Dust Bowl 1 Dust Bowl A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma, 1936, Photo: Arthur Rothstein The Dust Bowl, or the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms causing major ecological and agricultural damage to American and Canadian prairie lands in the 1930s, particularly in 1934 and 1936. The phenomenon was caused by severe drought coupled with decades of extensive farming without crop rotation, fallow fields, cover crops or other techniques to prevent wind erosion. [1] Deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains had displaced the natural deep-rooted grasses that normally kept the soil in place and trapped moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. During the drought of the 1930s, without natural anchors to keep the soil in place, it dried, turned to dust, and blew away eastward and southward in large dark clouds. At times, the clouds blackened the sky, reaching all the way to East Coast cities such as New York and Washington, D.C. Much of the soil ended up deposited in the Atlantic Ocean, carried by prevailing winds. These immense dust storms—given names such as "black blizzards" and "black rollers"—often reduced visibility to a few feet (a meter or less). The Dust Bowl affected 100000000 acres (400000 km 2 ), centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma, and adjacent parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas. [2] Millions of acres of farmland were damaged, and hundreds of thousands of people were forced to leave their homes; many of these families (often known as "Okies", since so many came from Oklahoma) migrated to California and other states, where they found economic conditions little better during the Great Depression than those they had left. Owning no land, many became migrant workers who traveled from farm to farm to pick fruit and other crops at starvation wages. Author John Steinbeck later wrote The Grapes of Wrath, which won the Pulitzer Prize, and Of Mice and Men, about such people. Causes During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, the region in which the Dust Bowl occurred was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; the region was known as the Great American Desert. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture. Following the Civil War, settlement was encouraged by the Homestead Act, the transcontinental railroad, and waves of new immigrants, and cultivation increased. [3][4] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and that the climate of the region had changed permanently. [5] The initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, with some cultivation; however, a series of harsh winters beginning in 1886, coupled with overgrazing followed by a short drought in 1890, led to an expansion of land under cultivation.
Transcript
Dust Bowl 1
Dust Bowl
A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma,1936, Photo: Arthur Rothstein
The Dust Bowl, or the Dirty Thirties, was aperiod of severe dust storms causing majorecological and agricultural damage toAmerican and Canadian prairie lands in the1930s, particularly in 1934 and 1936. Thephenomenon was caused by severe droughtcoupled with decades of extensive farmingwithout crop rotation, fallow fields, covercrops or other techniques to prevent winderosion.[1] Deep plowing of the virgintopsoil of the Great Plains had displaced thenatural deep-rooted grasses that normallykept the soil in place and trapped moistureeven during periods of drought and highwinds.
During the drought of the 1930s, withoutnatural anchors to keep the soil in place, itdried, turned to dust, and blew awayeastward and southward in large darkclouds. At times, the clouds blackened thesky, reaching all the way to East Coast cities such as New York and Washington, D.C. Much of the soil ended updeposited in the Atlantic Ocean, carried by prevailing winds. These immense dust storms—given names such as"black blizzards" and "black rollers"—often reduced visibility to a few feet (a meter or less). The Dust Bowl affected100000000 acres (400000 km2), centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma, and adjacent parts of NewMexico, Colorado, and Kansas.[2]
Millions of acres of farmland were damaged, and hundreds of thousands of people were forced to leave their homes;many of these families (often known as "Okies", since so many came from Oklahoma) migrated to California andother states, where they found economic conditions little better during the Great Depression than those they had left.Owning no land, many became migrant workers who traveled from farm to farm to pick fruit and other crops atstarvation wages. Author John Steinbeck later wrote The Grapes of Wrath, which won the Pulitzer Prize, and OfMice and Men, about such people.
CausesDuring early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, the region in which the Dust Bowl occurredwas thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; the region was known as the Great American Desert. The lackof surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.Following the Civil War, settlement was encouraged by the Homestead Act, the transcontinental railroad, and wavesof new immigrants, and cultivation increased.[3][4] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly ledsettlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estatepromoters) and that the climate of the region had changed permanently.[5] The initial agricultural endeavors wereprimarily cattle ranching, with some cultivation; however, a series of harsh winters beginning in 1886, coupled withovergrazing followed by a short drought in 1890, led to an expansion of land under cultivation.
Continued waves of immigration from Europe brought settlers to the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. Areturn of unusually wet weather confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid area could supportlarge-scale agriculture. Technological improvements led to increase of mechanized plowing, which allowed forcultivation on a greater scale. World War I increased agricultural prices, which also encouraged farmers todramatically increase cultivation. In the Llano Estacado, the area of farmland doubled between 1900 and 1920, andland under cultivation more than tripled between 1925 and 1930.[6]
The favored agricultural methods of farmers during this period created the conditions for large scale erosion undercertain environmental conditions.[1] The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soilpreparation methods to enable agriculture virtually eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in place andhelped retain moisture, even during dry periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare over winter months,when winds in the High Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a means to control weeds prior to planting, thusdepriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.The environmental conditions created when severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s exposed theincreased risk for erosion that was created by the farming practices in use at the time. The drought dried the topsoiland over time it became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Then, without the indigenousgrasses in place, during the drought, the high winds that commonly occur on the plains created the massiveduststorms that marked the Dust Bowl period.
Geographic characteristics
A dust storm approaches Stratford, Texas, in 1935.
The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100thmeridian on the High Plains, characterized by plainswhich vary from rolling in the north to flat in the LlanoEstacado. Elevation ranges from 2500 feet (760 m) inthe east to 6000 feet (1800 m) at the base of the RockyMountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20inches (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supportsthe shortgrass prairie biome originally present in thearea. The region is also prone to extended drought,alternating with unusual wetness of equivalentduration.[7] During wet years, the rich soil providesbountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dryyears. The region is also subject to high winds.[8]
The unusually wet period, which encouraged increasedsettlement and cultivation in the Great Plains, ended in1930. This was the year in which an extended andsevere drought began which caused crops to fail,leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. Thefine soil of the Great Plains was easily eroded andcarried east by strong continental winds.On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust stormstripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakotafarmlands in just one of a series of bad dust storms thatyear. Then, beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong,two-day dust storm removed massive amounts of GreatPlains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of theDust Bowl. The dust clouds blew all the way toChicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust.[9] Two days later, the same storm reached cities in theeast, such as Buffalo, Boston, Cleveland, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[10] That winter (1934–1935), redsnow fell on New England.
On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", 20 of the worst "black blizzards" occurred throughout the Dust Bowl,causing extensive damage and turning the day to night; witnesses reported they could not see five feet in front ofthem at certain points.
Human displacementThis catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region. The Dust Bowl has beenidentified as the "most extreme natural event in 350 years".[11]
U.S.
Buried machinery in a barn lot; Dallas, South Dakota, May 1936
In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farmsand travel to other areas seeking work due to thedrought (which at that time had lasted four years).[12]
Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of thedisplaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surroundingGreat Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000Americans were left homeless. Over 350 houses had tobe torn down after one storm alone.[13] The severedrought and dust storms had left many homeless, othershad their mortgages foreclosed by banks, and othersfelt they were left no other choice than to abandon theirfarms in search of work.[14] Many Americans migratedwest looking for work. Parents were forced to pack up“jalopies” with their families and a few personalbelongings, and head in search of work.[15] Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell illand died of dust pneumonia or malnutrition.[9]
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American history within a short period of time. By 1940,2.5 million people had moved out of the Plains states; of those, 200,000 moved to California.[16] In just over a year,over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the1849 Gold Rush.[17] With their land barren and homes seized in foreclosure, many farm families were forced toleave. Migrants left farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado and NewMexico, but were often generally referred to as "Okies", "Arkies" or "Texies".[13] Terms such as “Okies” and“Arkies” came to be known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were strugglingthe most during the Great Depression.[18]
However, migrants did not always travel long distances; many would simply travel to the next town or county. Nomatter the distance, the Dust Bowl caused the proportion between migrants and residents to be nearly equal in theGreat Plains states due to the high number of families which left their farms.[19]
Characteristics of migrantsWhen James N. Gregory examined the Census Bureau statistics, as well as other surveys, he discovered somesurprising percentages. For example, in 1939, the Bureau of Agricultural Economics surveyed the occupations ofabout 116,000 families who had arrived in California in the 1930s. It showed that only 43 percent of southwesternerswere doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or whitecollar workers.[20] The poor economy brought more than just farmers as refugees to California; many teachers,lawyers, and small business owners moved west with their families during this time. After the Great Depressionended, some moved back to their original states, but many remained where they had started their new lives. In fact,around one-eighth of California's population is from Okie heritage.[21]
U.S. Government response
An Oklahoman boy during a dust storm, 1936
During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 daysin office in 1933, governmental programs designed toconserve soil and restore the ecological balance of thenation were implemented. Interior Secretary Harold L.Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it wastransferred and reorganized under the Department ofAgriculture and renamed the Soil ConservationService. More recently, it has been renamed the NaturalResources Conservation Service (NRCS).[22]
Additionally, the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation(FSRC) was created after more than six million pigswere slaughtered to stabilize prices. The pigs were sentto slaughterhouses and the meat packed and distributedto the poor and hungry. FDR in an Address on theAAA commented, "Let me make one other point clear for the benefit of the millions in cities who have to buy meats.Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If there had been no Government program, if theold order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt wouldhave resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the death of these animals on the range and on thefarm, and if the old order had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we facetoday. Our program -- we can prove it -- saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range,and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to eat."
The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and porkproducts were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.[23]
In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRSbought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals unfit for humanconsumption – more than 50 percent at the beginning of the program – were killed. The remaining cattle were givento the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although itwas difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid bankruptcy."The government cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, as they could not afford to keep their cattle,and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."[24]
President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees fromCanada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. Theadministration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and antierosion techniques, including croprotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[25][26] In 1937, the federalgovernment began an aggressive campaign to encourage Dust Bowlers to adopt planting and plowing methods thatconserved the soil. The government paid the reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice one of the new methods.By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65%. Nevertheless, the landfailed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the nearly decade-longdrought ended, as regular rainfall finally returned to the region.At the end of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain apositive relationship between America’s farmers and the federal government.[27]
A 1935 report by the President's Drought Committee, covering the government's assistance to agriculture during1934 through mid 1935, discusses conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results ofthe government's assistance.[28] Numerous exhibits are included in this report.
Long-term economic impactIn many regions, over 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s, but there was wide variation inthe degree to which the land was degraded. Aside from the short-term economic consequences caused by erosion,there were severe long-term economic consequences of the Dust Bowl.By 1940, counties that had experienced the most significant levels of erosion saw a greater decline in agriculturalland values. The per-acre value of farmland declined by 28% in high-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosioncounties, relative to land value changes in low-erosion counties.[29] Even over the long-term, the full agriculturalvalue of the land often failed to recover. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agricultural losses wererecovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more-eroded counties,both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highlyeroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would have been more productive to shift fromcrops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relativeadjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties.Some of the failure to shift to more productive agricultural products may be related to ignorance about the benefits ofchanging land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banksin the plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region with a higher rate of frequency than in the rest ofthe country, it was harder for farmers to gain access to the credit they needed to buy capital to shift cropproduction.[30] Another reason is that profit margins to shift from a previously farmed crop to either animals or hayincreased only slightly. Therefore, even if they knew about the benefits of changing land usage, the incentive toswitch immediately was relatively small.
Influence on the artsThe crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors. Many were hired by various U.S. federalagencies during the Great Depression. The Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers todocument the crisis. This helped the careers of many notable artists, including Dorothea Lange. She captured iconicimages of the storms and migrant families, the most famous of which was a photograph entitled Migrant Mother,which depicted a gaunt-looking woman, Florence Owens Thompson, holding her three children. This picturecaptured the horrors of the Dust Bowl and caused more people to be aware of the crisis of the country.The work of independent artists, such as American novelist John Steinbeck's novels Of Mice and Men (1937) andThe Grapes of Wrath (1939), and the music of folk singer Woody Guthrie, was also influenced by the crises of theDust Bowl and the Depression.Migrants leaving the Plains states took their music with them. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were descendedfrom rural Southerners and transplanted country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound" describes thisblend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired aproliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.
References[1] "Drought: A Paleo Perspective – 20th Century Drought" (http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ drought/ drght_history. html). National
Climatic Data Center. . Retrieved 2009-04-05.[2] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=kwke_hhx8Z8C& lpg=PP1& dq=. A
History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q& f=true). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6. .[3] "The Great Plains: from dust to dust" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071006015832/ http:/ / www. planning. org/ 25anniversary/ planning/
1987dec. htm). Planning Magazine. 1987-12. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. planning. org/ 25anniversary/ planning/ 1987dec. htm)on October 6, 2007. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[4] Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ uu14re/ uu14re00. htm). UnitedNations University Press. 1995. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[5] Drought in the Dust Bowl Years (http:/ / drought. unl. edu/ DroughtBasics/ DustBowl/ DroughtintheDustBowlYears. aspx). USA: NationalDrought Mitigation Center. 2006. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[6] Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ uu14re/ uu14re0n. htm#6. the ilanoestacado of the american southern high plains). United Nations University Press. 1995. . Retrieved December 6, 2008.
[7] "A History of Drought in Colorado: lessons learned and what lies ahead" (http:/ / ccc. atmos. colostate. edu/ pdfs/ ahistoryofdrought. pdf)(PDF). Colorado Water Resources Research Institute. February 2000. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[8] "A Report of the Great Plains Area Drought Committee" (http:/ / newdeal. feri. org/ hopkins/ hop27. htm). Hopkins Papers, Franklin D.Roosevelt Library. August 27, 1936. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.
[10] Stock, Catherine McNicol (1992). Main Street in Crisis: The Great Depression and the Old Middle Class on the Northern Plains, p. 24.University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4689-9.
[11][11] Dewing, Rolland. "Regions in Transition". Landham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2006, p. v.[12][12] "A Cultural Hisotry of the United States - The 1930s". San Diego, California: Lucent Books, Inc., 1999, p. 39.[13] "First Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ fmc/ interviews/ gregory. htm). PBS. . Retrieved 2007-03-11.[14][14] Babb, Sanora, Dorothy Babb, and Douglas Wixson. "On the Dirty Plate Trail". Edited by Douglas Wixson. Autin, Texas: University of
Texas Press, 2007, p. 20.[15][15] "A Cultural Hisotry of the United States - The 1930s". San Diego, California: Lucent Books, Inc., 1999, p.19.[16] Worster, Donald (1979). Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s. Oxford University Press.[17][17] Worster, Donald. "Dust Bowl - The Southern Plains in the 1930s". 25. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 50,[18][18] Worster, Donald. "Dust Bowl - The Southern Plains in the 1930s". 25. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 45,[19][19] Worster, Donald. "Dust Bowl - The Southern Plains in the 1930s". 25. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 49,[20][20] Gregory, N. James. 1991. American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California. Oxford University Press.[21][21] Babb, Sanora, Dorothy Babb, and Douglas Wixson. "On the Dirty Plate Trail". Edited by Douglas Wixson. Autin, Texas: University of
Texas Press, 2007, p. 13,[22] Steiner, Frederick (2008). The Living Landscape, Second Edition: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning, p. 188. Island Press.
ISBN 1-59726-396-6.[23] "The American Experience / Surviving the Dust Bowl / Timeline" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ dustbowl/ timeline/ ). .
[24][24] Monthly Catalog, United States Public Documents, By United States Superintendent of Documents, United States Government PrintingOffice, Published by G.P.O., 1938
[25] Federal Writers' Project. Texas. Writers' Program (Tex.): Writers' Program Texas. p. 16.[26] Buchanan, James Shannon. Chronicles of Oklahoma. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 224.[27][27] "A Cultural Hisotry of the United States - The 1930s". San Diego, California: Lucent Books, Inc., 1999, p.45.[28] United States. Agricultural Adjustment Administration and Murphy, Philip G., (1935), Drought of 1934: The Federal Government's
Assistance to Agriculture (http:/ / fraser. stlouisfed. org/ publication-series/ ?id=834)". Accessed August 10, 2012.[29] Hornbeck, Richard (December 2009). "The Enduring Impact of the American Dust Bowl: Short and Long-run Adjustments to
Environmental Catastrophe" (http:/ / www. nber. org/ papers/ w15605. pdf) (PDF). USA: National Bureau of Economic Research. p. 3. .Retrieved March 1, 2011.
[30] Landon-Lane, John; Hugh Rockoff and Richard Steckel (December 2009). "Droughts, Floods, and Financial Distress in the United States"(http:/ / www. nber. org/ papers/ w15596. pdf) (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research. p. 6. . Retrieved March 1, 2011.
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Article Sources and ContributorsDust Bowl Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513989529 Contributors: (jarbarf), 180days, 2004-12-29T22:45Z, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2D, 2koolj8, 4twenty42o, 5 albertsquare, 7, A Raider Like Indiana, A Softer Answer, A8UDI, ABF, AVand, Acroterion, Adambelize, Addshore, After Midnight, Agathman, AgentPeppermint, AgnosticPreachersKid,Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, Aitias, Ajlp1, Ajraddatz, Alan Liefting, Alan012, Alansohn, Ale jrb, AlexTJones, AlexiusHoratius, Alfredo Molina, Ali, Ali K, Allen4names, Allens, Allstarecho,AmEx intern, Amelapay, Americanfreedom, Ammodramus, Andonic, Andrew Gray, Andrew c, AndromedaRoach, Andy M. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Farmer walking in dust storm Cimarron County Oklahoma2.jpg Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Arthur Rothstein, for the Farm SecurityAdministrationImage:Dust-storm-Texas-1935.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust-storm-Texas-1935.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Bidgee, Epimethius,Infrogmation, Jaymocky, Leaflet, Saperaud, 4 anonymous editsImage:Wea01422.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wea01422.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Bevo at en.wikipediaImage:Dust Bowl - Dallas, South Dakota 1936.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas,_South_Dakota_1936.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sloan (?)File:Oklahoman boy during the Dust Bowl era.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oklahoman_boy_during_the_Dust_Bowl_era.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Arthur Rothstein, for the Farm Security Administration. Original uploader was AgnosticPreachersKid at en.wikipedia
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