DT1990MB Watson Glaser Test

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RITI L THINKING N PREFERRED OGNITIVE

STYLE OF NURSING STUDENTS

Gradua te T h e s i s

P r e s e n t e d t o

The i v i s i o n o f Nurs ing

Drake U n i v e r s i t y

In P a r t i a l u l f i l lm e n t

o f th e Requ i remen t s f o r t h e Degree

Maste r o f S c i e n c e i n Nurs ing

M a r j o r i e Bledsoe

Augus t 99



CRITIC L THINKING ND PREFERRED COOIUTIVE

STYLE OF NURSING STUDENTS

by

Marjorie Bledsoe

pproved by Committee

Sandra L S e l l e r s

Dean of the College of Pharmacyand H ea lt h S cie nc es



CRITICAL THINKING AND PREFERRED COGNITIVESTYLE OF NURSING STUDENTS

An A b s t r a c t o f a T h e s i s byM a r j o r i e A. Bledsoe

Augus t 1990Advi so r : Linda Brady

I J ) ~ r QQ L ~ .

T h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i nc r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y be tween s t u d e n t n u r s e s w i t hd i f f e r i n g p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s .

P_r g9 E:?: g yt;..

N u r s i n g s t u d e n t s and psycho logy s t u d e n t s from i n t a c ts am pl in g g ro up s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n an e x p l o r a t o r yd e s c r i p t i v e s t u d y. Both groups were t e s t e d on t h eWa t s o n - G l a s e r C r i t i c a l Think ing A p p r a i s a l and t h e HumanI n f o r m a t i o n P r o c e s s i n g Survey.

f j : l g l ~ §

T h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e between n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s , andn o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s t c r i t i c a l t h in k i n g s co re s 1 =2 . 0 5 1 3 , p = . 0 4 2 9 . A n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was foundbe tween t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u b t e s t s c o r e s and t h ep r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s c o r e s c o e f = - 0 . 3 7 9 0 £ =. 0 0 7 9 . A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was found between t h ea s s u m p t i o n s u b t e s t s c o r e s and t h e s c o r e s o f t h o s e w it h nop r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e among t h e n o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s c o e f = 0 . 6 4 6 6 P = . 0 2 3 1 .

C IlcJlll?j:.2.Il l

The r e s u l t s s u g g e s t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betweent h e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y o f n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s andn o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s . Two s u b t e s t s on th e Wa t s o n - G l a s e rC r i t i c a l Think ing A p p r a i s a l were a f f e c t e d d i f f e r e n t l y byt h e p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s c o r e s t h a n t h e o t h e r t h r e es u b t e s t s .

c O I l l . J 1 I . ~ I l g § i _ t : i . 2 I l §

F u rt he r r e se ar ch , i n c l u d i n g r e p l i c a t i o n w i t h ad i f f e r e n t s amp le and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o fc r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t o o l s , i s s u g g e s t e d .



KNOWLEDGEMENTS

S i n c e r e t h a n k s a re due t o my commit tee C h a i r p e r s o n

Dr Linda Brady and t o my tw o o t h e r commi t t ee members

Sandra S e l l e r s and Dr Donald Keyworth f o r t h e i r t ime

and a s s i s t a n c e S i n c e r e t h a n k s a r e a l s o due th e Resea rch

and I n n o v a t i o n Committee o f Iowa M e t h o d i s t Medica l C e n t e r

o f De s Moines Iowa f o r t h e i r f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t o f t h e

r e s e a r c h F i n a l l y s p e c i a l t h a n k s to a l l th e s t u d e n t s

w o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t



TABLE OF ONT NTS

Page

C h a p t e r I n t r o d u c t i o n II

I I I M e t h o d o l o g y .

C h a p t e r

C h a p t e r

I I L i t e r a t u r e Review ...................

............................. .....

. 11

25

C h a p t e r IV

C h a p t e r V

n a l y s i s and R e s u l t s 33

i s c u s s i o n I

R e f e r e n c e s ; 9

Appendix III , 5

Wa t s o n G l a s e r C r i t i c a l Think ing p p r a i s a l

A:

B:

Demograph i c s t o o l .............. 55

. 56

C: Human I n fo r m at io n P r oc es s in g Survey 64

D: In fo rmed C o n s e n t 71



LIST OF T LES

Page

1 . C r i t i c a l Think ing and Bra in P r e f e r e n c e o f

N u rs in g S tu de nt s III 1 1 I - If * o . , . , , j . - ii 5

2 . T-Tes t A n aly sis o f C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b i l i t y

Between Nurs ing S t u d e n t s w i t h a P r e f e r r e d

C o g n i t i v e S t y l e and Those w i t h No P r e f e r r e d

C o g n i t i v e S t y l e Mixed • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 36

3 . T-Tes t A n aly sis o f C r i t i c a l Think ing b i l i t y

Between Psycho logy S t u d e n t s w i t h a P r e f e r r e d

R i g h t and L ef t C og ni t iv e S t y l e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 37

4 . Non-Nurs ing S t u d e n t s w i t h P r e f e r r e d C o g n i t i v e

S t y l e and Non-Nurs ing S t u d e n t s wi th No

P r e f e r r e d C o g n i t i v e S t y l e Hixed}

5. C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g Scores o f Nurs ing S t u d e n t s

and Non-Nursing S t u d e n t s 9



H PTER

INTRODU TION

The purpose o f t h i s s t u d y wa s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

d i f f e r e n c e i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y among s t u d e n t

n u r s e s w i t h d i f f e r i n g p re fe rr ed c o g n it i ve s t y l e s . With

t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y complex h ea lt h i s su e s f a c i n g n u r s i n g

i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t n u r s e s have t h e a b i l i t y t o t h i n k

c r i t i c a l l y . I t i s n o t r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t s t u d e n t s o r

n u r s e s t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e v a s t amounts o f knowledge

accumula t ing i n t h e n u r s i n g f i e l d w it h ou t t e ac h i n g them

to t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y . In o r d e r f o r n u r s e s t o a s s i m i l a t e

t h i s knowledge t h e y w i l l need t o d e v e l o p g r e a t e r s k i l l s

o f d e c i s i o n making , e v a l u a t i o n and j udgmen t . C r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g s k i l l s e n a b l e n u r s e s t o p r o c e s s i n f o r m a t i o n and

a r r i v e a t v a l i d d e c i s i o n s and j udgmen t s . key t o

c o m p e t e n t , s k i l l f u l n u r s i n g p r a c t i c e i n t h e f u t u r e l i e s

i n t h e n u r s e s c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t i e s P ard u e , 1 987 .

With t h e advances i n b i o m e d i c i n e , n u r s e s w i l l be

i n v o l v e d i n d ec is i o ns abou t more complex e t h i c a l and

mora l i s s u e s . ~ i s i o n sc o n c e r n i n g t h e s e i s s u es o ft e n

have no c l e a r l y c o r r e c t answers . T h e r e f o r e t h e need i s

g r e a t f o r n u r s e s who can t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y . I f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g i s e s s e n t i a l f o r n u r s e s t o a c q u i r e t h e n n u r s i n g

e d u c a t o r s must be s e n s i t i v e t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t o

t e a c h t h e p r o c e s s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .



The s t u d y o f t h i n k i n g i s w e l l grounded i n t h e

d i s c i p l i n e s o f p h i l o s o p h y, p s y c h o l o g y, and e d u c a t i o n

R ob er t E nn is 1962 s t a t e d t h e g o a l o f e d u c a t i o n i s t o

i n c r e a s e t h e a b i l i t y t o t h i n k C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a

complex p r o c e s s i s t h e a b i l i t y to r e a c h c o n c l u s i o n s on

i s s u e s which m a y o r may no t have c o r r e c t a n s w e r s .

C r i t i c a l t h in k i n g i n clu de s bo th d i s p o s i t i o n s and

a b i l i t i e s E n n i s , 1 9 8 7 . R ober t E nn is 1987 con tended

t h a t c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i nvo lved a c r e a t i v e a s w e l l a s a

j udgmenta l component . T h i s t h in k in g in v o lv e s t h e use o f

bo th t h e r i g h t and l e f t b r a i n h e m i s p h e r e s Levy, 1985;

Ruggie ro , 1 9 8 8 . T h e r e f o r e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g draws on

bo th hemispheres o f t h e b r a i n E n n i s , 1987; Levy, 1 9 8 5 .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r r e s e a r c h t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r any

r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s be tween how p e r s o n s t h i n k and t h e i r

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y

R e s e a r c h e r s i n e d u c a t i o n have i d e n t i f i e d t h a t each

i n d i v i d u a l h as a p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e Gray, 1 9 8 0 .

S t u d i e s were conduc ted t h a t examined t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e on academic ach ievement and

a l s o on r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t Foun ta in F i l l m e r 1987;

Van Giesen , B e l l Roubinek, 1 9 8 7 . No s t u d i e s c o u l d be

found t h a t d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and

p r ef e r re d c o g n i t iv e s t y l e



L i m i t e d r e s e a r c h i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g has been

documented i n n u r s i n g e d u c a t i o n . S t u d i e s have a d d r e s s e d

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and a ca de mic p ro gra ms F r e d e r i c k s o n

Mayer, 1977; G r o s s , Takazawa Rose , 1987; P a r d u e , 1 9 8 7 .

As in g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n no r e s e a r c h in n u r s in g e d u c a t i o n

c o u l d be found which a d d r e s s e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e . T h i s i s an a r e a i n which

r e s e a r c h i s needed .

T r a d i t i o n a l l y e d u c a t o r s have t ended t o t e a c h t oward

t h e l e f t hemisphe re o f th e b r a i n t o th e n e g l e c t o f t h e

r i g h t s i d e . L e c t u r e s and r ea din g a ss ig nm e nts a r e

t e a c h i n g methods d i r e c t e d a t th e l e f t b r a i n H o l b e r t

Thomas, 1988 . These t e a c h i n g methods , l e c t u r e s and

r ea di ng a ss ig nm e nts , a r e used more o f t e n i n th e c l a s s r o o m

s e t t i n g t h a n o t h e r methods such as j o u r n a l w ri t i n g o r

d e b a t i n g H o l b e r t Thomas . Because o f t h i s t e a c h i n g

p a t t e r n th e r i g h t s i d e o f th e b r a i n i s n o t a s h i g h l y

d e v e l o p e d . Peop le u t i l i z e t h e s i d e o f th e b r a i n t h a t i s

most c o m f o r t a b l e t o them , which would be t h e one most

d e v e l o p e d . In most p e o p l e , th e more deve loped i s t h e

l e f t s i d e whi le th e r i g h t s i d e which t e n d s t o be more

c r e a t i v e and h o l i s t i c i s i gnored Gray, 1 9 8 0 . I f

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i s enhanced by a p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e

s t y l e t h e n t e a c h i n g m eth ods need t o be d i r e c t e d t o t h i s

c o g n i t i v e s t y l e .



The purpose o f t h i s r e s e a r c h s t u d y wa s to d ete r m in e

t h e d i f f e r e n c e among n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

a b i l i t y as f u n c t i o n o f t h e i r p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e .

The sample c o n s i s t e d o f f reshman d ip loma n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s . Non nur s ing s t u d e n t s from l ower d i v i s i o n

psycho logy c o l l e g e c l a s s were a l s o i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y

f o r p u r p o s e s o f compar i son Al though t h e f o c u s o f t h i s

r e s e a r c h was on t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

a b i l i t y o f s t u d e n t s wi th d i f f e r i n g c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s y

d i f f e r e n c e s between th e c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s and t h e c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y o f th e tw o s t u d e n t groups a l s o were

i d e n t i f i e d . The t e s t i n g o f t h e s t u d e n t s was comple t ed

b e f o r e any t e a c h i n g on t h e s u b j e c t o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .



D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms

F or t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y t e r m s o f majo r

s i g n i f i c a n c e were c o n c e p t i o n a l l y and o p e r a t i o n a l l y

d e f i n e d a s f o l l o w s:

1 . P r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e d e s i g n a t e s t h e dominan t

b r a i n hemisphe re used f o r t h i n k i n g I t s e e k s t o i d e n t i f y

ho w p e r s o n s p e r c e i v e and r e spond t o s t i m u l i i n t h e i r

e n v i r o n m e n t s . The t e r m s human i nf o r m a ti on p ro c es s i ng

p a t t e r n s p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and t h i n k i n g s t y l e

were used synonymous ly in t h i s s t u d y P r e f e r r e d

c o g n i t i v e s t y l e was o p e r a t i o n a l l y measu red by t h e Human

I n f o r m a ti on P ro ce ss in g Survey HIP Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e ,

1 9 8 4 . Three s e p a r a t e s c o r e s were r e p o r t e d from t h e

Human I n f o r m a t i o n P r o c e s s i n g Survey : p r e f e r r e d r i g h t

c o g n i t i v e u s e s th e r i g h t hemisphe re o f t h e b r a i n ;

p r e f e r r e d l e f t c o g n i t i v e uses th e l e f t hemisphe re o f t h e

b r a i n ; p r e f e r r e d i n t eg r at ed c o g n i t iv e s t y l e u s e s r i g h t

and l e f t h e m i s p h e r e s o f th e b r a i n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

A s u b j e c t must have r e c e i v e d a s c o r e o f 120 i n a n y o n e o f

t h e t h r e e a r e a s t o have a p r ef e r re d c o gn i t iv e s t y l e i n

t h a t a r e a F or exam ple , to be s c o r e d a s p r e f e r r e d r i g h t

h e m i s p h e r e t h e s u b j e c t must have s c o r e d a t l e a s t 120 o r

g r e a t e r i n t h a t a r e a I t was v e r y r a r e t h a t any p e r s o n

would s c o r e 120 o r g r e a t e r i n more t h a n one a r e a I f



t h i s o c c u r r e d t h e h i g h e r s c o r e wa s c o n s i d e r e d t h e

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e

2 . Mixed s t r a t e g y i s t h e te rm a p p l i e d when a s u b j e c t d i d

n o t s c o r e 120 i n any o f th e t h r e e a r e a s No p r e f e r r e d

c o g n i t i v e s t y l e was t h e n i d e n t i f i e d f o r t h i s s u b j e c t A

mixed s t r a t e g y p e rs o n u se s e i t h e r t h e r i g h t o r t h e l e f t

s i d e o f t h e b r a i n and h as no p r e f e r e n c e T h i s i s

d i f f e r e n t from an i n t eg ra te d s t r a t e g y because th e s u b j e c t

does n o t use b o t h hemisphe res s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

3 . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i s t h e a b i l i t y t o a d d r e s s i s s u e s

which m a y o r may n o t have c o r r e c t answer s and a r r i v e a t

c o n c l u s i o n s wi th t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r th e c o n c lu s io n s

En n is , 1 98 7 ) . I t i n c l u d e s th e use o f i n f e r e n c e t h e

r e c o g n i t i o n o f a s s u m p t i o n s , d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g ,

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d a t a and e v a l u a t i o n o f a rgumen t s .

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n v o l v e s bo th a c r e a t i v e and j udgmen ta l

phase . Both hemisphe res o f th e b r a i n a r e u t i l i z e d i n th e

p r o c e s s C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g wa s o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d by

th e Watson G l a s e r C r i t i c a l Thinking A p p r a i s a l 1 9 8 0 ) .

Raw s c o r e s were o b t a i n e d by adding t h e number o f c o r r e c t

answers on each o f th e f i v e s u b t e s t s and t h e n t o t a l i n g

t h e s u b t e s t s c o r e s E i g h t y i s t h e h ig h e st p o s si b le t o t a l

comprehensive s c o r e and i s th e l o w e s t .

4 . Think ing i s any menta l a c t i v i t y t h a t h e l p s f o r m u l a t e

o r s o l v e a prob lem, make a d e c i s i o n o r f u l f i l l a d e s i r e



t o u n d e r s t a n d . I t embraces o n l y p u r p o s e f u l m e n t a l

a c t i v i t y o v e r which a person e x e r c i s e s some c o n t r o l

Ruggie ro 1988 p p 1 - 2 .

5 . N u rs in g s t u d e n t s were a l l f reshmen n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s 18

y e a r s o r o l d e r e n r o l l e d i n a d ip loma n u r s i n g program i n

t h e f a l l o f 1989 who a g r e e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t u d y .

6. Psycho logy s t u d e n t s were a l l s t u d e n t s y e a r s o r

o l d e r e n ro ll e d i n a l o w e r d i v i s i o n g e n e r a l psycho logy

c l a s s i n a l i b e r a l a r t s u n i v e r s i t y i n th e f a l l o f 1989

who a g r e e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t u d y.



Nul l Hypo theses

1 . Ho: There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y among n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th an

i n t e g r a t e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th

p r e f e r r e d l e f t c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h

p r e f e r r e d r i g h t c o g n i t i v e s t y l e

2. Ho: There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y be tween n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t v e s t y l e and n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th no

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e m i x e d .

3 . Ho : There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f er en c e i n t h e

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y between n o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s

w i t h p r ef e r re d i n te g ra te d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e n o n - n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s wi th p r e f e r r e d l e f t c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and non

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h p r e f e r r e d r i g h t c o g n i t v e s t y l e

4 . Ho: There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e

c i r t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y between n o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s

w i t h p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and n o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s

w i t h no p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e m i x e d .

5. Ho: There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y between n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s and

n o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s



L i m i t a t i o n s

l i m i t a t i o n o f th e r e s e a r c h was t h a t s u b j e c t s were

n o t s e l e c t e d by a random p r o c e d u r e The s m a l l sample

s i z e and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r d id n o t c o n t r o l any

o f th e v a r i a b l e s i n th e s t u d y were l i m i t a t i o n s i n th e

r e s e a r c h . The f i n d i n g s o f th e s tu dy ca nno t be

g en er a li z ed t o any o t h e r s e t t i n g o r groups

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e Study t o Nurs ing

There i sa

need f o r e m p ir i c al s t u d i e s on t h ec r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s i n th e n u r s i n g p r o f e s s i o n .

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i s an e s s e n t i a l component o f n u rs in g

p r a c t i c e .

T h i s r e s e a r c h w i l l b e n e f i t n u r s i n g e d u c a t o r s by

s u p p o r t i n g th e n e c e s s i t y t o a d d re s s th e q u e s t i o n o f how

to t e a c h t h e p r o c e s s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . The r e s u l t s

o f t h e s t u d y can be u s e f u l to n u rs in g e d u c a to rs i n

p r e p a r i n g t h e i r c u r r i c u l a . Nurses need t o be a b l e t o

i d e n t i f y and ana lyze h e a l t h c a r e i s s u e s and a r r i v e a t

v a l i d a s s u m p t i o n s and c o n c l u s i o n s based on t h e c r i t i c a l

t h in k in g p ro ce ss . Nurses need t o know how to t h i n k

c r i t i c a l l y i n o r d e r t o implement th e n urs in g p r o c e s s t h e

b a s i s f o r n u r s i n g c a r e . Nurs ing i s i n a s t a t e o f change

and i s d u r i n g such u n s e t t l i n g change t h a t c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g i s most n e c e s s a r y B r o o k f i e l d 1988



10

I f n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s can be t a u g h t t o improve t h e i r

a b i l i t y t o t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y th ey s h ou ld be a b le t o make

more v a l i d d e c is io n s e v a l u a t i o n s and j udgment s . I f

t h i s o c c u r s b e t t e r n u r s i n g c a r e w i l l be d e l i v e r e d t o t h e

c l i e n t a s a r e s u l t

The n u r s i n g p r o f e s s i o n w i l l b e n e f i t from l e a d e r s who

a r e b e t t e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k e r s The n u r s i n g p r o f e s s i o n i s

n o t i d e n t i f i e d a s one i n which p e r s o n s a re d ec is i o n

makers o r t h i n k e r s I t i s n ec e ss a ry to change t h i s

b e l i e f and t e a c h i n g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c an h e l p

f a c i l i t a t e t h i s p r o c e s s by d e v e l o p i n g n u r s e s who a r e

r e c o g n i z e d f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y t o t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y and make

sound d e c i s i o n s

Five y e a r s a f t e r a c l i n i c a l n u r s i n g s p e c i a l i s t

g r a d u a t e s 4 o f t h e a c q u i r e d kn ow ledg e and 5 o f t h e

t e c h n i c a l equ ipmen t a r e o b so le te McCormick 1 9 8 3 . I t i s

i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e growth o f th e p r o f e s s i o n t o t e a c h th e

p r o c e s s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g so t h a t n u r s e s w i l l be a b l e

to a p p l y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t o ne w

l e a r n i n g and t e c h n o l o g y. Nurs ing r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i s l i m i t e d Nurs ing e d u c a t o r s c o u l d

b e n e f i t from r e s e a r c h which a d d r e s s e s any ne w i n f o r m a t i o n

on how t o t e a c h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g e f f e c t i v e l y



H PTER I I

REVIEW OF THE LITER TURE

The c o n c e p t u a l framework a d d r e s s i n g c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g f o r t h i s s t u d y w i l l be p r e s e n t e d f i r s t . S t u d i e s

comple t ed on r i g h t and l e f t b r a i n dominance t h e n w i l l be

p r e s e n t e d . L i te r a tu r e r e l a t ed t o r i g h t and l e f t

p r e f e r e n c e and t h e p ro ce ss i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l t h e n be

d i s c u s s e d , fo l lowed by r e s e a r c h examining t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between r i g h t and l e f t b ra in p re fe re nc e and

academic a c h i e v e m e n t . The review w i l l conc lude w i t h

s t u d i e s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and p r ef e r re d c o g n it iv e

s t y l e found i n t h e n u r s i n g e d u c a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e .

E d u c a t o r s , p h i l o s o p h e r s , and p s y c h o l o g i s t s have a l l

been conce rned wi th c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . Rober t Enn i s

1 9 8 7 ,a

p r o f e s s o r o f p h i lo so p h y o f e d u c a t i o n a t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , has o f f e r e d an e x t e n s i v e t h e o r y

on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and i t s i m p li c a t i o ns f or t h e

e d uc a ti on a l p ro ce ss . E n n i s s 1987 c o n c e p t o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g i n c l u d e s bo th a c r e a t i v e and a j udgmen ta l

componen t . T h i s s t u d y d e f i n e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a s

having t h e s e components , t h e r e f o r e , seemed t h e most

a p p r o p r i a t e c o n c e p t u a l framework to a c c e p t f o r th e b a s i s

o f t h e s t u d y.

Ennis 1987 d e f i n e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a s

r e a s o n a b l e r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g t h a t i s focused on



12

d e c i d i n g w h a t t o b e l i e v e o r do p . 1 0 ) . I n c l u d e d i n

t h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s c r e a t i v e component . E n n i s 1 9 8 7 )

s t a t e d , F o r m u l a t i n g h y p o t h e s e s , a l t e r n a t i v e ways o f

v i e w i n g p r o b l e m , q ue st i o ns , p o s si b le s o l u t i o n s and

p l a n s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g some th ing a r e c r e a t i v e a c t s t h a t

come u n d e r t h i s d e f i n i t i o n p 1 0 ) .

To u t i l i z e t h e c r i t i c a l t h in k i n g p ro ce ss

e f f e c t i v e l y , an i n d i v i d u a l needs c o m b i n a t i o n o f two

f a c t o r s : p a r t i c u l a r f r ame o f mind, a l s o known a s t h e

d i s p o s i t i o n s , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c e r t a i n o p e r a t i o n a l

s k i l l s , a l s o known a s t h e a b i l i t i e s . -Ennis 1987 )

a s s e r t e d t h a t t h i n k i n g c r i t i c a l l y i n v o l v e s t h e u s e o f

b o t h d i s p o s i t i o n s and a b i l i t i e s .

The d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e r e f e r e n c e s o f how t o a c t o r

p r o c e e d when imp lemen t ing c r i t i c a lt h i n k i n g .

They a c ta s

g U i d el i n es f o r per son t o fo l low i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g E n n i s , 1 9 8 7 ) . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,

d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e t h e t e n d e n c i e s t o seek c l e a r s t a t e m e n t

o f t h e q u e s t i o n ; t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e t o t a l

s i t u a t i o n ; t o be w e l l i n fo rmed ; t o r ema in r e l e v a n t t o t h e

main p o i n t ; t o s e e k a l t e r n a t i v e s ; t o t a k e p o s i t i o n and

t o change when t h e e v i d e n c e and r e a s o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t

t o do so ; t o r ema in open -minded and t o be s e n s i t i v e t o

t h e f e e l i n g s , l e v e l o f knowledge , and d e g r e e o f

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f o t h e r s E n n i s , 1 9 8 7 ) .



13

I n o r d e r to t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y however, a p e r s o n must

a l s o have c e r t a i n a b i l i t i e s The a b i l i t i e s needed i n

c r i t i c a l t h in ki n g a re c l a r i t y b a s i c s u p p o r t , i n f e r e n c e

and i n t e r a c t i o n Enn i s , 1987 . Ennis used th e s i t u a t i o n

o f s e r v i n g on a j u r y to he lp e x p l a i n many o f t h e s e

a b i l i t i e s Each a b i l i t y w i l l be d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y

us ing th e j u r y t r i a l ana logy.

Th e f i r s t a b i l i t y i s c l a r i t y Because t h i s c a t e g o r y

c o n t a i n e d many s m a l l e r a b i l i t i e s Enn i s 1987 d i v i d e d

i n t o e l e m e n t a r y and advanced c l a r i f i c a t i o n groups .

Elemen ta ry c l a r i t y i nvo lves focus ing on a q u e s t i o n

prob lem, h y p o t h e s i s , o r t h e s i s i s i d e n t i f i e d when

f o c u s i n g on th e q u e s t i o n ne must t hen d e c i d e i f t h e

h y p o t h e s i s i s a c c e p t a b l e In a j u r y t r i a l t h e j u r y must

focus on a q u e s t i o n such a s : Did th e d e f e n d a n t commit

th e murder? Another c l a r i f y i n g a b i l i t y i n c l u d e s

a n a l y z i n g a rgumen t s . Again, in th e j u r y e x p e r i e n c e , one

would have to i d e n t i f y th e c o n c l u s i o n s o f th e d e f e n s e and

p r o s e c u t i n g a t t o r n e y s Asking q u e s t i o n s o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n

o r c ha ll e ng e d e a l i n g wi th th e main p o i n t a r e i m p o r t a n t

c l a r i f y i n g a b i l i t i e s Th e f a c t s o f th e c a s e an d how th e

main p o i n t might be e x e m p l i f i e d a r e p u r s u e d . Elemen ta ry



14

d i m e n s i o n s : form, d e f in i ti o n a l s t r a te g y and c o n t e n t .

D e f i n i n g te rm by form e n t a i l s i t s synonym,

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n e q u i va le n t e x pr es si on o p e r a t i o n a l

d e f i n i t i o n o r example . D e f i n i t i o n a l s t r a t e g y i s t h e

r e p o r t e d d e f i n i t i o n s t i p u la t iv e d e f in i t i o n o r

p o s i ti o n a l d e f i n it io n g iven t e r m . The h a n d l i n g o f any

e q u i v o c a t i o n such a s I s t h e d e f i n i t i o n o r te rm

m i s l e a d i n g ? i s d e a l t w ith d ur in g t h i s t i m e . F i n a l l y

th e c o n t e n t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n must be examined when

j u d g i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n E n n i s , 1987 .

The second a b i l i t y i s b as ic s u pp or t which i n c l u d e s

s t a t e m e n t s made by o t h e r s o b s e r v a t i o n s and i n f e r e n c e s

t h a t one h a s made p r e v i o u s l y. O b s e r v a t i o n and j u d g i n g

th e c r e d i b i l i t y o f s o u r c e a r e key a b i l i t i e s . uch o f

what i s b e l i e v e d comes from o t h e r p e o p l e , so j u d g i n g t h e

c r e d i b i l i t y o f s o u r c e i s key a b i l i t y t o a c q u i r e .

Enn i s 1987 l i s t e d c r i t e r i a u nd e r each o f t h e a b i l i t i e s

which m a y o r may n o t have t o be employed , depend ing on

t h e p e r s o n s p r e s e n t knowledge o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . I f th e

s i t u a t i o n i s beyond th e p er s o n s p re se n t knowledge , t h e n

c r i t e r i a such as e x p e r t i s e and r e p u t a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e

use o f e s t a b l i s h e d p r o c e d u r e s and known r i s k t o

r e p u t a t i o n can be used E n n i s , 1 9 8 7 .

The t h i r d a b i l i t y i n f e r e n c e i n c l u d e s d e d u c t i v e

i n f e r e n c e i n d u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e and i n f e r e n c e t o v a l u e



15

j u d g m e n t s . D ed u c t i o n i s t h e way some th ing f o l l o w s

n e c e s s a r i l y f rom some th ing e l s e . I n t h e j u r y e x p e r i e n c e ,

i f l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e n o t s a t i s f i e d f o r t h e m u r d e r

g u i l t y c o n v i c t i o n c o u l d n o t b e r e a c h e d . I n d u c t i o n i s

g e n e r a l i z i n g an d i n f e r r i n g t o h y p o t h e s e s t h a t a r e

s u p p o s e d t o e x p l a i n t h e f a c t s . The b e s t h y p o t h e s i s i s

d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e ~ v nf a c t s . The l a s t i n f e r e n c e 1 s

making v a l u e j u d g m e n t s . T he j u r o r s a s k e d , What o u g h t

n o r m a l l y be e x p e c t e d ? They w ere m aking v a l u e j u d g m e n t

E n n i s , 1987} .

The f o u r t h a b i l i t y i n v o l v e s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o t h e r s

i n p r e s e n t a t i o n s , d e b a t e s , an d w r i t t e n work . T h i s

i n t e r a c t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c l a r i t y , b a s i c

o

t h i s

i n

r e a r e tw o

i r s t i s t h a t

cor t i

c a n n o t be i f t h e



16

Th e model o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g fo rmula ted by Enni s

1987 i n c l u d e s th e u se o f t h e bo th th e p r o d u c t i o n and

th e j udgmen t phase o f t h i n k i n g . S i m i l a r l y, Ruggiero

1988 proposed t h a t t h i n k i n g i n v o l v e s tw o phases : th e

p r o d u c t i o n phase and th e judgment phase . Th e p r o d u c t i o n

phase f o c u s e s on th e p r o d u c t i o n o f i d e a s . I t i s i n t h i s

p h a s e t h a t t h e mind produces v a r i o u s co nce pt io ns o f

prob lem o r i s s u e , v a r i o u s ways o f d e a l i n g w i t h and

p o ss ib le s o l u t io n s o r r e s p o n s e s t o i t Ruggie ro , 1988,

p . 3 ) . Good t h i n k e r s t e n d t o s ee many ways o f d e a l i n g

w i t h prob lems and many d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s . In t h e

j udgmen t p h a se , th e mind examines and e v a l u a t e s t h e i d e a ,

makes r e f i n e m e n t s , i f needed , and r e a c h e s judgment o r

c o n c l u s i o n . ood t h i n k e r s t e s t t h e i r assumpt ions , make

d i s t i n c t i o n s and base t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s on sound ev idencer a t h e r t h a n on t h e i r f e e l i n g s Rugg ie ro , 1 9 8 8 . This

would c o r r e s p o n d to E n n i s s 1987 c on ce pt io n of c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g i n which both c r e a t i v e and j udgmen ta l

component a r e i n c l u d e d . Th e r i g h t b r a i n i s dominant

d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n phase o f t h i n k i n g , and t h e l e f t

b r a i n i s dominan t dur ing th e judgment phase o f th in k in g

Levy 1 9 8 5 . T h e r e f o r e , bo th hemispheres o f th e b r a i n

a r e used d u r i n g th e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s . I f one

hemisphere o f th e b r a i n i s l e s s deve loped th a n th e o t h e r ,

i t would seem t h a t a t l e a s t p a r t o f th e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g



7

p r o c e s s would be h i n d e r e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , would seem

t h a t f a u l t y c o n c l u s i o n s cou ld be r eached i f e i t h e r t h e

p r o d u c t i o n o r t h e judgment phase o f th e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

p r o c e s s were weakened by an underdeve loped b r a i n

h e m i s p h e r e .

The t e a c h i n g o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i s one o f t h e

g o a l s o f e d u c a t o r s How b e s t t o t e a c h t h i s p r o c e s s h a s

n o t y e t been d e t e r m i n e d . S i n c e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g d o e s

i n v o l v e bo th hemisphe res o f th e b r a i n a review o f

r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h on h e m i s p h e r i c i t y and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

would seem a p p r o p r i a t e Resea rch f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t

t h e b r a i n p o s s e s s e s tw o d i f f e r e n t and complementary ways

o f p r o c e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . E x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h wa s

conduc ted i n t h e l a t e 1950s and t h e 1960s on r i g h t and

l e f t b r a i n dominance by Dr. Roger Sper ry and a s s o c i a t e s

IGazzan iga , Bogen, S p e r r y, 1962, 1963, 1965; Gazzan iga

S p e r r y 1 9 6 7 . Dr. S p e r r y 1962 d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e

l e f t hemisphe re governed v e r b a l speech and th e r i g h t

hemisphe re gove rned th e p r o c e s s i n g o f v i s u a l images . The

l e f t hemisphe re governed t h e spoken word whi le t h e r i g h t

h e m i s p h e r e gove rned what t h e s u b j e c t saw.

S t u d i e s conduc ted on s u b j e c t s who had t h e c o r p u s

co l losum a band o f t i s s u e t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e tw o

h e m i sp h e re s s e v er e d d e m o n st ra te d t h a t v i s u a l t a c t u a l

p r o p r i o c e p t i v e a u d i t o r y and o l f a c t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n



18

p r e s e n t e d t o o ne h e m i s p h e r e c o u l d be p r o c e s s e d o n l y b

t h a t h em is ph ere G az za nig a t Bogen, S p e r r Y t 1 96 2 , 19 63 ,

1965; G a z z a n i g a S p e r r y , 1 9 6 7 ) . S p e r r y and a s s o c i a t e s

( G a z z a n i g a , B o g e n , S p e r r y, 196 2 , 1 9 63 , 1 9 8 5 ; G a z z a n i g a

S p e r r y , 1 9 6 7 ) found t h a t e a c h s i d e o f t h e b r a i n

p ro c e s s es i n fo rm a t i o n i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T he l e f t

h e m i s p h e r e g o v e r n s t h e u se o f l a n g u a g e , l o g i c a l

r e a s o n i n g , a n a l y s i s , an d t h e p e r f o r m i n g o f s e q u e n t i a l

t a s k s , w h i l e t h e r i g h t b r a i n c o n t r o l s n o n v e r b a l ,

s y m b o l i c , a nd i n t u i t i v e r e s p o n s e s . T h e s e f i n d i n g s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r i g h t hemisphe re was s u p e r i o r t o t h e

l e f t i n s p a t i a l t a s k s s u c h a s imag ing and s h a p e s , b u t w as

d e f i c i e n t i n v e r b a l t a s k s such a s d e c o d i n g complex

s y n t a x , s h o r t - t e r m v e r b a l memor i za t i on a nd p h o n e t i c

a n a l y s i s ( G a z z a n i g a , Bogen

S p e r r y , 1962 , 1965;

G a z z a n i g a S p e r r y , 1 9 6 7 ) .

A lth oug h ea ch s i d e o f t h e b r a i n i s s p e c i a l i z e d , t h e

two s i d e s m u s t i n t e g r a t e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s

i n t e g r a t i o n l e a d s t o b e h a v i o r an d m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s

g r e a t e r t h a n and d i f f e r e n t f rom e a c h r e g io n s s p e c ia l

c o n t r i b u t i o n L e v y, 1985) . Levy s t a t e d , T h e r e i s no

a c t i v i t y i n w h i c h o n l y one hemisphe re i s i n v o l v e d o r i n

which o n l y one hemisphe re makes c o n t r i b u t i o n L e v y,

1985 , p . 4 3 ) . Levy b e l i e v e d b oth h em is ph er es a r e

n e c e s s a r y t o p r o ce s s i n fo rm a t i o n . S t u d e n t s l e a r n



9

d i f f e r e n t l y and , t h e r e f o r e must be t au gh t a cc or din g t o

how t h e y p r o c e s s i n f o r m a t i o n Levy, 1983 .

While no r e s e a r c h has d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h th e

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and t h e a b i l i t y

t o t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y a d e s c r i p t i v e nonexper imen ta l s t u d y

by Founta in and F i l l m e r 1987 o f 13 1 f o u r t h and

s e v e n t h g r a d e r s demons t ra t ed t h a t i n t e g r a t e d b r a i n

p r e f e r e n c e and academic ach ievemen t r e v e a l e d some

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . The OV d a t a f o r f o u r t h -

g r a d e r e a d i n g , m ath em atic s, la ng ua ge , and b a s i c b a t t e r y

showed t h a t th e i n t e g r a t e d hemisphere p r e f e r e n c e s t u d e n t s

a c h i e v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t han th e p r e f e r r e d r i g h t o r

p r e f e r r e d l e f t hemisphe re s t u d e n t s on a l l f o u r t e s t s .

Th e d a t a f o r th e s e v e n th grade d id no t show any

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among th e t h r e e b r a i n p r e f e r e n c e

g r o u p s . Th e major i m p l i c a t i o n of th e s tu d y was t h a t th e

s t u d e n t s d id p ro c e s s i n f o r m a t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y and t h a t t h e

method o f p r o c e s s i n g a f f e c t e d t h e i r l e a r n i n g and

ach ievement .

Anothe r d e s c r i p t i v e s tudy wa s conduc ted by Van

G i e s e n , B e l l and Roubinek 1987 on 64 s u b j e c t s in t h e

f o u r t h and f i f t h grades compar ing r i g h t b r a i n l e f t

b r a i n and i n t e g r a t e d b r a i n dominant s t u d e n t s on r e a d i n g

ach ievement . Th e r e s u l t s showed no d i f f e r e n c e s i n

ach ievemen t p = . 0 5 8 3 .



20

In n u r s i n g e d u c a t i o n no s t u d i e s c o u l d be found which

focused on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p re fe r re d c o gn i t iv e

s t y l e and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y . However, some

n u r s i n g r e s e a r c h has been comple t ed on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

i n r e l a t i o n to o t h e r v a r i a b l e s .

An i n i t i a l s tudy on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n n u r s i n g was

c o n d u c t e d by F r e d e r i c k s o n and Mayer 1977 i n a

d e s c r i p t i v e s tudy o f 55 s t u d e n t s , 8 from f i v e

b a c c a l a u r e a t e d e g r e e programs and 7 from t h r e e a s s o c i a t e

d e g r e e n u r s i n g programs . These r e s e a r c h e r s d e f i n e d

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as th e a b i l i t y t o s o l v e prob lems . A ll

s t u d e n t s were w i t h i n one s e m e s t e r o f g r a d u a t i o n . An

a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e between th e type o f d e g r e e a s t u d e n t

would r e c e i v e and th e s t u d e n t s pe r fo rmance on th e

t e s t i n g wa s comple t ed . Th e name o f the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

t e s t wa s n o t i d e n t i f i e d . The r e s u l t s found b a c c a l a u r e a t e

s t u d e n t s scored h i g h e r on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t han

a s s o c i a t e degree s t u d e n t s p = . 0 1 . A majo r l i m i t a t i o n

o f th e s t u d y wa s t h e narrow d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g .

Matthews and Gaul 1979 b e l i e v e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

wa s a f a c t o r i n th e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a n u r s i n g d i a g n o s i s .

The a u t h o r s conduc ted a d e s c r i p t i v e s tu d y o f 48 n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s u s i n g th e Watson-Glase r C r i t i c a l Think ing

A p p r a i s a l Watson G l a s e r , 1964 and t h e Concept Maste ry



2

Te s t Terman, 1 9 5 6 ) . No r e l a t i o n s h i p was e v i d e n c e d i n

t h e Wa t s o n - G l a s e r C r i t i c a l Think ing A p p r a i s a l s c o r e s and

t h e a b i l i t y t o f o r m u l a t e a n u r s i n g d i a g n o s i s

rh o = - 0 . 1 4 0 , p . < 0 . 5 3 5 ) .

A d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d y t h a t e xa min ed m or al r e a s o n i n g

and c r i t i c a l t h i n k in g o f 79 p r a c t i c i n g n u r s e s was

c o m p l e t e d by K e t e f i a n 1 9 8 1 ) . The Watson-Glase r C r i t i c a l

Think ing A p p r a i s a l Te s t Watson G l a s e r , 1964) was used

t o measure c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , and t h e R e s t s Def in ing

I s s u e s Te s t R e s t , 1974) was used t o measure moral

j udgmen t . The f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t e d t h a t c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o moral judgm ent p = < . 0 0 1 ) .

The r e s u l t s a l s o s u p p o r t e d t h e h yp ot h es is t h a t c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g and e d u c a t i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n would p r e d i c t

g r e a t e r v a r i a n c e in moral judgmen t t han e i t h e r v a r i a b l e

a l o n e f [ 2 , 7 5 ] = 1 8 . 3 , p = . 0 1 ) . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and

e d u c a t i o n t o g e t h e r accoun ted f o r 32.9 o f th e v a r i a n ce i n

mora l j udgmen t .

B e rg e r 1984) conduc ted a l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y on 137

b a c c a l a u r e a t e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e whethe r t h e r e

was a r e l a t i o n s h i p between c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y and

g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e s i n n u r s i n g and s ci en ce c ou rs es . The

Watson-Glase r C r i t i c a l Think ing A p p r a i s a l Watson

G l a s e r , 1964) was used f o r t h e s t u d y . P e a r s o n p r o d u c t

moment c o r re la t i o n c o e f f i c i en t s w ere c om puted wi th t h e



r e s u l t s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r e wa s no s i g n i f i c a n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e c r i t i c a l t h in ki n g s co re s and

grade p o i n t a v e r a g e s i n e i t h e r n u r s i n g c o u r s e s o r s c i e n c e

c o u r s e s r = .139 and .219 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . The n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s mean a v e r a g e s c o r e o f 77 on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

wa s found to be h i g h e r when compared w i t h t h e mean

a v e r a g e s c o r e o f 74 f o r th e l i b e r a l a r t s f reshmen and

l i b e r a l a r t s s e n i o r s t u d e n t s . The a u t h o r d i d n o t

i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r t h i s was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e .

A s t u d y comple t ed by Gross , Takazawa and Rose 1987

examined t h e e f f e c t o f n u r s i n g e d u c a t i o n on s t u d e n t s

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s . A t o t a l o f 108 a s s o c i a t e

and b a c c a l a u r e a t e degree s t u d e n t s were t e s t e d .

C o r r e l a t i o n s showed a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t improvement

p < . 000 i n mean s c o r e s on th e Watson G l a s e r C r i t i c a l

Think ing A p p r a i s a l Watson G l a s e r , 1980 be tween e n t r y

and c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e program. I t was d e t e r m i n e d ,

however, t h a t t h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n

th e e n t r y s c o r e s o r i n th e e x i t s c o r e s between t h e

a s s o c i a t e and b a c c a l a u r e a t e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s u s i n g t h e

Watson G l a s e r C r i t i c a l Thinking A p p r a i s a l .

A s i m i l a r s t u d y by S u l l i v a n 1987 o f 46 s u b je c t s i n

a B.S.N. d e g r e e p ro gr am e xa mi ne d t h e e f f e c t o f n u rs in g

e d u c a t i o n on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , c r e a t i v i t y , and c l i n i c a l

per fo rmance . Five s t u d e n t s d id n o t comple t e a l l



3

i n s t r u m e n t s . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s showed no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between e n t r y and e x i t l e v e l s

t = . 1 0 , p = . 9 1 8 ) . Mean grade p o i n t average and t h e

c l i n i c a l per fo rmance s c o r e s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r a t

g r a d u a t i o n t = 3 . 1 9 , p = . 002 ; t = 3 . 4 6 , p = . 0 0 2 ) . The

c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s were l ower a t g r a d u a t i o n t h a n a t e n t r y

t - 2 . 5 4 , p . 0 1 6 ) .

To examine e i g h t v a r i a b l e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d most

s t r o n g ly t o s t u d e n t s a b i l i t y t o t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y ,

T i e s s e n 1987 s t ~ i 150 s u b j e c t s in a d e s c r i p t i v e

s t u d y which used t h e Watson-Glase r C r i t i c a l Think ing

A p p r a i s a l Watson G l a s e r , 1964 . I t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d

wi th v a r i a b l e s such as academic a p t i t u d e r = . 38 ,

p . = < . 0 5 ) , academic e x p e r i e n c e r = . 30 , p . = < . 0 5 , and

q u a l i t y o f academic pe r fo rmance r = . 32 , p . = < . 0 5 ) .

In a s t u d y comple t ed by Pardue 1 9 8 7 , o f 121

s u b j e c t s , d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s k i l l s and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

a b i l i t y s c o r e s were found t o be s ig n i f i c a n t ly d i f f e r e n t

f = 7 . 2 0 , p . = <.001 among m a s t e r s , b a c c a l a u r e a t e

d e g r e e , d ip loma and a s s o c i a t e degree n u r s e s . The r e s u l t s

r e v e a l e d t h a t m a s t e r s and b a c c a l a u r e a t e d e g r e e n u r s e s

d id have s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s

t han a s s o c i a t e degree o r diploma n u r s e s . There was,

however, no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in s e l f - r e p o r t e d



24

p e r c e i v e d d i f f i c u l t y w i t h d e c i s i o n making among t h e f o u r

g r o u p s f 3 8 ~ p . = .2 5 0 . Th e Watson-Glase r C r i t i c a l

T h i n k i n g A p p r a i s a l Watson G l a s e r 1980 and a

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s k i l l s i n s t r u m e n t made f o r t h e s t u d y were

used i n t h e s t u d y.

T h i s review o f t h e n u r s i n g l i t e r a t u r e found a

l i m i t e d number o f s t u d i e s on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . S t u d i e s

have b ee n c om ple te d which d e a l t w i t h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

and v a r i o u s f a c t o r s such a s g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e s ,

d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y among s t u d e n t s

and d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f n u r s i n g programs . However, no

r e s e a r c h cou ld be found which exam ined t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

be tween p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

a b i l i t y o f n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , would seem

t h a t r e s e a r c h i s needed t o d e t e r m i n e whe the r c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g i s r e l a t e d to p re fe r r ed c o gn it iv e s t y l e s .

Knowing whe the r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y i s a f f e c t e d by

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e would a s s i s t n u r s i n g e d u c a t o r s .



5

H PTER

METHODOLOGY

An e x p l o r a t o r y d e s c r i p t i v e d e s i g n wa s used i n t h i s

s t u d y t o g a in i n s i g h t on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as a f u n c t i o n

o f p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s T his a pp ro ac h was

a p p r o p r i a t e b e c a u s e no r e s e a r c h has focused s p e c i f i c a l l y

on c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and p re fe r r ed c o gn it iv e s t y l e

S e t t i n g

The s t u d y was conduc ted i n t h e f a l l o f 989 i na

d ip loma s c h o o l o f n u r s i n g and a l i b e r a l a r t s u n i v e r s i t y

Both i n s t i t u t i o n s a re l o ca t e d w i t h i n tw o m i l e s o f each

o t h e r t oward t h e c e n t e r o f a m e t r o p o l i t a n midwes te rn

c i t y Th e s c h o o l o f n u r s i n g i s a f f i l i a t e d w i t h a l a r g e

t e a c h i n g h e a l t h c a r e c e n t e r which s e r v e s t h e immedia te

s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a The u n i v e r s i t y i s a mi d s i z e d

p r i v a t e l i b e r a l a r t s i n s t i t u t i o n

Sample

A n o n p r o b a b i l i t y conven ience sampl ing method was

u t i l i z e d A l l s t u d e n t s i n th e f reshman n u r s i n g c l a s s and

a l l s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d in one l ower d i v i s i o n psycho logy

c l a s s a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y were asked to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e

r e s e a r c h The c r i t e r i o n f o r i n c lu s i o n i n t h e s t u d y was

t h e e nr o ll m e n t i n t h e n u r s i n g c l a s s o r e n r o l l m e n t i n th e

psycho logy c l a s s The t o t a l sample i n v i t e d t o

p a r t i c i p a t e c o n s i s t e d o f 8 n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s and 5



psycho logy s t u d e n t s . Eigh ty - two n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s and 19

psycho logy s u d e n t s agreed t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e r e s e a r c h .

The psycho logy s t u d e n t s were i nc luded i n th e s tu d y a s a

compar i son group whose s c o r e s on th e t e s t s were used a s a

b a s i s f o r e v a l u a t i n g th e s c o r e s on th e group o f pr imary

i n t e r e s t t h e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s . The psychology s t u d e n t s

were t h o u g h t t o be s i m i l a r i n g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o

t h e n u rs i n g s a m p l i n g , an d t h e r e f o r e t h e i r i n c l u s i o n

would i n c r e a s e t h e g e n e r a l i z a b i l t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h e

s t u d y.

I n s t r u m e n t s

Demographics o f t h e sample were s e l f r e p o r t e d on a

t o o l deve loped by t h e r e se ar c he r t o de te rmine t h e g e n e r a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e sample s e e Appendix A . The

Watson-Glase r C r i t i c a l Think ing A p p r a i s a l Watson

G l a s e r 1980 s e e Appendix B wa s used t o measure

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g because i s a s imp le m u l t i p l e c h o i c e

t e s t which e n a b l e s o b j e c t i v e s c o r i n g o f r e s u l t s . The

t e s t had been used to e v a l u a t e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y

w it h n ur s e s i n p ~ v o u ss t u d i e s F r e d e r i c k s o n Hayer,

1977; G r o s s , e t a l . 1987; K e t e f i a n 1981; P ardu e , 1 9 87 .

F i n a l l y t h e t e s t wa s used because i nc luded components

found i n th e d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g used f o r

t h i s s t u d y. The C r i t i c a l Think ing A pp ra is al T es t Watson

G l a s e r 1980 i s an 8 0 - i t e m t e s t t h a t i s s e l f



7

a d m i n i s t e r e d and y i e l d s a t o t a l s c o r e o f t h e s u b j e c t s

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y . The t o t a l s c o r e i s a

c o m p o s i t e o f t h e f i v e s u b t e s t s . The s u b t e s t s a re a s

f o l l o w s :

Te s t l - - I n f e r e n c e : d i s c r i m i n a t i n g among d e g r e e s o f

t r u t h o r i n fe re nc es drawn from g i v e n d a t a 16 i t e m s ) ,

Te s t 2 - - R e c o g n i t i o n o f a ss um pt io ns : r e c o g n i z i n g

u n s t a t e d a s s u m p t i o n s o r p re su p p os it i o ns i n g i v e n

s t a t e m e n t s o r a s s e r t i o n s 16 i t e m s ) ,

Te s t 3 - - D e d u c t i o n : d e t e r m i n i n g whe the r c e r t a i n

c o n c l u s i o n s n e c e s s a r i l y fo l low from i n f o r m a t i o n i n g i v e n

s t a t e m e n t s o r p r e m i s e s 16 i t e m s ) .

Te s t 4 - - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : weighing ev idence and

d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o r c o n c l u s i o n s based on

t h e g i v e n d a t a a r e warran ted 16 i t e m s .

Te s t 5 - - E v a l u a t i o n o f arguments : d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

between a rgumen t s t h a t a r e s t r o n g and r e l e v a n t and t h o s e

t h a t a r e weak o r i r r e l e v a n t t o a p a r t i c u l a r q u e s t i o n a t

i s s u e 16 i t e m s Watson G l a s e r , 1980 .

The i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f th e t e s t h as been

d e t e r m i n e d by r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s s p l i t - h a l f ) t h a t

r a n g e from .77 t o .83 Watson G l a s e r, 1964 . Th e

s t a b i l i t y o f r e s p o n s e s o v e r t ime i s r e f l e c t e d by a .73

c o r r e l a t i o n be tween tw o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f th e t e s t to a



8

group o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s = 96 Watson G l a s e r,

1 9 8 0 .

C o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y has been de te rmined by use o f t h e

t e s t i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e t t i n g s d e s i g n e d t o improve

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and by compar ison wi th o t h e r menta l

a b i l i t y and comprehens ive t e s t s wi th .65 t o .73 f o r th e

zm form Watson G l a s e r , 1964 . Repor t s s u p p o r t t h e

b e l i e f t h a t t h e t e s t i s a v a l i d e s t i m a t e o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g c o n s t r u c t s F r e d e r i c k s o n , 1979 .

The s e c o n d r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t was t h e Human

I n fo r m at io n P r oc e ss in g Survey Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e , 1984

s e e Appendix C . I t i s a 40- i t em m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e p a p e r

and p e n c i l t e s t t h a t was s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d . Each s u b j e c t

was g i v e n t h r e e c h o i c e s f o r e a c h q u e s t i o n . One cho ice

c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h t h e r i g h t b r a i n dominant , one cho ice

c or re sp on de d w ith t h e l e f t b r a i n dominant , and one c h o i c e

c orr es po nd ed w ith no p r e f e r e n c e i n t e g r a t e d . Th e o r d e r

o f t h e t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s wa s randomized t o minimize a

p a t t e r n Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e , 1984 . A p r o f i l e wa s

o b t a i n e d which i n c l u d e d l e f t dominant , r i g h t dominant and

i n t e g r a t e d s c a l e s . A s ta nd a r di ze d s co re waS a s s i g n e d t o

each s c a l e . The number 100 was e s t a b l i s h e d a s th e

ave rage i n t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f th e s c o r e s Ta g g a r t

To r r a n c e , 1 9 8 4 , A s u b j e c t must have r e c e i v e d a s t a n d a r d

s c o r e o f 120 o r g r e a t e r in one o f t h e t h r e e s c a l e s t o be



i d e n t i f i e d a s hav ing r i g h t p r e f e r e n c e . l e f t p r e f e r e n c e

o r i n t e g r a t e d p r e f e r e n c e Tagga r t To r r a n c e . 1984 .

Those s u b j e c t s who d id n o t o b t a i n a s c o r e o f 120 o r

g r e a t e r i n any o f th e t h r e e s c a l e s were de te rmined a s

hav ing a mixed r e s p o n s e Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e . 1 9 8 4 .

The r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t have been

e s t a b l i s h e d . The 40 q u e s t i o n s o f th e Human I n f o r m a t i o n

P r o c e s s i n g Survey Ta g g a r t Tor rance . 1984 were

i n c l u d e d a s form C from an o l d e r w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d t e s t

c a l l e d Your S t y l e o f Learning and Think ing To r rance

Reyno lds , 1 9 8 0 . P r i o r to th e development o f th e Human

I n fo r m at io n P r oc e ss in g Survey Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e , 1 9 8 4 ,

tw o a l t e r n a t e f o rms A and B) had been deve loped f o r Your

S t y l e o f Learn ing and Think ing SOLAT . Each o f t h e s e

forms a tte mp te d to t e s t t h e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of th e r i g h t

and l e f t hemisphe res Reynolds . R i e g e l . To r r a n c e ,

1 9 7 7 . Te s t r e l i a b i l i t y i nvo lved a t e s t - r e t e s t s t u d y

w ith th e HIP Survey and form A of th e SO T g i v e n one

week a p a r t t o 50 u n d e rg r a d u a t e e d u c a t i o n m ajo rs . P ea rson

produc t -momen t c o r r e la t io n c o e f fi c i en t s f o r each o f t h e

t h r e e s t r a t e g y s c a l e s were as fo l lows : r i g h t . 84 , l e f t

. 8 6 . i n t e g r a t e d .82 Ta g g a r t Tor rance , 1984 . Th e t e s t

i t e m s were c o n s t r u c t e d by Tor rance and Reynolds a f t e r an

e x t e n s i v e su rv ey o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on th e s p e c i a l i z e d

c e r e b r a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e hemisphe re s . F i f t y q u e s t i o n s



30

were i n t h e o r i g i n a l t e s t w i t h 40 i t ems r e t a i n e d a f t e r

i t em a n a l y s i s d a t a f o r i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y and e x p e r t

judgment made by t h re e s e ri o us s t u d e n t s o f h e m i s p h e r i c i t y

r e s e a r c h Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e , 1984 .

The c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y s t u d y wa s conduc ted by

To r r a n c e w i t h h i s g r a d u a t e c l a s s o f 33 s t u d e n t s in

c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g I t was s t a te d t h a t t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e

t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e e s s e n c e o f c r e a t i v e b e h a v i o r c a l l s

f o r r i g h t hemisphe re f u n c t i o n sA

high degree o fc o n s i s t e n c y was o bt a i n ed f o r p o s it iv e r e l a t io n s h ip s

be tween t h e c r e a t i v i t y measures and r i g h t hemisphere

s c a l e s c o r e s and n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s wi th l e f t

hemisphe re s c a l e s c o r e s Of th e 5 c o e f f i c i e n t s o f

c o r r e l a t i o n f o r t h e r i g h t hemisphere s c a l e 15 were

s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p . = .05 l e v e l o r b e t t e r

Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e , 1984 .

F i s c h l e r 1985 c r i t i c i z e d th e in st ru men t b e c a u s e o f

i t s i n a b i l i t y t o show c o n s i s t e n t and s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s

be tween s c o r e s d e r i v e d from th e in stru men t and s c o r e s

d e r i v e d from such h e m i s p h e r i c i t y measures a s th e D ic h ot ic

L i s t e n i n g Te s t A l b e r t s McCallum, 1982 and Th e

C o n j u g a t e L a t e r a l Ey e Movements Te s t R i e g e l , 1979 .

Ta g g a r t and To rr an ce m a in ta in ed t h i s does n ot d im in ish

t h e v a l u e o f th e in stru me n t f o r s t u d y i n g p r e f e r r e d



3

h e m i s p h e r i c i t y s i n c e th e v a l i d i t y wa s e s t a b l i s h e d by

o t h e r means Ta g g a r t Tor rance , 1 9 8 4 .

Procedures

Those s t u d e n t s v olu nt e er i n g f or th e r e s e a r c h were

a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e Human I n fo r m at io n P r oc e ss in g Survey

Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e , 1984 t o de te rmine t h e i r hemisphe r i c

p r e f e r e n c e and t h e Watson-Glase r C r i t i c a l Thinking

A p p r a i s a l Watson G l a s e r , 1980 t o de te rmine t h e i r

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y The n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s were

a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e t e s t s a s a group dur ing t h e i r f i r s t week

o f s c h e d u l e d c l a s s e s i n th e f a l l o f 1989. No monetary

r eward o r e x t r a c r e d i t p o i n t s were g iven t o t h e n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e s t u d y. Th e psycho logy

s t u d e n t s were a dm in is te re d t he t e s t s a s a s e p a r a t e group

o u t s i d e o f t h e i r r e g u l a r l y schedu led psycho logy c l a s s e s

i n t h e f a l l o f 1989. As an i n c e n t i v e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n

t h e s t u d y t h e psycho logy s t u d e n t s r e c e i v e d e x t r a c r e d i t

i n t h e i r psycho logy c l a s s Th e r e s e a r c h e r a d m i n i s t e r e d

a l l t h e t e s t i n g The purpose o f t h e r e s e a r c h s t u d y was

e x p l a i n e d t o t h e s u b j e c t s by t h e r e s e a r c h e r The

s t u d e n t s were i n fo rmed o f t h e i r r i g h t no t to p a r t i c i p a t e

o r to wi thd raw a t any t i m e . There were no p u n i t i v e

e f f e c t s f o r n o np a rt i c i p a ti o n in t h e s t u d y. S t u d e n t s

r e c e i v e d a copy o f t h e i r own t e s t r e s u l t s R e s u l t s o f



t h e s t u d y were made a v a i l a b l e to bo th s t u d e n t groups v i a

t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t o r s from each i n s t i t u t i o n .

A w r i t t e n informed consen t was o b t a i n e d from each

p a r t i c i p a n t s e e Appendix D Th e s u b j e c t s were prov ided

a p r i n t e d i n fo rmed c o n s e n t s t a t e m e n t d e s c r i b i n g th e

r e s e a r c h , p r o t e c t i o n o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y , r i s k

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and t h e r i g h t s o f human s u b j e c t s .

C o n f i d e n t i a l i t y was ensured by us ing code numbers i n

p l a c e o f t h e s t u d e n t s name The a p p r o v a l o f each Human

S u b j e c t s R e s e a r c h Review Committee o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y and

o f t h e m e d i c a l c e n t e r wa s o b t a i n e d



33

H PTER IV

ANALYSIS

I n t r o d u c t i o n

In t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n r e s u l t s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y and

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d Th e

f i n d i n g s w i l l b e g i n w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e demographic

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s a m p l e . C r i t i c a l t h in k i n g s co re s

and p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e t h i n k i n g s t y l e s o f n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s o f

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h p r ef e r re d c o gn i t i ve t h i n k i n g s t y l e s

w i l l be compared w ith s c o re s from n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h

n o n p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e t h i n k i n g s t y l e s C r i t i c a l

t h in k in g s co re s and p r e f e r r e d c o gn i t iv e th in k in g s t y l e s

o f th e psycho logy s t u d e n t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n t h e same

manner a s t h e n u rs i n g s tu d e n t s s co re s F i n a l l y c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g s c o r e s o f n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

s c o r e s o f psycho logy s t u d e n t s w i t h be p r e s e n t e d Sample

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

A t o t a l o f 8 n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s an d 19 psycho logy

s t u d e n t s comple t ed t h e C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g A p p r a i s a l Te s t

Watson G l a s e r 1980 and t h e Human I n f o r m a t i o n

P r o c e s s i n g Survey Ta g g a r t To r r a n c e , 1 9 8 4 , The



s u b j e c t s r anged i n ages from 8 t o 46 wi th a mean age o f

22 15 w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 6 517 Of t h e 10 1

s u b j e c t s 92 were female and 9 were male N i n e t y n i n e o f

t h e s u b j e c t s had p r e v i o u s work e x p e r i e n c e Most o f th e

s u b j e c t s had had m e n i a l t y p e j o b s whi l e 4 s u b j e c t s had

managemen t t ype e x p e r i e n c e . A ll th e s u b j e c t s g r a d u a t e d

f rom h i g h s c h o o l . The number of ye a rs s i n c e h igh s c h o o l

g r a d u a t i o n r anged f rom t o 28 y e a r s wi th t h e m a j o r i t y

o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t i n g

t o5

y e a r s s i n c e h ighs c h o o l . Of t h e n u r s i n g s u b j e c t s had r e c e i v e d from

t o 4 y e a r s o f p o s t s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n Two o f th e

n u r s i n g s u b j e c t s had r e c e i v e d a deg ree from a f o u r y e a r

c o l l e g e . A ll o f th e psychology s u b j e c t s were pur su ing a

c o l l e g e d e g r e e A ll o f t h e psyc ho logy s u b j e c t s were

f r e shmen and sophomores e x c e p t one who wa s comple t ing t h e

s e n i o r y e a r .

The f i n d i n g s f a i l e d t o de t e rmine a s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e among the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s a s a

f u n c t i o n o f th e p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e . Each o f th e

hypo theses w i l l be d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y .

Hypo thes i s

Ana n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e wa s conduc t ed t o d e t e r m i n e

whe the r t h e r e wa s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n the

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s o f th e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s as a

f u n c t i o n o f t h e i r c o g n i t i v e s t y l e . Tab le summar izes



35

t h e r e s u l t s from t h a t p r o c e d u r e . I t wa s concluded t h a t

t h e r e was n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . T here fo re , th e

f i r s t n u l l h y p o t h e s i s which s t a t e d There w i l l be no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y

among n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h a p r ef e r re d i nt eg ra te d

c o g n i t i v e s t y l e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th a p r e f e r r e d l e f t

c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th a p r e f e r r e d

r i g h t c o g n i t i v e s t y l e wa s no t r e j e c t e d .

Ta b l e 1

C ; r j : t J g ~ _ L J : : J } : L r . l . . ~ J D . . ~ _ ~ D . < _ 3 r . ~i tL P re LE :enqe 0 f Nu J?ln.gs . . t ~ ~ t ~

~ t _ ~

cif

23840

. _ ~ y ~ I Q K __ _ . _ ~ ~ 3 J i . 9 . 1 H . r ~

__ _ __f r a t . . . . E £ . 2 . ~

~ _ U : ~ . : r ~ . . §

180.644 90 .3222 1.33 0 .27662581 .310 67 .9 2912761 .950

Source_ ~ <

L/R/IE r r o rTo t a l

H y p o t h e s i s 2

A t t e s t wa s conduc t ed t o de te rmine whe the r t h e r e

was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

a b i l i t y o f n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th a p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e

s t y l e and n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h no p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e

s t y l e m ixed ) . Tab le 2 summar izes th e r e s u l t s from t h a t

p r o c e d u r e . I t wa s conc luded t h a t t h e r e wa s no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . T h e r e f o r e th e second n u l l

h y p o t h s i s which s t a t e d The re w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e i n th e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y be tween



36

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th a p r ef e r re d c o gn i t iy e

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th no p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e

n o t r e j e c t e d

Table 2

1 ]1 88 w i t h o P r e f e r r e d C o g n i t i v e S t y l e MixedJ

P r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e meanMixedt =P =


51 .460052 .8000 0 7 3 6 9

0 .4633

Because t h e r e were no psycho logy s t u d e n t s an

i n t e g r a t e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e a t t e s t was comple t ed t o

d e t e r m i n e w he t h e r t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e mean c r i t i c a l

- .. ,,... ng s c o r e s between th e c r i t i c a l t h in k i ng s co re s o f

th e and l e f t p r e f e c o g n i t i v e

summar i zes t h e r e s u l t s from t h a t p r o c e d u r e .

t h e r e was n o t a s i g n i d i f f e r e n c e

t h i r d The re

f i c a n t d i f r enee i n th e e r i t

a p re

i c o g n i t i v e s t wi th a

p re I e c o g n i t i v e and nonnur s

a p r e r i c o g n i t i v e

r e t e d



37

Ta b l e 3

T Te s t A n a l v s i s o f Crl<t< 1· Th k A b l_ _ _ =_ _ _ . . c:;a n _ ~l t ~ { Be t W ~ _ i t ~

p s y c h o l o n ~ t u d e n t sw i t h a P r e f e r r e d R i g h t and L e f t

90 g njJ: y . ~ . 1 ? J : j L ~

t =


1 .988

>0.05

A t t e s t was c o n d u c t e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e r e

was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y

be tween p s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s wi th a p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e

s t y l e and p s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s w i t h no p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e

s t y l e . The r e s u l t s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e a r e summar ized i n

Ta b l e 4 . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was i d e n t i f i e d .

T h e r e f o r e f t h e f o u r t h n u l l h y p o t h e s i s which s t a t e d

The re w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g ab i t y be tween n o n n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s wi th a

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and n o n n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h

no p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e wa s n o t r e j e c t e d .



38

Ta b l e 4

~ , ~ n : : t ~ H ; : . § A & - - , § J ; : . ~ g ~ n t sw i ~ t J r ~ ~ r e dCogn i e t v ~ X JL;1 ld

I t Q . 1 - ~ t . § > i . l K _ s . : . _ \ l d e n t sw i t h J\<lo P r e f e r r e d C o ~ i t i v eS t y l e

t i x e d ~

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e mean

mixed mean

=E ::

54 .56

5 1. 75

0 . 6 7 1 6

0 .501 2


A t t e s t was c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e r e W B S B

d i f f e r e n c e be twe en c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y o f n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y o f psycho logy

s t u d e n t s . Ta b l e 5 summar i ze s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h a t

p r o c e d u r e . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was f ound . The

psycho logy s t u d e n t s s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s on t h e Watson Gla se r C r i t i c a l Think ing

A p p r a i s a l . T h e r e f o r e ; t h e f i f t h n u l l h y p o t h e s i s which

s t a t e d T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y be tween t h e n u rs i n g s t u d e n t s

and t h e n o n n u r s in g s t u d e n t s ; waS r e j e c t e d .



9

Ta b l e 5

P s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s mean

N u r s i n g s t u d e n t s mean

=

56 .5800

52 .1300

2 .0513

0 .0429

S e r e n d i p i t o u s F i n d i n g s

Although was n o t h y p o t h e s i s d r i v e n t h e f i v e

s u b t e s t s o f t h e Wa t s o n - G l a s e r C r i t i c a l Think ing Te s t

Watson G l a s e r 1980 w ere ex am in ed t o d e t e r m i n e any

r e l a t i o n s h i p s wi th t h e p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s c o r e s .

The f i v e s u b t e s t s were : i n f e r e n c e r e c o g n i t i o n o f

as sumpt ions , d e d u c t i o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n o f

a rg u m e n t s .

P e a r s o n p r o d u c t moment c o r r e l a t i o n s were comple ted

on t h e f i v e s u b t e s t s o f th e Watson-Glaser C r i t i c a l

T h i n k i n g s c o r e s and t h e s c o r e s o f t hose s t u d e n t s wi th

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s c o r e s t o d e t e r m i n e any

r e l a t i o n s h i p s .Two

s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s wered e t e r m i n e d . The f i r s t s u b t e s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o r e s

was f o u n d t o c o r r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y w ith th e th e p r e f e r r e d

c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s c o r e s wi th a c o e f f i c i e n t o f -0 .3 7 9 0



p 0 . 0 0 7 9 . T h i s means t h e h i g h e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

s c o r e s t h e l o w e r t h e p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e · · s t y l e s c o r e s .

The s e c o n d s i g n i f i c a n t p o s t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was found

be tween t h e s u b t e s t assumpt ion s c o r e s and t h e s c o r e s o f

t h o s e w it h no p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e w i t h a

c o e f f i c i e n t o f 0 6466 p 0 0 2 3 1 J o o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t

c o r r e l a t i o n s were found



H PTER V

DIS USSION

D i s c u s s i o n

T h i s was an e x p l o r a t o r y s tu d y to

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e o f

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s . Three s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s were

de te rmined from t h e r es ea rc h. The f i r s t f i n d i n g

de te rmined t h a t t h e r e wa s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e

be tween n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s and n o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s

c r i t i c a l t h in k i n g s c or es 2 .0513 ,

2 0 . 0 4 2 9 . Nurs ing s t u d e n t s scored s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower

on t h e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t e s t t h a n t h e psychology

s t u d e n t s . T h i s i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o th e r e s u l t s ob ta ined

by B e rg e r 1 9 8 4 , which r e v e a l e d t h a t b a c c a l a u r e a t e

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s had h i g h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s t han

l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s . B e r g e r s s t u d y, however, d i d n o t

i n c l u d e a s s o c i a t e d e g r e e , diploma, o r m a s t e r s degree

n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s . In t h e r e s e a r c h comple t ed by Pardue

1987 was d e t e r m i n e d t h a t n u r s e s w i t h m a s t e r s and

b a c c a l a u r e a t e d e g r e e s had h i g h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s

t h a n

r e

d e g r e e



n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s and s t u d e n t s from one l ower d i v i s i o n

p s y c h o l o g y c l a s s . A r e p l i c a t i o n o t h ~ s t u yu s i n g

a s s o c i a t e d e g r e e d ip loma , b a c c a l a u r e a t e and m a s t e r s

d e g r e e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s i s needed t o . d e t e r m i n e whe the r

t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g Scores

among n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s . The s t u d y a l s o s h o u l d i n c l u d e

n o n - n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s from a wide r ange o f d i s c i p l i n e s t o

d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e i r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s c o r e s would be

d i f f e r e n t from t h e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s s c o r e s o r t h e

p s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s s c o r e s .

As i n d i c a t e d by t h e f i n d i n g s t h e s e d ip loma n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s a r e s t a r t i n g t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l program w i t h a

d e f i c i t i n t h e i r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y . F u r t h e r

r e s e a r c h i s needed t o d e t e r m i n e whe the r t h e r e a r e

v a r i a b l e s which a f f e c t a n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y . Some o f t h e v a r i a b l e s t o examine c o u l d

be t h e number o f y e a r s s i n c e h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t io n a g e

g e n d e r , academic per fo rmance , and work e x p e r i e n c e . As

t h e f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e n ur si ng e du ca to rs have t h e

c h a l l e n g e o f i nc re . a s ing s t u d e n t s c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

a b i l i t y t h r o u g h e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g methods .

A P ea rs on p ro du ct m m.ent . c o r r e l a t i o n was comple ted

o n t h e f i v e s u b t e s t s o f t h e W a t s o n G l 8 s ~ rC r i t i c a l

T h i n k i n g I e s t {Watson :Gl8,se:rt 1 s c o r e s and t h e

score i .o f t h o s e



4

s c o r e s . Two s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were d e t e r m i n e d .

Each f i n d i n g w i l l be d i s c u s s e d fo l lowed by a d i s c u s s i o n

r e l a t i n g t o b o t h o f t h e f i n d i n g s . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

s u b t e s t s c o r e s had a n e g a t i v e s ig n i f i c a n t c o r r e la t i o n

w i t h t h e p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s c o r e s n 48 c o e f .

- 0 . 3 7 9 0 1 2 0 . 0 0 7 9 . T h i s means t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o r e t h e l ower t h e p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e

s c o r e . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o r e was a f f e c t e d d i f f e r e n t l y

by t h e p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e t han t h e o t h e r f o u r

s u b t e s t s .

s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i ti v e c o r r e la t io n was found be tween

t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u b t e s t s c o r e s and t h e s c o r e s o f t h o s e

w i t h no p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e among t h e n o n - n u r s i n g

s t u d e n t s n =12 c o e f . 0 . 6 4 6 6 e 0 . 0 2 3 1 . T h i s means

t h a t t h e h i g e r th e mixed s c o r e t h e h i g h e r th e as sumpt ions c o r e . With t h e s m a l l sample s i z e one i s r e l u c t a n t t o

draw c o n c l u s i o n s . I t l e a d s one however t o q u e s t i o n

what i s d i f f e r e n t a b o u t t h i s s e c t i o n which 6 0 n t r i b u t e s t o

t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . O t h e r n u r s i n g r e s e a r c h on t h e

s u b t e s t s was n o t a v a i l a b l e making compar i son o f th e

f i n d i n g s i m p o s s i b l e .

The tw o f i n d i n g s c a u s e one t o i n q u i r e abou t t h e

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t o o l . I s t h e t o o l r ef le c . t i ve o f t h e

expanded d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c a l th in .k ing? l a t h e t o o l

t e s t i n g a l l a s p e c t s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ? Does c r i t i c a l



t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y r e q u i r e more t h a n o ne m ea su re me nt t o o l ?

I s c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g some th ing t h a t i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y

m e a s u r a b l e by a pen and p e n c i l t e s t ? I t would seem

i m p o r t a n t f o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h t o be comple t ed

which i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e measurement t o o l

I n t h e above t h r e e f i n di n g s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a

Ty p e e r r o r c a n n o t be e l i m i n a t e d I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t

t h e f i n d i n g s o c c u r r e d by c h a n c e . The l e v e l o f

s i g n i f i c a n c e used was . 05 .

I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e s e a r c h f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g

i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l v a l i d i t y must be a d d r e s s e d . Two

s amp le groups were used f o r compar i son i n t h e s t u d y. The

s u b j e c t s were n o t randomly s e l e c t e d b u t r a t h e r c n o s e n

from i n t a c t sampl ing g r o u p s . Because ·o f t h i s s e l e c t i o n

p r o c e s s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t t h e g roups were n o t

e q u i v a l e n t T h e r e f o r e t h e s u b j e c t s e l e c t i o n was a

t h r e a t t o t h e i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y F u t u r e r e s e a r c h u s i n g

r andomly s e l e c t e d groups would be d e s i r a b l e

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s c a n n o t be made.

M o t a l i t y o f t h e sample was a n o t h e r t h r e a t t o

i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y Of 50 psycho logy s tu d e n t s i nv i t e d t o

p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t u d y · s t u d e n t s c h o s e no t . · t o

p a r t i c i p a t e Only 19 s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e

r e s e a r c h Those who r ema ined i n t h e s t u d y may n o t have

been r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e g roup a a . a whole . Thi s s m a l l



number i n cr e as ed th e sampl ing e r r o r s i n c e s m a l l e r s a m p l e . s

t e n d t o produce l e s s a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e s o f th e t o t a l

p o p u l a t i o n .

Lack o f m o t i v at i o n o f t h e psycho logy s t u d e n t s m y

have a f f e c t e d t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e · s t u d y. o

i n c r ea se r ap p or t more p e r s o n a l app roach shou ld have

been t a k e n . Making t h e s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n · s e e m

i m p o r t a n t t o t h e r e s e a r c h and emphas i z ing t h e need f o r

f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n m y have i n c r ea se d t h e sampl ing s i z e .

Al though t h e s t u d y f a i l e d t o r e j e c t fo u r o f t h e f i v e

h yp o th es es c on ce rn in g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y and

p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e some i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n s

a r i s e a s r e s u t t o f t h e s e f in d in g s . Could c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g be u n a f f e c t e d by p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s ?

Does how one t h i n k s n o t a f f e c t t h e a b i l i t y t o t h i n k

c r i t i c a l l y ? T h i s r e s e a r c h on p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e

an d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y was l i m i t e d by t h e s . m a l l

sample The p o s s i b i l i t y o f T y p e - I I e r r o r canno t be

d i s m i s s e d when e va lu a t i ng t he r e s u l t s . T h e n u l l

h yp ot he se s c ou ld have n o t been t r u e b u t were s up po rte d as

s u c h

The f a c t t h a t t h e t s t i o r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i s

v a l i d an d t h e t e s t f o r dominant p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t . i v e s t y l e

i s v a l i d may he o f f s e t by the d i f f i c u l t y encoun te red when

compar ing t h e two The · c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t e s . t m a y b e





d e t e r m i n e d t o be w e l l - d e v e l o p e d , measurement

h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y. . T h a t by i t . s e l f does

r u l e o u t t h e r ep li c .a ti on o f t h e s t u d y u s i n g d i f f e r e n t

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t e s t i n g t o o l . O t h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

t e s t i n g t o o l s have been d e v e l o p e d and c o u l d be u s e d .

R o b e r t E n n i s s 1987 c o n c e p t i o n a l framework wa s t h e

b a s i s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h . Al though Enn i s 1987 h as

d e v e l o p e d tw o t o o l s f o r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g one i s an

e s s a y - f o r m t o o l and t h e o t h e r i s an o b j e c t i v e m u l t i p l e

c h o i c e t o o l The Wa t s o n - G l a s e r C r i t h i c a l Think ing

A p p r a i s a l 1980 has s e t t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r e c e d e n t f o r

n u r s i n g r e s e a r c h . The Wa t s o n - G l a s e r t e s t may no l o n g e r

r e f l e c t t h e newer d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . The

t e s t was f i r s t deve loped i n 1964; s i n c e t h a t t ime th e

d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g h as evolved·t

b r o a d e r p r o s p e c t i v e . The newer ow i n c l u d e s

c r e a t i v e component . Resea rch examining t h e e s s e n ce

t h i s t o o l would be h e l p f u l .

The impor t ance o f d e v e l o p i n g t e a c h i n g

enhance s t u d e n t s a b i l i t y t o in k c r i t i c a l l y c a n n o t be

d i s m i s s e d . More r e s e a r c h needs t o

examines p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s u s i n g l a r g e r sample

and p e r h a p s d i f f e r e n t t o o l f o r measu r ing c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g .





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; Q ~ r ~ . . _ J { ~ t :s i S , 1167 -1169 •

F r e d e r i k s e n , N. 1984) . Impl ica t ions of cogn i t i ve theory

fo r i n s t r u c t i o n in p r o b l e m s o l v i n g R ~ v j e w p f

$ . Q . ~ g . . : .Q. .lA. . R ~ . ~ . ~ t : : 9 hI § ~ 3 ) , 363-407.

Gazzaniga M , B o g e n , J Sper ry, R.. 1962 • Some

f un c t i on a l e f f e c t s of s e c t i o n i n g th e ce r eb ra l

commissure in man P r Q . n ~ A 9 ~ g. § £ i ~ S L ~1 H ~I

1765.



Harvard Univers i ty Pres s .

Gray t E. 1980 . Bra in hemispheres and th ink ing s t y l e s

h . ~ g . . ~ . ~ r mt

J : 2 Y § ~,§,.1, 127 -132 •

Gross , Y., Ta k a z a w a , E . , Rose, C. 1 ~ 8 1 . r i t i c a l

th ink ing and nurs ing e d u c a t i o n • J 9 : n ~ 1o f Nursing

H o lbe r t , C. Thomas, K. 1988 . Toward whole-brain

34.

Kete f i an , S. 1981 . r i t i c a l th ink ing , e d u c a t i o n a l

p r e p a r a t i o n , an d development o f moral judgment amoni

s e l e c t e d groups prac t i c ing · · A t I l > . J {ursing

·f

th e i d e a t h a t s tuden t s l e a rn

t h en

Matthew, C.



P a r d u e , S . 1987) . Dec i s ion -mak ing s k i l l s and c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y among a s s o c i a t e d e g r e e , d ip loma .

b a c c a l a u r e a t e , and m a s t e r ' s - p r e p a r e d n u r s e s , ': . o l . tf n a l

M i n n e a p o l i s , The U n iv e r s it y o f Minneso ta .

R i e g e l , T. 1 9 7 9 ) . L a t e r a l i t y o f h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s and

t r e l a t i o n t o c o n v e rg e n t and d i v e r g e n t b i l i t i e s ~

P h i l a d e l p h i a : Harpe r Row, P u b l i s h e r s .

S u l l i v a n , E. 1987) . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , c r e a t i v i t y ,

c l i n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d ach ievemen t i n

Ta g g a r t , W. and To r r a n c e , E. 1 9 8 4 ) . J:t : I:. J n f o r ~ t . o n

B e n s e n v i l l e , I l l i n o i s : S c h o l a s t i c Te s t i n g S e r v i c e ,

I n c .

New York: P s y c h o l o g i c a l Corp .

T i e s s e n , J . 1987) . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and s e l e c t e d

c o r r e l a t e s among b a c c a L a u r e a t e n u r s i n g s t u d e n t s .

J Q g r . . n ~ .. Q . ; [ ; J 2 . . r . Q . f ~ . ; ~ . Jq I L ~ J . ..l :y];'- .tillI , 118 - 123,

A ,., B<e'l l, u , & Roubinek , D. 1987) .Van Giesen 1'1

Compar ing r i g h t and l e f t b r a i n dominant s t u d e n t s on



r e a d i n g

2 7 l

Watson G. G l a s e r E . Wa t s o n g l a s e r c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g a p p r a i s a l manual • . F l o r i d a : The

P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o r p o r a t i o n .

Watson G l a s e r E 9fH» Watson Glase r c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g a p p r a i s a l manual . F l o r i d a : The

P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o r p o r a t i o n





ppen ix

NAME- - . . . . . ~GE -- -

GENDER M LE F E M L E ~

COMPLETED YEARS OF OLLEGE





TEST : INFEREN E

Test 1

57

T PT ID P

101000T PT IDP, . F

2 0 0I 0T PT ID P P

3 0 I 0 0T PT ID P F, .

4 0 n 0 IT PT ID P F P

5 0 0 0 0

DIRE TIONS

Aninference is a conclusion a person ca n draw from certainobserved or supposed facts. Fo r example, if the Hghtsare on in a house ~ m u ~ ican be heard coming fromthehouse, a person might Infer that someone is at home.

But thisi n ~ r n

mayo ~

may no t be correct. Possiblythe people the house di d n ot t ur n the lights an d theradiooffwhen they left the house.

In this test each exercise begins w t a statement 01f ts that you are to regard as true After each state.ment of facts you will find several possible inferencesthat is, conclusions that some persons might draw fromthe stated facts. Examine each inference separately, andmake a decision as to its degree of truth or falsity.

For each inference you will find spaces on the answer sheet labeled T. PT. 10, PF, andF. For each inference make a mark on the answer sheet under theappropriate heading as follows:

T if you think the inference is definitely TRUE; thati t properly follows beyond a reasonable doubt fromthe statement of facts given.

PT if, in the light of the facts given, you think the inference is PROBABLY TRUE; that it is more likelyto be true than false.

ID if you decide that there are INSUFFICIENT DATA;that you cannot teU from th e facts given whether theinference is likely to be true or false; if the facts provide no basis for judging one way or the other.

Pf if. in the light of th e facts given, you think the inference is PR.OBABLY FALSE; that it is more likelyto be false than true.

F if you think the inference is defini te ly FALSE; thati t is wrong, either because it misinterprets the factsgiven, or because it contradicts the facts or necessary

inferences from those facts.

Sometimes. in deciding whether an inference is prob.ably true or probably false, you will have to use certainc?mmonly accepted knowledge or information that. practically every person has. This will be i llustrated in theexample that foHows

Look at the example in tile next column; the correctanswers are indicated n the blockat the right.

2

EX MPLE

Two hundred. s tudents in their earlyvoluntarily auendedarceent.weekendslU

~ t conference in a Midwestern city. AtthlS conference. th e topics of racerelarionsand me,ans of achieving lasting world •peace

were dl5(;ussed. since Ihl Sewere the problems the studenls selected as being mostvital in today s wodd.

1. A sa group•. the. students who attendedthis conference showed a keener interes t ;in br oa d social problems tha n do moStother students in their early teens.

2. Th e majority of the students had not previously discussedthe conference lopics in their schools,

3 . T h e s.tudenucame from all sections of the country.4. Th e students dillCussed mainly labor relations problems.5. Some teenage students felt it worthwhile to dillCws prob

lems of race relations and wa ya of achieving world peace.

In the above example, inference. l i s probably true(Pl) because (as is common knowledge) most people inthe ir early teens do not show so much serious concernwith broad social problems. It cannot be considered definitely true from the facts given because these facts donot rell h ow mu ch concern other young teenagers mayhave. I t is also possible that some o·f th e students volunteered to attend mainly because they wanted a weekendouting.

Inference 2 is probably false (PF) because the students growing awarenessof these topia .probablystemmedat least in part from discussions with teacltersand clasmates.

There is no evidence forinference 3. Thus there areinsufficient data ( ID)for making a judgment on thematter,

Inference is definitely false (F) beeause it is givenin the statement of facts that the topics of race relationsan d means of ach evingworld peace were the problemschosen for discussion.

Ir,Uerence 5 necessarily fonows.from the given fadS;

it therefore is true (T).In the exercises that foHow more t ha n o ne of th

inferences from a given. stlltement of facts maybe tru(T). or false (F), or prObably true (PT), or probably.false(PF), or have insufficient data (ID) to warrant any ceaelusion, Thus you are to judge e.am inference indepen.dently.

Make a heavy-black mark in · the space under thheading that you think best describes each inference. I

yOU dlange. an answer, erase ifthorougltly. Make no extrmarks on the answer sheet.



2

Commerce gready worker-managementputes in that

3 active palrtitipaltionmany controver ies at th e committee of

Chamber o f Commerce.14. Most of representatives regretted ha viflig

accepted the invitation to participate in th e b

bel' of Commerce.15. Some of the Chamber of Commerce members came

to feel that their president ha d been unwise in askingthe union representatives to join the Chamber.16. The new president indicated in the speech that the

town's labor unions ha d no t yet accepted their fu nresponsibility for civic improvement.

Goon to the next page.

Some time agoth e new president of Chamberspeak. The president said. I aming. that laborresponsibility for civic impf()veme:ntand c,ommumil:y

fare. I am no t asking, bu t d e l m a n d i n l ~Chamber of Commerce.Labor Unions who were prE:llerlt a:pplatl ded elntlllUs:iaslllc·

aUy. Three months later aUtown were represented inThese repregntatives wori.e:tlgroups on committees. spoke

improvement pn>jelcu.the Chamber reach th e goalsprojects.U Both the labor union representatives an d

members of the committees

lion ofon e a n o t h ~ l i

viewpointstrumtlfg}l

Mr. Brown, who lives in t he t ow n of Salem. was broughtbefore the Salem municipalcourt for the sixth time inthepast month on a charge of keeping his pool hall openafter I a.m, He again admitted his guilt and was finedthe maximum. 500. as in each earlier instance.6. On some nights it was to Mr Brown's advantage to

keep his pool ha n open after 1 a.m., even at the riskof paying a 500 fine.

7. Mr. Brown's po ol hall was held by th e municipalcourt to be within th e legal jurisdiction oLtbc townof Salem.

8. Mr. Brown repea tedly flou ted the I a.m. closing lawin hopes of gettingit repealed.

9. Th e maximum fine of 500 was fully effective inkeeping a ll p oo l hal ls in Salem and i tsvidnh·rclosed

after I a.m,10. There was o ne w ee k d ur in g th e past month when

Mr. Brown observed the legal dosing time eachnight.

X R IS S

1946 the United States Armed Forces conducted anIn riment caHed Operation Snowdrop to lind outexpt . r . l:-

I t kinds of md.ltar y men see. me . to 1. u.nctlon. ee s t un -

Vila 1 • 11:'_ • f I t

d severe arcticdimatlc

conuUl0ns.vumf

o· ble ..actorsermined were weight, age. blood pressure, an d nationalexa • • • 0 S A H, in AU of th e parUclpants m p e r a t l o n nowuropoflg . • e

egiven a training course In noW to survwe anti tunc-Vier. 1 . . .1-. .. ., in extreme cold. At the conCltlSlon 0 1 me expenmenttlon •it was found that o nl y t wo factors among those studIeddistinguished between men whose performance was rated

effective and those rated as not effective on th eas . 1 ' • •

arctic exercises. These £actors were: .) u ~ i rto pa.rtu:l·ate in the experiment, and (2) degreeaf knowledge an d

k llregarding how to live an d protect oneself under

arcticconditions'.1. Despite the t ra in ing course given to of the partici.

pants in Operation Snowdrap, some . participantsexhibited greateraretk suryival knowled?eor skil.lthan others.

2. t was believed by th e Armed Forces that military operations might someaay oecanied ou t in an arctic·Hkeenvironment.

3. A majority of t he m en wh o participated in OperationSnowdrop thoroughly disliked experience.

4. As a group, th e me n of Scandinavian origin werefound to function more effectively under severe arcticconditions than those of Latin origin.

Participants h av in g n or ma l weight an d blood pressure were rated as significantly more effective on thearctic exercises than were the other participants.



T ST R OGNITION OF ASSUMPTIONS

rest 2

D

nI

Statement: I m traveling to South. America. I want tobe sure that. I do not get typhoid fever, so IshaU go tomy physician and get vaccinated against typhoid fever

before 1 begin my trip.Proposed assumptions:26 I f ldou t take the injection. I shan become iH with

the fever.27. By getting vaccinated against typhoid fever, I de

crease the chances that 1 will ger th e disease.28. Typhoid fever is more common•in SoutA America

than it is where 1 live.29 My physidan>can provide me with a vaccination that

will protect me from. getting· typboidfever while Iam in South America.

Proposed aS umptiolls:20. Lower taxesimplyefficientdty managemen«21. In deciding where to live, i t is important to avoid

high taxes.22. Th e majority of the residents. in Zenith are contentwith their present city government.

Statement: We have permitted ourselves to be stampededinto a life of unnatural an d dangerous high pressure. Wepace ourselves by machines instead of by ou r natural.rhythm.

Proposed assl.Imptions:23. We can resist being pushed into a me of unnatural

high pressure.24 The way of life we have adoptedis not in tune with

the way human beings were meant to live.25. Th e rapid pace of our lives does not help us to

achieve ou r goals.

Statement: Zenith is thedty to move to-i t hastaxes.

WmpUDftNo'

hi M

EXAMPLE

St.'.ment: We need to save time in gellingthere 10 we'd better go by plane.

Proposed auumptions:

1 Going by plane will take less t im e t ha n goingby some other means of transportatiou, (Itis assumed in t he s ta temen t that the greaterspeed of a plane over th e speeds of other

means of transportation will enable the groupto reach its destination in less rime.)

2.There is plane service available to us for at least part of th edistance to the dest inat ion. (This Is IlcCL'Sllarily assumed inthe statement since. in order to save t ime by plane. i t IIIUSl

be possible to go by plane.]

3. Travel by plane is more conveuicnr thun travel by train.(This assumption is no t made In the sratemcnr-ethe sta teI1lClIl has to do wilhsaving t ime, ami says 1l00hing aboutconvenieuce or about any other specitic mode of travel.)

DIRE TIONS

An assumption is something presupposed or taken forgranted. When you say, .. l l g r ~ u tin June, you takefor granted or assume that you will be alive in June, thatyour school will judge you to be eligible for graduati on

inJune.and similar things. elow are a number of statements. Each statementis followed by several proposed assumptions, You are todecide for each assumption whether a person, in makingthe given statement , is really making that assumptionthat is, taking it for granted, just if iably or not.

£ you think that the given assumption is taken forgranted in the statement , make a heavy black mark under ASSUMPTION MADE in the proper place on the answer sheet. I f you think the assumption is t necessarilytaken for granted in th e statement, blacken the spaceunder ASSUMPTION NOT MADE, Remember tojudge each assumption independently.

Below is an example. The block at the right showshow these items should be marked on the answer sheet.

X R IS S

Statement: In the long run, the discovery of additionaluses for atomic energy will prove a blessing to hUlllanity:'Proposed assumptions:11. Additional an d beneficial ways of usiog utomic en

erg)' will be discovered.18. The discovery of additional uses for atOm .c energy

win :require large, long-term investments of money.19. The use of atomic energy represents a serious en

Vironmental hazard.

Statement: I f war is inevitable, we'd better launch a pre·ventive war now while wehave the advantage.

Proposedassumptions:30. Wa r is inevitable.31. I f we fight now, we are more likely to win than we

would be if forced tonght later.32. I f we don t launch a preventive war now, we'll lose

any war tha t may be started by an enemy later.

4 Goon to the next page



TEST E U TION

Test 3Cotlicluuel lO

o i . o U a w Fo UOW

In on e town there arc 52 classes in the five elementarschools. Each class conta ins from 10 to 40 pupils. The

fore-

4 3. T he re are at least two classes in the town with exactly the same nurnhcr of pupils.

44 . l v ost e lementary school classes in the town con ta inmore than 15 pupils.

45 . T he re arc at least 550 pup il s in these e lementarschools.

Most persons who attempt to break their smoking hafind that it is some th ing that they can accomplish onlwith difficulty, or cannot accomplish at all. Neverthelessthere is a growing number of individuals whose s trondesire to stop smoking has enabled them to break thabit permanently. Therefore-

41 . Only smokers who strongly desire to s top smoking

will succeed in doing- so.42 . A strong desire to stop smoking helps some people

to permanently break the habit .

Rice an d celery must have a good deal of moisture inorder to grow well, bu t rye and cot ton grow best wherit is relat ively dry. Rice an d cot ton grow where it is hoan d celery an d rye where it is cool. In T irnbuktu, it isvery h ot a nd damp. Therefore-

38 . Neither the tempera ture nor the moisture condi tionsTn T imbuktu arc favorable for growing a celery crop

39 . The temperature an d moisture condi tions in Tibuktu are more favorable for growing rice thangrowing celery, cotton, or rye.

40 . Conditions in Timbuktu are not altogether favorablfor growing a cotton or a rye crop.

60All members of symphony orches tras enjoy playing classical music . All members of symphony orchest ras spelong hours practicing. Therdore-

36 . Musici ans who p lay classical music t do no t mispending long hours practicing.

37 . Some musicians who sp end long hours practicing:enjoy playing classical music.

1 D 1 D I

EX MPI £

Some holidays are r ai ny. All rainy days arcboring. T herefcrc-«

1. No clear days ar e boring. (The conclusiondoes not follow. You cannot tell from thestatements whether or no t dear days arc

bor ing. Some may be .)

2. Some h ol id ay s arc bor ing. (The conclusionnecessarily follows fr om th e statementssince , accord ing to t he m, t he rainy holidays _

must be bormg.)

3. Some holidays ar e n ot boring. (The conclus ion docs not follow, even though you may k no w t ha t some hol idays arc verypleasant.)

EXERCISES

DIRECTIONS

In this test, each exercise consists of several s ta tement s(premises) followed by several suggested conclusions. orthe purposes of this test consider th e st tements in eachexercise as true without exception R ea d t he first conclu

sion beneath the statements. you think it necessarilyfollows from the s tatements given, make a heavy blackmark under CONCLUSION FOLLOWS in the properplace on the answer sheet . you think it is no t a neces-sary conclusion from t he s ta tement s given, pu t a heavyblack mark under CONCLUSION DOES NOT FOLLOW, even though you ma y believe it to be true fromyour general knowledge.

Likewise, read a nd ju dg e each of the other conclusions. Try no t to let your prejudices influence your judgment-just stick to the given statements (premises) an djudge each conclus ion as to whether it necessarily followsfrom them.

The word some in an y of these s ta tements meansan indefinite p ar t o r q ua nt it y of a class of things. Somemeans at least a portion, an d perhaps all of the class.Thus, Some holidays are rainy means at least one, possibly more than one, an d perh ps even all holidays arerainy.

Study t he example carefully before starting the test.

No person who thinks sc ienti fi cal ly places any faith inthe predictions of astrologers. Nevertheless, there arc manypeople who rely on horoscopes provided by astrologers.Thercfore-

33 . People who lack confidence in horoscopes think scientifically.

34. Many people do no t think Scietlli1irally.35. Some scientific thinkers trust some astrologers.

Some Russi ans would like to con tro l the wor ld. All Russians seek a better l ife for themselves. Thcrcfore-

46 . Some people who would like to control the woseek a beucr life for themselves.

47 . Some people who seek a better We for themselvwould like to con trol the world.

48 . I f the Russiau» control led the world , the) would beassu red of a better life.

5 Go on to the next pag



CTIONS

T ST INT RPR T TION

EXER ISES

,exercise below consists 0.£ a shor t pa ragraph followed ~ e r a lsuggested conclusions.

r h purpose of this test assume th t everythingshort paragraph is t rue T h e problem is to judge

or not each of t he p ro p os ed conel usions logically W beyol1d a reasonable doubt from th injorm tionlinl paragraph

Ifyou think that th e proposed conc lus ion followsl U I reasonable doubt even though it may not IolabsolUlely and necessarily . then make a heavy b lackhnder CONCLUSION FOLLOWS in th e properit on the answer sheet. you t hin k th at th e concluldoesnot follow beyond a reasonable doubt f ro m t he~ given. then blacken th e space under CONCLU-lN OES T FOLLOW. Remember to judge each clusionindependently.

Look at the example below; th e block at th e rightIll how the answers should be marked on th e answer tL

[) JJjIPLE

ARudy 01 vocabulary growth in chi ldren TO m Test 4eight mOfltlu, to si x yea.rs ol d shows that th e c .r i u ~of spoken v oc a bu l ar y i n cr e as e s Irom zero { t l io ~ o Q ~ o : - o t

w ~ sat age ei.gltl mouths to 2562 words at l I a gesixyears.

I. NOlle of t he c hi ld re n in t.his Sludy ha d 2 0 Ilearned to talk. by th e age of six rnoruhs, The conclusion follows beyond a reasonable doub t since,

w:ordillg to th e statement. th e size 01 th e spoken vocabulary

at eight months was zero words.j

2.V Qlbulary growlh is slowest during t he p er io d when chil-dren arc learning to walk. The conclusion d oc s n ot follow

since there is 110 informat ion given rnat re latcs g ro wt h o fv Qlbulary to walking.)

6

61

The history of th e last 2000 years shows that wars havesteadily become more frequent and more destructive. Thetwentieth century has the worst record thus far on boththese counts.

49. Mankind has not advanced much in the ability tokeep peace.

50. 1£ past trends continue. we can expect that there wi.llbe more wars in th e twenty-first century than therewere in the twentieth century.

51 . Wars have become more frequent and more destructive because the world s natural resources have become more valuable.

When the United States Steel Corporation was created in1902. it was the largest corporation America had knownup to that time. t produced twice as much steel as all ofits domestic competitors pu t together. Today. the UnitedStates Steel Corporation produces about 20 percent ofth e steel that is made in this country.

52 . In 1902, the United States Steel Corporation produced no t less than 66 percent of the total domesticoutput of steel.

53. Today, domestic competi tors produce more thanthree times as much steel as does the United States

Steel Corporation.54. Th e United States Steel Corporation produces less

steel today than it di d in 1902.

Pat had poor posture, had very few friends, was il l atease in company, an d in general was very unhappy. Thena close f riend recommended that Pat visit Dr. Baldwin,a reputed expert on helping people improve their personalities. Pa t took this recommendation and, after threemonths of treatment by Dr. Baldwin, developed morefriendships, was more at ease, ami in general felt happier.55 . Without Dr. Baldwin s treatment, Pa t would not

have improved.56 . Improvements in Pat s life occurred after Dr. Bald

win s treatment started.57 . Without a friend s advice. Pat would not have heard

of Dr. Baldwin.

Go 011 to the next page



In a certain city where school attendance laws ar e strictlyenforced it was found that only 15 percent of the stu-dents ha d a perfect a ttendance record during a singleschool semester Among those who sold newspapers how-ever 25 percent ha d a perfect attendance record duringthe same semester58 Students who sold newspapers were more likely to

have perfect attendance records during the semesterthan students who di d not

59 Str ic t enforcement of school a ttendance laws in thiscity di d no t prevent 85 percent of the students frombeing absent sometime during the semester

60 truants were given jobs selling newspapers theirschool attendance would improve

61 The low rate of perfect attendance by students inthat school system wasdue mainly to illness or injury

62

When I go to bed at n ight I usually fall asleep qpromptly But about twice a month I drink coffee duthe evening an d whenever I do I lie awake an d toshours62 My problem is mostly psychological; I expect

the coffee will keep me awake an d therefore it d63 I don t fall asleep promptly at night after drink

coffee because the caffeine in it overs timulates mnervous system

64 On nights when I want to fall asleep promptlybetter no t drink coffee in the evening

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TEST EV LU TION OF RGUMENTS

STOP.You may gobackand check your work

DIRECTIONS

n making decisions about impor tan t que stions , it is desirable LO be able to distinguish between arguments thatare st,ron g ~ d r ~ u m e n t sthat are weak, as far as thequestlon at Issue 1S concerned. For an w gltment 10 bestrong i l must be both Im/JOrlallt an d dil ecUy related tothe questIOn.

An a.rgument is weak if it is no t directly related to

the q ue st io n ( ev en t ho ug h it may be of great general importance). or if it is of minor importance, or if it is related only to trivial aspects of the question.

Below is a series of questions Each question is [01.

lowed by several arguments. For the purpose of this testy are 10 regard each argument as true. The problem

then is to decide whether it is a strong or a weak argument.

Make a h ea vy black mark on the answer sheet under ARGUMENT STRONG you think t he a rg um en tis strong, or under ARGUMENT WEAK you think

the argument is weak. Judge each argument separatelyon its ow n merit. Try not to let y U personal attitude

toward t he q ue st io n influence y U evaluation of the

argument since each argument is be regarded as true,In th e e xa m pl e, n ot e that th e argument is evaluated

as to ho w well it supports the side of the question

indicated.

EX MPLE

Test 5

When t he w or d should is used as the first wor d inany of t he f ol lo wi ng q ue st io ns . its meaning is, Wouldthe p ro po se d a ct io n p ro mo te t he general welfare of the

people in th e United States?

EXERCISES

Would a s tr on g l ab or p ar ty promote the general welfare

of th e people of th e United States?65. No; a s t ro ng l ab or p ar ty w ou ld make it unattractive

[o r private investors to risk their money in businessventures. thus caus ing susta ined large-scale unemployment.

66 . Yes; differences between Repuhlic:ms a n d D e mo cn t stoday ar e not as great as th e ditlerenccs betweenliberals and conservatives within those parties.

67 . No; labor unions have c al le d s trikes in a number ofimportant industries.

8

63Should g ro up s in t his country who are opposed tof our go e . . . a SOme. . .. v rnmel1l S po l(leS be permitted unrestrictedtreedom of press. an d speech?

68 . Yes ; a democra ti c s ta te thr ives on free an d unre-stricted discussion, including criticism.

69 . No; the COuntries opposed to ou r form of gover n.m ~ td ~not permi t the free expression of ou r points

of VIew their territories.70 . ~ ~ i.f given full freedom of press an d speech. oppo

~ o groups would cause serious internal strife, makmg ou r government basically unstable. an d eventually leading to the loss of ou r democracy.

Should t ~ l United States Department of e e ~ s ekeept he p ub li c informed of its anticipated scientific researchprogram s by publicizing ahead of time the needs thatwould be served by each program?

71. No; some become cr itical of the g ove rnm ent whe nwidely publicized projects turn ou t unsuccessfully.

72. Yes; o nl y a p ub li c so informed will support vital research an d development activities with its tax dollars.

73. No; it is essen tia l to keep cer ta in mil it ary developments secret [or national security an d defense reasons.

Do jur ies dec ide court cases fairly when on e of the opposing parties is r ich and the other is poor? ,

74 . No; because rich people are more likely to settletheir cases ou t of court.

75 . No; most jurors are more sympathet ic to poor peoplethan to the rich, an d the jurors sympathies affecttheir findings.

76 . No; because rich people can afford to hire betterlawyers than poor people. an d juries arc influencedby the skill of the opposing lawyers.

Should pupils be excused from public schools to receivereligious instruction in their own churches during schoolhours?77. No; hav ing public-school chi ld ren go off to their

separate churches during school hours would seriously interf ere wi th the ed uc at ion al process an dcreate friction among children of different religions.

78 . Yes; religious instruction would help overcome moralemptiness. weakness, an d lack of considera tion [or

other people. all of which appear to be current problems in ou r nation.

79 . Yes; rel igious instruction is very important to thepreservation of ou r democratic values.

80 . No; religious instruction during school hours wouldviolate ou r const itut ional separat ion of church an dstate; those who desire such i ns tr uc ti on are free toget it after school hours.



Appendix C 64

human n ~ R m a t l o nPROC€SSlnCj

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Published bySCHOLASTIC TESTING SERVICE INC.BensenvUle Ullnols 60106 8056



Instructions for Completing theHuman Information Processing Survey

Research Edilion

For each item select th e one alternative that you feel is most descriptive of you. Even incases where you th ink none of the three choices is really descriptive, select the one that isbest fo r you. You need to respond to all forty items for your feedback to be compared toother people who have completed this Survey.

For example consider these three choices:

65

A. prefer to use logical analysis in making a decisionB. no preference for logical or intuitive decision making

C. prefer to use my intuition in arriving at a decision

A

B

c

Choose th e letter of th e choice that is most descriptive of you. If choice B is more likeyou than either A or C, mark B in the manner described by your Survey adminis-t rator. Follow th e instructions of the Survey administrator in marking your choice foreach of th e f ort y it em s on this Survey. If for any reason you change your mind, eraseyour original choice and then indicate your new preference.

egin with the first set and make your choice for each successive set of three. You have

as mu ch t im e as you need to complete this Survey, but generally the best response isthefirst strong impression you have after carefully reading the three alternatives. Detailedanalysis of th e response choices will probably not provide a more accurate descriptionofyour preferences.

Copyright e 1984, Sch ol astic Tes ti ng Service. Inc. AU r ig hu reserved. No part of this work mllY be reprcduced xir

transmiued in Ilny form by any me ans , electroruc or mechanical, including phOlOCopy recording, Of any inlormaaoastorage and reirieval Sysl m WithOUT prior penntmon in wnung from the publisher.l ubli.hed by Scholastic Testing Service, lnc., Bensenville, lHinai. 60106-8056Printed in the United SUItes America.



right·hand ~ u m ns elect th e on e choice which is most descriptive of you Do this for e h item on the l y. Follow th e instructions of th e Survey administrator fo r marking your choices

A usually learn or remember only those things specificallystudied

good memory for details and facts in th e environment no tspecificallystud ied

C h ve noticed no difference in my abilities in these re s

A

B

C

A like to read fantasy stories

B nke to read realistic stories

C no preference between fantasy and realistic stories

AB

C

A equa Hyas much fu n to dream as to plan realistically

B more fu n to dream

C more fun to plan realistically

A

B

C

t listen to music or radio while reading or studying

must have total q ui et i n order to read or study

C listen to music or radio only if reading fo r enjoyment no tif studying

5 would like to write fiction books

B would like to write non t ic tion books

C no preference between writing fiction and non fiction

A

B

C

A

B

C

6 if seeking mental health counseling would prefer groupcounseling and sharing feelings w t others

B if seeking mental health counseling would prefer theconfidentiality of individual counseling

C have no preference fo r group over ind ividual counseling

A

B

C

B

C

A

B

C

A

7 enjoy drawing my ow n images and ideas

B enjoy copying and filling in details

C enjoy drawing my ow n images and copying and filling inequally

8 fit believe I could be eaSily hypnotlzeo

B could probably be hypnotized b ut it would be difficult

C do not believe I could be hypnotiz ed

9. A no preference between mystery stories and action stories A

B p r e f e r action stories

C prefer mystery stories

B

C

10. A no preference between algebra and geometry

B prefer algebra

C prefer geometry

A

B

C

Go on to the next p ge



11. A

B

C

12 A

B

C

13. A

B

C

like to organize things sequentially

like to organize things to show relationships

no preference fo r sequential over relational organization

good at remembering verbal materials

good at tonal musical sound memory

equally good at verbal and tonal memory

pace personal tivity to time limits with ease

use time to organize self and personal activities

have diffi ulty in pacing personal activities to t ime limits

67

A

B

c

A

B

C

A

B

C

14. A have f requent mood changes

B have few mood changes

C stable, almost no mood changes

A

B

C

15. A skilled in communicating with animals

B moderately good in communicating with animals

C cannot communicate very well with animals

A

B

C

16. A no preference fo r cats over dogs or vice versa

B preference fo r cats

C preference fo r dogs

A

B

C

17. A enjoy clowning around

B can clown or be serious depending upon the occasion

C do no t enjoy clowning around

A

B

C

18. A frequently somewhat absent-minded

B occasionally absent-minded

C almost never absent-minded

A

B

C

B prefer demonstrat ion

C prefer verbal instructions

A

B

C

A

B

C

no preference fo r demonstration over verbal instructions

when viewi.ngadvertisements, am most often influenced by attractive signspleasant scenes and sensual overtones

when viewing advertisements, am most often influenced by the informationcomparing several products and demonstrating which works the best

prim rily influenced by the advertising medium only when accompanied byinform tion on the quali ty of the product

19 A

B

C

2 A

Go on to the next page



21 equally valuable to discuss stories and illustrate them

B more valuable to discuss stories read

C more valuable to illustrate stories read

22 equallv valuable to tell stories and to act out stories

B more valuable to tell stories

C more valuable to act ou t stories

23 moving rhythmically and rhyming are equally enjoyable

B moving rhythmically is more fu n

C rhyming is more fu n

24 would like to do impromptu interpretive dancing

B wo ul d l ik e to do ballet dancing

C no preference fo r ballet over impromptu interpretive dancing

25 enjoy in terac t ing affec tively with others

B enjoy interpreting th e affective interaction o f others

C equal preference fo r affective interaction and interpretation ofthe affec tive interaction o f others

26 can think better while lying down

B can think better while sitting up straight

C equal preference fo r thinking while lying down or sit ting upstraight

B would like to be a music composer

C w o ul d e nj oy equally music criticism and composition

2B skilled in the in tu i t ive prediction of outcomes

B skilled in th e statistical scientific prediction o·foutcomes

C equally skilled in intuitive and statistical scientific prediction

9 generally attentive to verbal explanations

B generally restless during verbal explanations

C can cont ro l a t ten t ion during verbal explanations

3 enjoy analyzing stories

B enjoy creative storytelling

C enjoy equally analyzing stories and creative storytelling

Go n to the next page

68

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

B

C

B

C

B

C

B

C



31. A conforming or nonconforming depending upon the situation

B generally conforming

C generally nonconforming

69A

B

C

C equally strong in recalling verbal and spatial imagery

32AB

C

33 A

B

C

4 A

no preference or well structured over open ended assignmentspreference or open ended assignments

preference or well structured assignments

prefer to learn through free exploration

prefer to learn systematically through ordering and planning

no preference between learning through free exploration andlearning through more systematic ways

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

BC

35. A read or main ideas

B read or specific details and facts

C read or main ideasand or details and facts equally

A

B

C

B skilled in showing relationships among ideas

36. A skilled in sequencing ideas

C more exc it ing to invent something new

When you h v completed all orty items ollow the instructions o your Survey administrator.

C

37 A

B

C

38 A

B

C

39 A

B

C

4 A

B

equally skilled in sequencing and showing relationships

no preference between outlining and summarizing readings

preference or outlining over summarizing

preference or summarizing over outlininq

producing ideas and drawing conclusions are equally enjoyable

drawing conclusions is more fun

producing ideas is more un

solve problems logically rationally

solve problems intuitiv ly

equally skilled in solving problems intuitively and logically

just asexciting to me to improve something asto inventsomething new

more exciting to improve something

4

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C



It h u m a n l n ~ O J ~ m \ . t 1 o nPROC€SSlnCjRESEARCH EDITION

Response Sheet

70

SU V YJ

Name Date _

For each item of th e Survey, select th e one alternative that bes t describes you. Indicate your choice by ir lin th e letter A , S, or C next to th e number of that item in th e list below.

When yo u have completed all for ty items, fol low th e instructions of your Survey administrator for completionof this sheet.

A 8 C 21. A B C

2. A 8 C 22. A 8 C

3. A 8 C 23. A B C

4. A B C 24, A B C

5. A B C 25. A 8 C

6. A B C 26. A B C

7. A B C 27. A 8 C

8. A B C 28. A 8 C

9. A B C 29. A 8 C

10, A B C 30. A 8 C

11 . A B C 31. A 8 C12. A 8 C 32. A 8 C

13. A B C 33. A 8 C

14 . A 8 C 34. A B C

t 5. A 8 C 35. A 8 C

16. A 8 C 36. A B C

17. A 8 C 37. A B C

B C 38. A 8 C18. A

8 C 39. A 8 C19. A

C 40. A B C20. A B

Your Raw Scores 0 + 0 + 0 ::: 40

Ls Is Rs

\ r r : l l knurk or HIP Systems. Inc. . i1lS reserved \ I'HI o t lilts work m av be reproduced or tfaflsn:ltted to Jr1\ rorrn or [ \

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\ r urne t rorn t hc publisher. .. . . I I 6 I 06.8056 Printed In the United States of rnerrca.PUblished \1\ c lU la st iC fest iOl l Servrce. Inc .. Bensenville.



7

A p p e n d i x D

Q f_o ~ . ~ ~ a . : . t _ ~ . . Q L . A h _ ~e _ 9 . . r . _ g . Q n ~ e J l t . . . . 1 0b . ~ a r e s e a r c h s t u b j ec t

A s t u d y is b e i n g done by Marge Bledsoe R.N. a

g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t t D r a k e U n i v e r s i t y t o l e a r n about t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r e f e r r e d t h i n k i n g s t y l e s t o c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g b i l i ty T he s t u d y w i l l a l s o c om pa re f re sh me n

n u r a i n g s t u d e n t s t r e s u l t s w i t h non nu r s ing s t u d e n t s

resu l t s

I f y o u a g r e e t o p a r t i c i p a t e you w i l l be asked toc o m p l e t e tw o d i f f e r e n t t o o l s . The f i r s t i s th e Watson-

G l a s e r C r i t i c l T H i n k i n g A p p r a i s a l which de te rmines how

y o u a r e a b l e t o r e a s o n a n a l y t i c a l l y and l o g i c a l l y. Th e

s e c o n d i s t h e Human I n f o r m a t i o n P r o c e s s i n g Survey which

d e t e r m i n e s y o u r p r e f e r r e d c o g n i t v e s t y l e . I t w i l l t ake

a p p r o x i m a t e l y a n h o u r t o c o m p l e t e bo th t o o l s .

A f t e r p a r t i c i p a t i n g y ou ma y o b t a i n a copy o f your

r e s u l t s o n b o t h t o o l s . T h e s e would i n d i c a t e your

c r i t i e a l t h i n k i n g a b i l i t 1 an d y o u r p r e f e r r e d s t y l e o f

t h i n k i n g .

A l l d a t a o b t a i n e d on you dur ing t h e cou r se o f t h i s

s t u d y w i l l b e k e p t c o n f i d e n t i a l and a c c e s s i b l e only t o

t h e p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r . I f you have o t h e r ques t i ons

y o u m ay c l l Ms. B l e d s o e a t 283 6804.



72

C Q n < § ~ < n : t : « _ f Q < : r m

« : t : . : L _ ? L . ~ ~ r e s e a r _ c h s u j e c t

P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s s t u d y i s v o l u n t a r y No

c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i l l be g i v e n I

u n d e r s t a n d t h a t I am f r e e t o wi thdraw my co n sen t to

p r t ic ip te i n t h i s s t u d y a t an y t ime w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e

t o my g r a d e s . R e f u s i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e w i l l invo lve no

p e n a l t y .

T h e c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n concern ing my

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s s t u d y w i l l be main ta ined whenever

p a s s i b l e T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n ma y be d i s c l o s e d t o o t h e r

e d u c a t o r s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s and ma y be p u b l i s h e d as

r e s e a r c h . An y p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l w i l l n o t i d e n t i f y me by

n a m e .

I h a v e r e a d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s h e e t asked q u e s t i o n s

r e c e i v e d a n s w e r s c on ce rn in g a r e a s I d id n ot u nd er st an d

a n d w i l l i n g l y g i v e my c o n s e n t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s

p r o g r a m Upon s i g n i n g t h i s fo rm I w i l l r e c e i v e a c o p y

S u b j e c t s s i g n a t u r e

W i tn e s s s s i g n a t u r e

d a t e

d a t e

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