DueDiligence,ClimateMitigationMeasures,theLawoftheSeaandtheParisAgreement

ProfessorRonán LongDirector,GlobalOceanInstitute

WorldMaritimeUniversity,Sweden

ClimateChangeandLawoftheSea:AdaptingtheLawoftheSeatoAddresstheChallengesofClimateChange

CentreofInternationalLaw,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore.13-14March2018.ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Questions

1. Whatisthecontentoftheobligationofduediligencetoprotectandpreserve themarineenvironment?

2. DoestherequirementofduediligenceunderPartXIIoftheLOSCcreateanobligationtomitigatetheadverse impactsofhuman-inducedclimatechangeonthemarineenvironment?

3. Whatarethelegaldutiestoimproveclimateresiliencebyrestoringthemarineenvironment?

• Photosource:Shutterstock

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

• Question1 Whatisthecontentoftheobligationofduediligencetoprotectandpreserve themarineenvironment?

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Overview1. Preliminary remarks

2. Jurisprudence&ILAStudies

a. PulpMillsontheRiverUruguay(ArgentinavUruguay)

b. ITLOSCases17&21c. AnnexVIISCSArb.Awardd. CostaRicav.Nicaragua (compensation)e. ILAStudyGrouponDueDiligencein

InternationalLaw(Reports2014,2016)• Photosource:Shutterstock

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

DueDiligence

1. Duediligenceisanobligationofconduct onthepartofasubjectoflaw

2. Thecriterionappliedinassessingwhetherasubjecthasmetthatobligationisthatoftheresponsible citizenorresponsiblegovernment

• MaxPlanckEncyclopediaofPublicInternationalLaw

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Purpose

• Duediligenceisconcernedwithsupplyingastandardofcareagainstwhichfaultcanbeassessed

‘Itisastandardofreasonablecare,… thatseekstotakeaccountoftheconsequencesofwrongfulconductandtheextenttowhichsuchconsequences couldfeasiblyhavebeenavoided bytheStateorinternationalorganisationthateithercommissioned therelevantactorwhichomitted topreventitsoccurrence’

• ILAStudyGroupSecondReport(2016),p.2

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Duediligenceisakeycomponentoftheobligationtopreventharm ininternationalenvironmental law

• CaseConcerningPulpMillsontheRiverUruguay, ArgentinavUruguay,Judgmentonthemerits, ICGJ425,20thApril2010.

1. Noharmprincipleentailsanobligation topreventharmtotheenvironment

2. Theobligation to‘preservetheaquaticenvironment,andinparticulartopreventpollution byprescribingappropriaterulesandmeasures’isanobligationtoactwithduediligenceinrespectofallactivitieswhichtakeplaceunderthejurisdictionandcontrolofeachparty

3. Mustadoptrules,exerciseenforcement andadministrativecontroloverpublicandprivateoperators.

• PrincipleofnoharmbreachedwhenaStatehasnotacteddiligentlyoveritsownactivities,stateownedenterprisesorprivateactivities[ILAStudyGroupSecondReport(2014),p.25]

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Case No. 17.ResponsibilitiesandobligationsofStatessponsoringpersonsandentitieswithrespecttoactivitiesintheArea(Requestfor

AdvisoryOpinion)[2011] ITLOS Rep 10

• ExaminedthenatureofanobligationimposedonStates‘toensure’thatcontractorsengagedinseabedminingactivitiesintheAreacomplywiththeirobligationstoprotectthemarineenvironment

• Obligation‘toensure’ isnotanobligationtoachieve,ineachandeverycase,theprescribedresult.Ratheritisanobligationofconduct andduediligence

• MeansthatStateisobliged‘todeployadequatemeans,toexercisebestpossibleefforts,todotheutmost,toobtainthisresult’[paras110-111]

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Attributesofduediligence

a. Context:varyovertime&newscientificknowledgeandtechnology

b. Relativeness:riskertheactivitythehigher thestandardofduediligence

c. Precautionaryapproach isanintegralpartofduediligence…once thereareplausibleindicationsofpotentialrisks [para.131]

d. ‘BestEnvironmentalPractices’[para.136]

e. Generalprovisionsonresponsibilityandliability applyequallytoallsponsoring States,whetherdevelopedordeveloping [para.158]

f. Stateonly liablefordamagescausedifitfailed tocarryoutduediligence[paras184-189]

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

CaseNo.21.Request foran advisoryopinionsubmitted bythe Sub-RegionalFisheriesCommission (SRFC), [2015] ITLOS Rep 10

• ObligationofflagStatestoensuretheirvesselsarenotIUUfishing isanobligationofduediligence

• Statesmustdeploy‘adequatemeans,toexercisebestpossible efforts,todotheutmost’topreventIUUfishing[para129]

• Ensurecompliancewithlawsandregulations[para129]

• Dutytocooperate=generalruleofinternational law(Mox Plantcase][para.140].

• LiabilityofflagStatearisesfromitsownfailuretocomplywithduediligenceobligations.

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

SCSArbitrationAward

1. Contentoftheobligationofduediligenceisinformedbyotherapplicablerulesofinternationallaw

2. Duediligenceincludestheobligationtoprotectandpreserveendangeredspeciesandthehabitatoffragileandvulnerablespeciesaswellasbiodiversity

3. Todeterminethataspeciesis‘endangered’oranecosystemis‘rareorfragile’,thetribunalconsideredCITES’annexes,aswellastheevidencepresentedbyscientificexperts,IUCNredlistandpeer-reviewedarticles

4. Theobligationto‘ensure’isanobligationofconduct.

5. Duediligencerequiresadoptionofappropriaterulesandmeasures, enforcement andtheexerciseofadministrativecontrol

6. Receivereportsofnon-compliance,mustinvestigate,remedythesituationandreport

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

• Question2 DoestherequirementofduediligenceundertheLOSCcreateanobligationtomitigatetheadverseimpactsofhuman-inducedclimatechangeonthemarineenvironment?

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Mitigatingsourcesofpollution

• Lexspecialis – globalclimateregime

• AnnexVI1973/78MARPOL

– Setslimitsonsulphur oxide,nitrogenoxideemissionsandozonedepletingsubstancesfromshipsexhausts.

– Amendmentsweremadein2011toaddressoperationalandefficiencymattersaimedatreducingGHGemissionsfromships.

– IMOinitialstrategyforreductiongreenhousegasemissions,roadmap&long-termstrategy2023

– Othermeasures

Source:shipinsight.com

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

1982UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea

• Pollution - Article 1(1)(4)

• ‘the introduction by man, directlyor indirectly, of substances orenergy into the marineenvironment, which results or islikely to result in such deleteriouseffects as harm to living resourcesand marine life, hazards tohuman health’

• Definition wide enough to coverGHG [Boyle, Rayfuse, Oral, Scott,Stephens]

• Article192(Dutytoprotectandpreservethemarineenvironment)

• Article194(1)(fromany source)

• Art194(2)obligationtoensurethatactivitiesunderjurisdictionorcontroldonotcausedamagetootherStates=obligationofduediligence

• Article194(5)(includesrareorfragileecosystems)(coralreefs)

• Article194(3)Allsourcesofpollution

• Article207(land-based)

• Article212(onorthroughtheatmosphere)

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Regulating&ControllingMarinePollution=obligationofduediligence

• Whataretheduediligencerequirements?

– Prevent,reduceandcontrolsourcesofpollutionthatcausemarineenvironmentaldamage,regulation,EIA,BAT,precautionaryapproach,andenforcement

• Whataretheapplicablerulesofinternationallaw?

– 1992UNFCCCobjectiveofstabilisationGHGintheatmosphere isbroadenoughtoapplytotheocean

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

WhatobjectivesapplyundertheParisAgreement?

• Article2(1)

– Holding theincreaseintheglobal averagetemperaturetowellbelow2°Cabovepre-industriallevelsandpursuingeffortstolimitthetemperatureincreaseto1.5°C

• Article4

– EachPartyshallprepare,communicateandmaintainsuccessivenationallydeterminedcontributionsthatitintendstoachieve.Partiesshallpursuedomesticmitigationmeasures,withtheaimofachievingtheobjectivesofsuchcontributions. =obligationofconduct

– Allowsflexibility inrelationtowhichGHGemissionsaretobereduced.

– ‘Ambitiousefforts’and‘demonstrateprogressionovertime’

– NDCs- 161mentionocean;14coastalStatesdonotmentionocean.

OceancommitmentsundertheParisAgreementGalloetal.NatureClimateChange7(11),833

WhatdoestheduediligencerequirementsundertheLOSCrequireinrelationtomitigationmeasures?

• StandardofconductundertheLOSCisverygeneralunderArticles194&212

• DuediligencemeansthataStateisobliged‘todeployadequatemeans,toexercisebestpossibleefforts,todotheutmost’[paras110-111]

• Statesmusttakemeasuresthatare‘reasonablyappropriate’[para.120] inrelationtomitigation

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

DoesPartXIIoftheLOSCrequireStatestogofurtherthantheParisAgreement inrelationtomitigation?

• RejectedsimilarargumentsintheMox PlantthattheLOSCsetsahigherstandardthattheOSPARConventioninrelationtoland-basedpollutionofthemarineenvironment

• Alsoneedtoovercomeeconomicdevelopment&sovereignrightsovernaturalresourcearguments[UNFCCC,ParisAgreement&LOSCArt193]

• However,

• Article14- GlobalStocktaking

• Duediligencevariableconcept,varywithtime,newscientific knowledgeandtechnology

• MuchdependsonhowfarStatesgotoadoptspecificmeasurespertainingtoclimatechangeandtheocean

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Somegoodnews!

• PeterThomson,UNSpecialEnvoyforOcean,introducesthelaunchoftheOceanPathwayPartnershipandcallsgovernmentsaroundtheworldforacommonactionontheprotectionofoceans.

• BringoceanintoUNFCCCprocessesandsustainaction

• BetterintegrationofoceanintheNDCs

• ROCA :Roadmapforoceanandclimateaction&OceanandClimateInitiativesAlliance

• 2019IPPCSpecialReportOceans,Climate andthe Cryosphere

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

• Question3 • Whatarethelegaldutiestoimproveclimateresilience byrestoringthemarineenvironment?

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

ImprovingClimateResilienceandDutytoRestore:NormativeBasisInternationalLaw

HardLaw HardLaw• ResponsibilityofStatesandinternationalorganizations✔

– CaseNo17,AreaAdvisoryOpinion(2011)ITLOSRep10,paras 195and198.• willdependonbothactualdamageandthe

technicalfeasibility ofrestoringthesituationtothestatusquoante

– CaseNo21,SRFCAdvisoryOpinion,Apr.2,2015(para208)

• Liability[UNCompensationCommission…developmentofnovelapproachesincludingabstracthabitatequivalencyanalysisforthelossofecologicalservices]✔

• DraftArticlesonStateResponsibilityforInternationallyWrongfulActs[Arts34&35Reparations&Restitution]✔

• UNFCCC[Art4(4))ParisAgreement–Preamble&Art5✔• StateandRegionalPractice[USA:EstuariesRestorationAct

2000][France:)• Emergingprinciplesofnon-regressionandecologicalintegrity• CostaRicav.Nicaraguacompensationcase

• UNCLOS[Art61(3)][Arts192,194(5),197] [Art235,139(2)]✔

• 1994ImplementationAgreementEironm ent al

– Draftminingcode– EnvironmentalManagementandMonitoringPlan

• UNFSA[Arts5(e),6(4),AnnexIIArt4]✔• CBD[Art8(f)(e)]✔

– Rehabilitateandrestore degradedecosystemsandpromotetherecoveryofthreatenedspecies,interalia,throughthedevelopmentandimplementationofplansorothermanagementstrategies

– CBDDecX.33,XI/21• OSPARConvention✔

– …conservemarineecosystemsand,whenpracticable,restoremarineareaswhichhavebeenadverselyaffected...[Art2(1)(a)]&AnnexVArt2]

• CMSArtV.1- restore themigratoryspeciesconcernedtoafavourableconservationstatus

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

CertainActivitiescarriedoutbyNicaragua intheBorderArea(CostaRicav.Nicaragua) - Questionofcompensation

2February2018

• Suchcompensationmayincludeindemnificationfortheimpairmentorlossofenvironmentalgoodsandservices andpaymentfortherestorationofthedamagedenvironment

• Paymentforrestorationaccountsforthefactthatnaturalrecoverymaynotalwayssufficetoreturnanenvironmenttothestateinwhichitwasbeforethedamageoccurred.

• Insuchinstances,activerestorationmeasuresmayberequiredinordertoreturntheenvironmenttoitspriorcondition,insofarasthatispossible.

• Internationallawdoesnotprescribeanyspecificmethodofvaluation

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

HowcantheBBNJ ImplementationAgreementnegotiationsmainstreamecologicalrestoration?

PrincipleCross-sectorialmanagementapproaches

AreaBasedManagementToolsincluding

MPAs

EIA/SEA/TBEA Capacity

Building&TechnologyTransfer

Liability&Compliance

Restoration

Options

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

Conclusions

• Duediligenceisakeycomponentoftheobligationtopreventharm

• Lawoftheseajurisprudencehascontributedsignificantlytoourunderstandingoftheconceptofduediligenceincludingthecontextualcircumstancesandparameterspertainingtoitsapplication

• Inordertodemonstratethatithasacteddiligently,a Statemustpreventforeseeable significantdamage,oratleasttominimise theriskofsuchharmfromhuman-inducedclimatechange

• Statesmusttakemeasures thatare‘reasonablyappropriate’inrespectofmarineenvironmenttomeetclimatechangeobjectives

• PartXV– DisputeResolution/AdvisoryJurisdiction

ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se

“…thattheoceans’carryingcapacityisnearoratitslimit.Itisclearthaturgentactiononaglobalscaleisneeded toprotecttheworld’soceansfromthemanypressurestheyface.”

FIRSTGLOBALINTEGRATEDMARINEASSESSMENT(2014)

ForewordbytheSecretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNations,

UNGA70/235,23December2015

ProfessorRonán Long,rl@wmu.se