local action 3 1 0
Notably, those institutions actually responsible or Early Warning Systems (EWSs) express
mostotheewpositiveviews. Thisisadivergence betweentheproducersandusersothe
monitoringinormationanddataandraisesa questionabouttheeasibilityandpracticalityo
theexistingdroughtassessmentandearlywarningsystemsandprocesses.
Arepresentativestatementothestocktakingoverall isthatmorework isneededto bring
short-term weather orecasting and longer-term projections o climate change down to a
local level, where meaningul management decisions can be taken. This needs to happen
along with a simultaneous recognition that changing social, economic and environmental
conditionsareundermining local knowledgeandawarenessaboutwhattodoandwhento
doit. This isespeciallythe casein contextswhere local peoplearemoreheavilydependent
onword-o-mouthtoshareinormation,suchasremotedryland communities. Furthermore,
recognitionthatsuchpeoplehavenouse or academic considerationothe linkageswith
climate changeneedstoinormefortsto linkwarningsystemswiththepeopleafected by
weatherevents (IRIN, 2011).
Lastly, it is noted that, even i good inormation exists, non-climatic pressures regularlyhamperaction. Inparticular,scienticallydeneddroughtisdeemedirrelevantiitdoesnot
suit political needs, agendas and desires. Consequently, i monitoring is not expanded to
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includeall importantindicatorsopendingdroughtrisk,includingnon-climatic ones,orisnot
better linkedwithdecision-makingprocesses,thenitshould benosurpriseiearlywarning
does not produce timely action. For example, the stocktaking exercise was inormed o an
experienceinwhich changesinsomeoodtarifsinone country ledtoincreaseddemandor
theneighbouring countrysoodreserves.This countrythenurtherdepletedoodreservestobolsteranelectioneering campaign. Consequently,therewasa lackooodwhenagricultural
productivity weakened and ailed on account o meteorological drought. This leaves the
question:ShouldthescopeoEWS beexpandedto bettermonitortrade,political cyclesand
PUIFSOPODMJNBUJDJTTVFTBOEJGTPIPX
Figure 7: Drought RiskAssessmentandtheDisseminationoEarly Warning
Arica
Asia
VERYPOORLY:Almostnothinghappens WELL: Manyexamplesexistandthereis condencethatthiswill continueandimprove
POORLY:Onlyveryewexamples can beoundanditisnotpossibletosayitheseindicatewhatwouldhappenintheuture
VERY WELL: Thesystemsandprocessesarewellestablishedandhighlyregarded
3.2.3 Awarenessand Knowledge
Periodic recurrence o drought disasters in many parts o Arica and Asia highlights the
importanceoreviewingandreormingdroughtmanagement comprehensively:romshort-
term emergency response to eforts to build longer-term resilience, rom narrowly-scoped
sectoral to comprehensive broad-basedsupportandromdominantscientic basestoopenparticipatoryprocesses. Topromotethese changes,raisingawarenessandsharingexperiences
aboutefectiveapproachesaswell asscalingupthoseapproachesandespeciallyhighlightingD
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How eectively does a drought warning generateunding that can be used to avoid losses?
How well is an identied threat o droughtcommunicated to vulnerable communities
How well does this lead to local action that helpsreduce any impacts?
60% 80% 100%40%20%0%
How eectively does a drought warning generateunding that can be used to avoid losses?
How well is an identied threat o droughtcommunicated to vulnerable communities
How well does this lead to local action that helpsreduce any impacts?
60% 80% 100%40%20%0%
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cross-sectoral relationships,is commonlyregardedasanessential rststep.The Forumstressed
thatitisstill a challengetopromotesynergyamongexistingglobal,national and lower-level
mechanismsandtoimplementthemappropriatelyorgiven localized contexts.Strengthened
partnershipatregional,interregional andglobal levelsis clearlynecessaryasthekeydriving
orcetoenhance collectiveresourcemobilizationand coordinatedimplementationoDRM.
Analysis o the accumulated consensus o opinion makes it apparent that the proportion
o survey respondents views is almost identical between the regions (see Figure 8). Most
people in Aricaand Asia eel that drought awareness and knowledgearerarelyshared. In
apositivedevelopment,theemergenceomany caseswheregoodpractice,newissuesand
other important inormation are widely disseminated through established institutions and
networksis challengingthisparadigm. Indeed,governmentrespondentsespeciallyeel that
sharingdroughtawarenessandknowledgeis quitewell establishedinseveral instances.Such
views, however, may indicate a greater amiliarity with national platorms and committees(seeBox 3) andsomepublicationsratherthanasenseohowsuchmechanisms and tools
supplementothersourcesoinormationto bestsupportdrought-afected communities.
Box 3: High-Level MechanismsandProcessesorAwarenessand KnowledgeSharingand
Coordination
Across national borders, south-south cooperation (SSC) has been gaining momentum.10 Indicative othis is the G20 report Boosting SSC in the Context o Aid Eectiveness, produced in 2010. Furthermore,middle-income countries are increasingly active in international development and have set up their
own modalities or development support and knowledge transer. These include Brazils Agency orCooperation, Indias Ministry o Exte