Dutch language

For other uses of “Dutch”, see Dutch (disambiguation).

Dutch ( Nederlands ) is a West Germanic languagethat is spoken in the European Union by about 23 mil-lion people as a first language—including most of thepopulation of the Netherlands and about sixty percent ofthat of Belgium—and by another 5 million as a secondlanguage.[2][3][5][6]

Outside of the Low Countries, it is the native languageof the majority of the population of Suriname, and alsoholds official status in the Caribbean island nations ofAruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten. Historical minoritieson the verge of extinction remain in parts of France[7]and Germany, and in Indonesia,[n 1] while up to half amillion native speakers may reside in the United States,Canada and Australia combined.[n 2] The Cape Dutch di-alects of Southern Africa have evolved into Afrikaans, amutually intelligible daughter language[n 3] which is spo-ken to some degree by at least 16 million people, mainlyin South Africa and Namibia.[n 4]

Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German andEnglish[n 5] and is said to be roughly in between them.[n 6]Dutch, like English, has not undergone the High Ger-man consonant shift, does not use Germanic umlaut as agrammatical marker, has largely abandoned the use of thesubjunctive, and has levelled much of its morphology, in-cluding the case system.[n 7] Features shared with Germaninclude the survival of three grammatical genders—albeitwith few grammatical consequences[n 8]—as well as theuse of modal particles,[8] final-obstruent devoicing, and asimilar word order.[n 9] Dutch vocabulary is mostly Ger-manic and incorporates more Romance loans than Ger-man but fewer than English.[n 10]

1 Name

Main article: Names for the Dutch language

While Dutch generally refers to the language as a whole,Belgian varieties are sometimes collectively referred toas Flemish. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the na-tive official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialectshave their own names, e.g. Hollands “Hollandish”,West-Vlaams “Western Flemish”, Brabants “Brabantian”.[9]The use of the word Vlaams (“Flemish”) to describeStandard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flandersand used there, however, is common in the Netherlands

and Belgium.[10]

The Dutch language has been known under a variety ofnames. In Middle Dutch, which was a collection of di-alects, dietsc was used in Flanders and Brabant, while di-ets or duutsc was in use in the Northern Netherlands.[11]It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one ofthe first names ever used for the non-Romance languagesof Western Europe, meaning (pertaining to the language)of the people, that is, the native Germanic language. Theterm was used as opposed to Latin, the non-native lan-guage of writing and the Catholic Church.[12] In the firsttext in which it is found, dating from 784, it refers to theGermanic dialects of Britain.[13] In the Oaths of Stras-bourg (842) it appeared as teudisca to refer to the Ger-manic (Rhenish Franconian) portion of the oath.Until roughly the 16th century, speakers of all the vari-eties of the West Germanic languages from the mouthof the Rhine to the Alps had been accustomed to refer totheir native speech asDietsch, (Neder)duyts or some othercognate of theudisk. This let inevitably to confusion sincesimilar terms referred to different languages. Therefore,in the 16th century, a differentiation took place. Owingto Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusivelyto the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch,which is a West Central German variety calledDeitsch byits speakers. Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spokenuntil the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole.In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - althoughPlatdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian dialects in the north-east of Belgium. Neder-lands, the official Dutch word for “Dutch”, did not be-come firmly established until the 19th century. This des-ignation had been in use as far back as the end of the15th century, but received competition from the morepopular terminology Nederduits, “Low Dutch”, for sev-eral reasons. One of them was it reflected a distinctionwithHoogduits, “HighDutch”, meaning the language spo-ken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus,Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the Germanlanguage.The term Nederduits, however introduced new confu-sion, since the non standardised dialects spoken in thenorth of Germany came to be known as Niederdeutschas well, and thus the Duits reference in the name wasdropped, leading to Nederlands as designation to referto the Dutch language. The repeated use of Neder (or“low”) to refer to the Dutch language is a reference to

1

2 2 HISTORY

the Netherlands’ downriver location at the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta near the North Sea, harking back to Latinnomenclature, e.g. Germania Inferior.[14][15][16] See also:Netherlands (toponymy).

2 History

Main article: History of the Dutch language

Three Germanic dialects were originally spoken in theLowCountries: Frisian in the north and along the westerncoast; Saxon in the east (contiguous with the Low Ger-man area); and Franconian in the centre and south. It isthe Franconian dialects that is designated as Old Dutch,and that would develop in Middle Dutch and later Mod-ern Dutch. The division in these development phases ismostly conventional, since the transition between themwas very gradual. One of the few moments linguistscan detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutchstandard language emerged and quickly established itself.The development of the Dutch language is illustrated bythe following sentence in Old, Middle andModernDutch:

• Irlôsin sol an frithe sêla mîna fan thên thia ginâ-cont mi, wanda under managon he was mit mi (OldDutch)

• Erlossen sal [hi] in vrede siele mine van dien diegenaken mi, want onder menegen hi was met mi(Middle Dutch)

• Verlossen zal hij in vrede ziel mijn van degenen die[te] na komen mij, want onder menigen hij was metmij (Modern Dutch, same word order)

• Hij zal mijn ziel in vrede verlossen van degenen diemij te na komen, want onder menigen was hij metmij (Modern Dutch, default word order)[17]

• He will deliver my soul in peace from those who at-tack me, because, amongst many, he was with me(English)[18]

2.1 Origin

Within the Indo-European language tree, Dutch isgrouped within the Germanic languages, which means itshares a common ancestor with languages such as En-glish, German, and Scandinavian languages. All Ger-manic languages are united by subjection to the soundshifts of Grimm’s law and Verner’s law which originatedin the Proto-Germanic language and define the basicdifferentiating features from other Indo-European lan-guages. This assumed to have originated in approxi-mately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-RomanIron Age in Northern Europe.[19]

Map of the Pre-Roman Iron Age culture(s) associated with Proto-Germanic, ca 500–50 BCE. The area south of Scandinavia is theJastorf culture.

The distribution of the primary Germanic languages in Europein around AD 1:North GermanicNorth Sea Germanic, or IngvaeonicWeser-Rhine Germanic, or IstvaeonicElbe Germanic, or IrminonicEast Germanic

The Germanic languages are traditionally divided intothree groups: West, East and North Germanic.[20] Theyremained mutually intelligible throughout the MigrationPeriod. Dutch is together with English and German partof the West Germanic group, that is characterized by anumber of phonological and morphological innovationsnot found in North and East Germanic.[21] The WestGermanic varieties of the time are generally split intothree dialect groups: Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic),Istvaeonic (Weser-Rhine Germanic) and Irminonic (Elbe

2.4 Middle Dutch 3

Germanic). It appears that the Frankish tribes fit pri-marily into the Istvaeonic dialect group with certain In-gvaeonic influences towards the northwest, still seen inmodern Dutch.

2.2 Frankish

Main article: Frankish language

A Frankish identity emerged and so did their Frankishor Franconian language. The language itself is poorly at-tested. A notable exception is the Bergakker inscription,found near the Dutch city of Tiel, which may represent aprimary record of 5th-century Frankish. Although someplacenames recorded in Roman texts could arguably beconsidered as the oldest “Dutch” single words, like vadam(modern Dutch: wad, English: “mudflat”), the Bergakkerinscription yields the oldest evidence of Dutch morphol-ogy, but there is no consensus on the interpretation of therest of the text.[22]

The Franks emerged in the southern Netherlands (SalianFranks) and central Germany (Ripuarian Franks), andlater descended into Gaul where they gave their name toit: France. Although they ruled the Gallo-Romans fornearly 300 years, their language, Frankish, went extinctin most of France and also in all of Germany in aroundthe 7th century. It was replaced in France by Old French(a Romance language with a considerable Old Frankishinfluence), and in Germany mostly by Alemannic Ger-man.However, the Old Franconian language did not die outcompletely. Around the same time as it begins to declinein France and Germany it remained in the LowCountries,and evolved into what we know call Old Low Franconian,also known as Old Dutch. in fact, Old Frankish couldmostly be reconstructed from Old Dutch and Frankishloanwords in Old French.

2.3 Old Dutch

Main article: Old DutchOld Low Franconian or Old Dutch is regarded as theprimary stage in the development of a separate Dutchlanguage. The “Low” in Old Low Franconian refers tothe Frankish spoken in the Low Countries where it wasnot influenced by the High German consonant shift, asopposed to Central and High Franconian in Germany.The latter would as a consequence evolve with Allemanicinto Old High German. At more or less the same timethe Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law led to the developmentof Old Saxon, Old Frisian (Anglo-Frisian) and Old En-glish (Anglo-Saxon). Hardly influenced by either devel-opment, Old Dutch remained close to the original lan-guage of the Franks, the people that would rule Europefor centuries. The language however, did experienced de-

Area in which Old Dutch was spoken

velopments on its own, like final-obstruent devoicing ina very early stage. In fact, by judging from the find atBergakker, it would seem that the language already ex-perienced this characteristic during the Old Frankish pe-riod.Attestations of Old Dutch sentences are extremely rare.The oldest one first recorded has been found in the Saliclaw. From this Frankish document written around 510the oldest sentence has been identified as Dutch: Malthothi afrio lito (I say to you, I free you, serf) used to freea serf. Another old fragment of Dutch is Visc flot af-tar themo uuatare (A fish was swimming in the water).The oldest conserved larger Dutch text is the Utrecht bap-tismal vow (776-800) starting with Forsachistu diobolae[...] ec forsacho diabolae (Do you forsake the devil? [...]I forsake the devil). Probably the most famous sentenceHebban olla vogala nestas hagunnan, hinase hic enda tu,wat unbidan we nu (All birds have started making nests,except me and you, what are we waiting for), is datedaround the year 1100, written by a Flemish monk in aconvent in Rochester, England.

The Utrecht baptismal vow Forsachistu diobolae...

2.4 Middle Dutch

Main article: Middle Dutch

4 3 CLASSIFICATION

Old Dutch naturally evolved intoMiddle Dutch. The year1150 is often cited as the time of the discontinuity, butit actually marks a time of profuse Dutch writing andduring this period a rich Medieval Dutch literature de-veloped. There was at that time no overarching standardlanguage; Middle Dutch is rather a collective name fora number of closely related dialects whose ancestor wasOld Dutch. But they were all mutually intelligible. Infact, since Dutch is a rather conservative language, thevarious literary works of that time today are often veryreadable for modern-day speakers.The most notable difference between Old and MiddleDutch is in a feature of speech known as vowel reduc-tion. Round vowels in word-final syllables are rather fre-quent in Old Dutch, in Middle Dutch, such are leveled toa schwa.The Middle Dutch dialect areas were affected by polit-ical boundaries. The sphere of political influence of acertain ruler often also created a sphere of linguistic in-fluence, with the language within the area becomingmorehomogenous. Following the contemporary political divi-sions they are in order of importance:

• Flemish with the County of Flanders at its centre. Ithad been influential during the earlier Middle Ages(the “Flemish expansion”) but lost prestige to theneighbouring Brabantian in the 13th century.

• Brabantian, spoken primarily in the Duchy of Bra-bant and adjacent parts. It was an influential di-alect during most of the Middle Ages, during theso-called “Brabantian expansion” in which the influ-ence of Brabant was extended outwards into otherareas.

• Hollandic, which had the County of Holland as itsheartland, where originally Old Frisian was spoken.The people mixed with Frankish settlers from Flan-ders and Brabant and a new Frankish dialect with aFrisian substrate was created. It was less influentialduring most of the Middle Ages but became moreso in the 16th century during the “Hollandic expan-sion”, in the time the Eighty Years’ War took placein the Southern Netherlands.

• Limburgish, spoken by the people in the modern-day provinces of Dutch and Belgian Limburg, andadjacent lands in Germany. It was over time tied todifferent political areas and is therefor the most di-vergent of the dialects. It was even partly influencedby the High German consonant shift and is the mostdistant to the later developed standard language towhich it contributed little. It was however the ear-liest Middle Dutch dialect that developed a literarytradition.

Since it has Old Saxon and not Low Franconian (OldDutch) as ancestor, Dutch Low Saxon is strictly speak-ing not an Middle Dutch dialect. It was spoken in

the Oversticht territories of the episcopal principality ofUtrecht and adjacent parts of Guelders. It did play a mod-est part in the formation of the standard Dutch languagein later periods.

2.5 Modern Dutch

A process of standardisation started in the Middle Ages,especially under the influence of the Burgundian DucalCourt in Dijon (Brussels after 1477). The dialects ofFlanders and Brabant were the most influential aroundthis time. The process of standardisation became muchstronger at the start of the 16th century, mainly basedon the urban dialect of Antwerp. In 1585 Antwerp fellto the Spanish army: many fled to the Northern Nether-lands, where the Dutch Republic declared its indepen-dence from Spain. They particularly influenced the ur-ban dialects of the province of County of Holland. In1637, a further important step was made towards a uni-fied language,[23] when the Statenvertaling, the first majorBible translation into Dutch, was created that people fromall over the new republic could understand. It used ele-ments from various, even Dutch Low Saxon, dialects butwas predominantly based on the urban dialects of Hol-land of post 16th century.[24]

In the Southern Netherlands (now Belgium andLuxembourg), developments were different. Undersubsequent Spanish, Austrian and French rule, the stan-dardisation of Dutch language came to a standstill. Thestate, law, and increasingly education used French, yetmore than half the Belgian population were speaking avariety of Dutch. In the course of the nineteenth centurythe Flemish Movement stood up for the rights of Dutchspeakers, mostly which were referred to as “Flemish”.However, the dialect variation was a serious disadvantagein the face of the unified face of francophonie. Sincestandardisation is a lengthy process, Dutch-speakingBelgium associated itself with the standard languagethat had already developed in the Netherlands over thecenturies. Therefore, the situation in Belgium is essen-tially no different from that in the Netherlands, althoughthere are recognisable differences in pronunciation,comparable to the pronunciation differences betweenstandard British and standard American English. In 1980the Netherlands and Belgium concluded the LanguageUnion Treaty. This treaty lays down the principle thatthe two countries must gear their language policy toeach other, among other things, for a common system ofspelling.

3 Classification

• Indo-European languages

• Germanic• West Germanic

4.1 First dichotomy 5

The simplified relation between the West Germanic languages.

• Low Franconian• Dutch• Afrikaans, Dutch-based creoles

Dutch belongs to its own West Germanic sub-group, theLow Franconian languages, paired with its sister languageLimburgish or East Low Franconian. Its closest relativeis the mutually-intelligible daughter language, Afrikaans.Other West Germanic languages related to Dutch areGerman, English and the Frisian languages and the un-standardised languages Low German and Yiddish.Dutch stands out in combining a some Ingvaeonic charac-teristics (occurring consistently in English and Frisian andreduced in intensity from west to east over the continentalWest Germanic plane) with dominant Istvaeonic charac-teristics, of which some of them are also incorporatedin German. Unlike German, Dutch (apart from Lim-burgish) has not been influenced at all by the south tonorth movement of the High German sound shift andhad some changes of its own.[25] The cumulation of thesechanges resulted over time in separate, but related stan-dard languages with various degrees of similarities anddifferences between them. For a comparison between theWest Germanic languages, see the sections Morphology,Grammar and Vocabulary.

4 Dialects

Main article: Dutch dialects

Dutch dialects are primarily the dialects that are bothcognate with the Dutch language and are spoken in thesame language area as the Dutch standard language.Dutch dialects are remarkably diverse and are found inthe Netherlands and northern Belgium.The province of Friesland is bilingual. The West Frisianlanguage, distinct from Dutch, is spoken here along withstandard Dutch and the Stadsfries dialect. A (West)Frisian standard language has also been developed.

Dutch Low Saxon in the Netherlands

4.1 First dichotomy

Main article: Dutch Low Saxon

In the east there is a Dutch Low Saxon dialect area,comprising the provinces of Groningen, Drenthe andOverijssel, and parts of the province of Gelderland aswell. The IJssel roughly forms the linguistic watershedhere. This group, which is not Low Franconian but in-stead close to neighbouring Low German, is regardedas Dutch for a number of reasons. From the 14th to15th century onward, its urban centers (Deventer, Zwolle,Kampen, Zutphen and Doesburg) have been increasinglyinfluenced by the western writtenDutch and became a lin-guistically mixed area. From the 17th century onward, itwas gradually integrated into the Dutch language area.[26]

Dutch Low Saxon used to be at one end of the Low Ger-man dialect continuum. However, the national border hasgiven way to dialect boundaries coinciding with a polit-ical border, because the traditional dialects are stronglyinfluenced by the national standard varieties.[27] Cross-the-border dialects now separated by a plain gap also in-clude South Guelderish and Limburgish on the Dutch sideof the border and Meuse-Rhenish on the German side ofthe border.[28]

4.2 Extension across the borders

• Gronings, spoken in Groningen (Netherlands), aswell as the closely related varieties in adjacent EastFrisia (Germany), has been influenced by the Frisianlanguage and takes a special position within the LowSaxon Language.

6 4 DIALECTS

• South Guelderish (Zuid-Gelders) is a dialect spokenin Gelderland (Netherlands) and in adjacent parts ofNorth Rhine-Westphalia (Germany).

• Brabantian (Brabants) is a dialect spoken inAntwerp, Flemish Brabant (Belgium) and NorthBrabant (Netherlands).

• Limburgish (Limburgs) is spoken in Limburg (Bel-gium) as well as in Limburg (Netherlands) and ex-tends across the German border.

• West Flemish (Westvlaams) is spoken in West Flan-ders (Belgium), the western part of Zeelandic Flan-ders (Netherlands) and historically also in FrenchFlanders (France).

• East Flemish (Oostvlaams) is spoken in East Flan-ders (Belgium) and the eastern part of ZeelandicFlanders (Netherlands).

4.3 Holland and the Randstad

In Holland, Hollandic is spoken, though the originalforms of this dialect (which were heavily influenced bya Frisian substratum and, from the 16th century on, byBrabantian dialects) are now relatively rare. The urbandialects of the Randstad, which are Hollandic dialects, donot diverge from standard Dutch very much, but there isa clear difference between the city dialects of Rotterdam,The Hague, Amsterdam or Utrecht.In some rural Hollandic areas more authentic Hollandicdialects are still being used, especially north of Amster-dam. Another group of dialects based onHollandic is thatspoken in the cities and larger towns of Friesland, whereit partially displaced West Frisian in the 16th century andis known as Stadsfries (“Urban Frisian”).

4.4 Minority languages

Limburgish has the status of official regional language(or streektaal) in the Netherlands and Germany (but notin Belgium). It receives protection by chapter 2 of theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.Limburgish has been influenced by the Rhinelandic vari-eties like the Colognian dialect, and has had a somewhatdifferent development since the late Middle Ages.Dutch Low Saxon has also been elevated by the Nether-lands (and by Germany) to the legal status of streektaal(regional language) according to the European Charterfor Regional or Minority Languages.Gronings is verymuch alive in the province of Groningen,although it is not so popular in the city of the same name.The West Flemish (Vlaemsch) dialect is listed as a mi-nority language in France, however only a very smalland aging minority of the French-Flemish population stillspeaks and understands West Flemish.

Dutch dialects and their peripheries to the West (French Flemish)and to the East (Meuse-Rhenish)

Belgium didn't choose to list any dialect as a minority lan-

4.7 Sister and daughter languages 7

guage, because of the already complicated language situ-ation that appears in the country.

4.5 Recent use

Dutch dialects and regional languages are not spokenas often as they used to be. Recent research by GeertDriessen shows that the use of dialects and regional lan-guages among both Dutch adults and youth is in heavy de-cline. In 1995, 27 percent of the Dutch adult populationspoke a dialect or regional language on a regular basis,while in 2011 this was no more than 11 percent. In 1995,12 percent of the primary school aged children spoke adialect or regional language, while in 2011 this had de-clined to 4 percent. Of the three officially recognizedregional languages Limburgish is spoken most (in 2011among adults 54%, among children 31%) and Dutch LowSaxon least (adults 15%, children 1%); Frisian occupiesa middle position (adults 44%, children 22%).

4.6 Flanders

In Flanders, there are four main dialect groups:Brabantian, including the dialects of Antwerp andBrussels, West Flemish, including French Flemish, EastFlemish and Limburgish.The different dialects show many sound shifts in dif-ferent vowels (even shifting between diphthongs andmonophthongs), and in some cases consonants also shiftpronunciation. For example, an oddity of West Flem-ings (and to a lesser extent, East Flemings) is that, thevoiced velar fricative (written as “g” in Dutch) shifts toa voiced glottal fricative (written as “h” in Dutch), whilethe letter “h” in West Flemish becomes mute (just likein French). As a result, when West Flemish try to talkStandard Dutch, they're often unable to pronounce theg-sound, and pronounce it similar to the h-sound. Thisleaves f.e. no difference between “held” (hero) and “geld”(money). Or in some cases, they are aware of the prob-lem, and hyper-correct the “h” into a voiced velar fricativeor g-sound, again leaving no difference.Next to sound shifts, there are ample examples of suf-fix differences. Often simple suffix shifts (like switchingbetween -the, -ske, -ke, -je, ...), sometimes the suffixeseven depend on quite specific grammar rules for a cer-tain dialect. Again taking West Flemish as an example.In that language, the words “ja” (yes) and “nee” (no) arealso conjugated to the (often implicit) subject of the sen-tence. These separate grammar rules are a lot more diffi-cult to imitate correctly than simple sound shifts, makingit easy to recognise people who didn't grow up in a certainregion, even decades after they moved.Dialects are most often spoken in rural areas, however,a lot of cities have a distinct city dialect. For exam-ple, the city of Ghent has very distinct “g”, “e” and “r”

sounds, differing a lot from the surrounding villages. TheBrussels dialect combines Brabantian with words adoptedfrom Walloon and French.Some Flemish dialects are so distinct that they might beconsidered as separate language variants, although thestrong significance of language in Belgian politics wouldprevent the government from classifying them as such.West Flemish in particular has sometimes been consid-ered a distinct variety. Dialect borders of these dialectsdo not correspond to present political boundaries, but re-flect older, medieval divisions. The Brabantian dialectgroup, for instance, also extends to much of the south ofthe Netherlands, and so does Limburgish. West Flemishis also spoken in Zeelandic Flanders (part of the Dutchprovince of Zeeland), and by older people in French Flan-ders (a small area that borders Belgium).

4.7 Sister and daughter languages

Many native Dutch-speakers, be they in Belgium or theNetherlands, assume that Afrikaans and West Frisian areDutch dialects, but they are in fact separate and distinctfrom Dutch: a daughter language and a sister language,respectively. Afrikaans evolved mainly from 17th cen-tury Dutch dialects, but was influenced by various otherlanguages in South Africa. However, it is still largelymutually intelligible with Dutch. West Frisian evolvedfrom the sameWest Germanic branch as Old English (i.e.Anglo-Frisian) and is therefore more closely related toEnglish than to Dutch.

5 Geographic distribution

See also: Dutch diaspora

Dutch is an official language of the Netherlands proper,Belgium, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles: Aruba,Curaçao and Sint Maarten. Dutch is also an official lan-guage of several international organisations, such as theEuropean Union, Union of South American Nations [30]

and the Caribbean Community. At an academic level,Dutch is taught in about 175 universities in 40 coun-tries. About 15,000 students worldwide study Dutch atuniversity.[31]

5.1 Europe

In Europe, Dutch is the majority language in the Nether-lands (96%) and Belgium (59%) as well as a minoritylanguage in Germany and northern France's French Flan-ders, where it is in the ultimate stage of language death.Though Belgium as a whole is multilingual, the two re-gions into which the country is divided (Flanders, fran-cophone Wallonia, bilingual Brussels and small 'facility'

8 5 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

zones) are largelymonolingual. TheNetherlands and Bel-gium produce the vast majority of music, films, booksand other media written or spoken in Dutch.[32] Dutch isa monocentric language, with all speakers using the samestandard form (authorized by the Dutch Language Union)based on a Dutch orthography employing the Latin alpha-bet when writing. In stark contrast to its written unifor-mity, Dutch lacks a prestige dialect and has a large di-alectal continuum consisting of 28 main dialects, whichcan themselves be further divided into at least 600 distin-guishable varieties.[33][34]

Outside of the Netherlands and Belgium, the dialectaround the German town of Kleve (South Guelderish)both historically and genetically belongs to the Dutchlanguage. In Northeastern France, the area aroundCalais was historically Dutch-speaking (West Flemish)of which an estimated 20,000 daily speakers. The citiesof Dunkirk, Gravelines and Bourbourg only became pre-dominantly French-speaking by the end of the 19th cen-tury. In the countryside, untilWorldWar I, many elemen-tary schools continued to teach in Dutch, and the CatholicChurch continued to preach and teach the catechism inFlemish in many parishes.[35]

During the second half of the 19th century Dutch wasbanned from all levels of education by both Prussia andFrance and lost most of its functions as a cultural lan-guage. In both Germany and France the Dutch standardlanguage is largely absent and speakers of these Dutchdialects will use German or French in everyday speech.Dutch is not afforded legal status in France or Germany,either by the central or regional public authorities andknowledge of the language is declining among youngergenerations.[36]

As a foreign language, Dutch is mainly taught in pri-mary and secondary schools in areas adjacent to theNetherlands and Flanders. In French-speaking Belgium,over 300,000 pupils are enrolled in Dutch courses, fol-lowed by over 23,000 in the German states of LowerSaxony and North Rhine-Westphalia, and about 7,000in the French region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais (of which4,550 are in primary school).[37] At an academic level, thelargest number of faculties of neerlandistiek can be foundin Germany (30 universities), followed by France (20 uni-versities) and the United Kingdom (5 universities).[37][38]

5.2 Asia and Australasia

5.2.1 Asia

Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350years, as the Asian bulk of the Dutch East Indies, theDutch language has no official status there[39] and thesmall minority that can speak the language fluently areeither educated members of the oldest generation, or em-ployed in the legal profession,[40] as certain law codes arestill only available in Dutch.[41] Dutch is taught in var-

ious educational centres in Indonesia, the most impor-tant of which is the Erasmus Language Centre (ETC) inJakarta. Each year, some 1,500 to 2,000 students takeDutch courses there.[42] In total, several thousand Indone-sians study Dutch as a foreign language.[43] Owing to cen-turies of Dutch rule in Indonesia, many old documentsare written in Dutch. Many universities therefore in-clude Dutch as a source language, mainly for law and his-tory students.[44] In Indonesia this involves about 35,000students.[31]

Unlike other European nations, the Dutch chose not tofollow a policy of language expansion amongst the indige-nous peoples of their colonies.[45] In the last quarter ofthe 19th century, however, a local elite gained proficiencyin Dutch so as to meet the needs of expanding bureau-cracy and business.[46] Nevertheless, the Dutch govern-ment remained reluctant to teach Dutch on a large scalefor fear of destabilising the colony. Dutch, the languageof power, was supposed to remain in the hands of theleading elite.[46]

After independence, Dutch was dropped as an officiallanguage and replaced by Malay. Yet the Indonesianlanguage inherited many words from Dutch: wordsfor everyday life as well as scientific and technologi-cal terms.[47] One scholar argues that 20% of Indone-sian words can be traced back to Dutch words,[48] manyof which are transliterated to reflect phonetic pronuncia-tion e.g. kantoor “office” in Indonesian is kantor, whilebus “bus” becomes bis. In addition, many Indonesianwords are calques of Dutch; for example, rumah sakit“hospital” is calqued on the Dutch ziekenhuis (literally“sickhouse”), kebun binatang “zoo” on dierentuin (liter-ally “animal garden”), undang-undang dasar “constitu-tion” from grondwet (literally “ground law”). These ac-count for some of the differences in vocabulary betweenIndonesian and Malay.

5.2.2 Australasia

After the declaration of independence of Indonesia,Western New Guinea, the 'wild east' of the Dutch EastIndies, remained a Dutch colony until 1962, known asNetherlands New Guinea.[49] Despite prolonged Dutchpresence, the Dutch language is not spoken by manyPapuans, the colony having been ceded to Indonesia in1963.Immigrant communities can be found in Australia andNew Zealand. The 2006 Australian census showed36,179 people speaking Dutch at home.[50] At the 2006New Zealand Census, 26,982 people, or 0.70 percent ofthe total population, reported to speak Dutch to sufficientfluency that they could hold an everyday conversation.[51]

5.4 Africa 9

The location of Suriname in South America

The location of the Dutch Caribbean in the southern Caribbean

5.3 Americas

In contrast to the colonies in the East Indies, from thesecond half of the 19th century onwards, the Nether-lands envisaged expansion of Dutch in its colonies inthe West Indies. Until 1863, when slavery was abol-ished in the West Indies, slaves were forbidden to speakDutch. However, as most of the people in the Colony ofSurinam (now Suriname) worked on Dutch plantations,this reinforced the use of Dutch as a means for directcommunication.[46][52]

In Suriname today, Dutch is the sole official language,[53]and over 60 percent of the population speaks it as amother tongue.[5] Dutch is the obligatory medium ofinstruction in schools in Suriname, even for non-nativespeakers.[54] A further twenty-four percent of the popu-lation speaks Dutch as a second language.[55] Surinamegained its independence from the Netherlands in 1975and has been an associate member of the Dutch Lan-guage Union since 2004.[56] The lingua franca of Suri-name, however, is Sranan Tongo,[57] spoken natively byabout a fifth of the population.[32][58]

In Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, all parts of theKingdom of the Netherlands, Dutch is the official lan-guage but spoken as a first language by only 7% to 8%of the population,[59] although most native-born peopleon the islands can speak the language since the educationsystem is in Dutch at some or all levels.In the United States, an almost extinct dialect of Dutch,Jersey Dutch, spoken by descendants of 17th-centuryDutch settlers in Bergen and Passaic counties, was stillspoken as late as 1921.[60] Other Dutch-based creole lan-guages once spoken in the Americas include MohawkDutch (in Albany, New York), Berbice (in Guyana),

Skepi (in Essequibo, Guyana) and Negerhollands (in theUnited States Virgin Islands). Pennsylvania Dutch is nota member of the set of Dutch dialects and is less mislead-ingly called Pennsylvania German.[61]

Martin Van Buren, the eighth President of the UnitedStates, spoke Dutch as his first language and is the onlyU.S. President to have spoken a language other than En-glish as his first language. Dutch prevailed for many gen-erations as the dominant language in parts of New Yorkalong the Hudson River. Another famous American bornin this region who spoke Dutch as a first language wasSojourner Truth.According to the 2000 United States census, 150,396people spoke Dutch at home,[62] while according to the2006 Canadian census, this number reaches 160,000Dutch speakers.[63] At academic level, 20 universities of-fer Dutch studies in the United States.[37][38] In Canada,Dutch is the fourth most spoken language by farm-ers, after English, French and German,[64] and the fifthmost spoken non-official language overall (by 0.6% ofCanadians).[65]

5.4 Africa

Main article: AfrikaansThe largest legacy of the Dutch language lies in South

The distribution of Afrikaans across South Africa: proportion ofthe population speaking Afrikaans in the home

Africa, which attracted large numbers of Dutch, Flemishand other northwest European farmer (in Dutch, boer)settlers, all of whom were quickly assimilated.[66] Thelong isolation from the rest of the Dutch-speaking worldmade the Dutch as spoken in Southern Africa evolve intowhat is now Afrikaans.[67] In 1876, the first Afrikaansnewspaper called Die Afrikaanse Patriot was published inthe Cape Colony.[68]

European Dutch remained the literary language[67] untilthe start of the 1920s, when under pressure of Afrikaner

10 6 PHONOLOGY

nationalism the local “African” Dutch was preferred overthe written, European-based standard.[66] In 1925, sec-tion 137 of the 1909 constitution of the Union of SouthAfrica was amended by Act 8 of 1925, stating “the wordDutch in article 137 [...] is hereby declared to includeAfrikaans”.[69][70] The constitution of 1983 only listedEnglish and Afrikaans as official languages. It is esti-mated that between 90% to 95% of Afrikaans vocabularyis ultimately of Dutch origin.[71][72]

Both languages are still largely mutually intelligible, al-though this relation can in some fields (such as lexicon,spelling and grammar) be asymmetric, as it is easier forDutch speakers to understand written Afrikaans than it isfor Afrikaans speakers to understand written Dutch.[73]Afrikaans is grammatically far less complex than Dutch,and vocabulary items are generally altered in a clearly pat-terned manner, e.g. vogel becomes voël (“bird”) and re-gen becomes reën (“rain”).[74] In South Africa, the num-ber of students following Dutch at university, is difficultto estimate, since the academic study of Afrikaans in-evitably includes the study of Dutch.[31] Elsewhere in theworld, the number of people learning Dutch is relativelysmall.See also: Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch

It is the third language of South Africa in terms ofnative speakers (~13.5%),[75] of whom 53 percent areColoureds and 42.4 percent Whites.[76] In 1996, 40 per-cent of South Africans reported to know Afrikaans atleast at a very basic level of communication.[77] It is thelingua franca in Namibia,[66][78][79] where it is spoken na-tively in 11 percent of households.[80] In total, Afrikaansis the first language in South Africa alone of about 6.8million people[75] and is estimated to be a second lan-guage for at least 10 million people worldwide,[81] com-pared to over 23 million[5] and 5 million respectively, forDutch.[2]

Dutch colonial presence elsewhere on the black continent,notably Dutch Gold Coast, was too ephemerous not to bewiped out by prevailing colonizing European successors.Belgian colonial presence in Congo and Rwanda-Urundi(Burundi and Rwanda, held under League of Nationsmandate and later UN trust) left little (Flemish) Dutchlegacy, as French was the main colonial language.

6 Phonology

Main article: Dutch phonology

For further details on different realisations of phonemes,dialectal differences and example words, see the full ar-ticle at Dutch phonology.

6.1 Consonants

Unlike other Germanic languages, Dutch doesn't havephonological aspiration of consonants.[82] Like English,Dutch did not participate in the second consonant shift.Like most Germanic languages, the Dutch consonant sys-tem did not undergo the High German consonant shiftand has a syllable structure that allows fairly complexconsonant clusters. Dutch also retains full use of the velarfricatives that were present in Proto-Germanic, but lostor modified in many other Germanic languages. Dutchhas final-obstruent devoicing: at the end of a word,voicing distinction is neutralised and all obstruents arepronounced voiceless. For example, goede (“good”) is/ˈɣudə/ but the related form goed is /ɣut/. Dutch shareswith German Final-obstruent devoicing (Du brood [broːt]and German Brot vs Eng bread).Voicing of pre-vocalic initial voiceless alveolar fricativesoccurs, although less in Dutch than in German (Du zeven,Germ sieben [z] vs. Eng seven and LG seven [s]), and alsothe shift in /θ/ > /d/. Dutch shares only with LowGermanthe development of /xs/ > /ss/ (Du vossen, ossen and LGVösse, Ossen vs. Germ Füchse, Ochsen and Eng foxes,oxen), and also the development of /ft/ → /xt/ though it isfar more common in Dutch (Du zacht and LG sacht vs.Germ sanft and Eng soft, but Du kracht vs. LG/Germkraft and Eng cognate craft).Notes:

• [ʔ] is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but is in-serted before vowel-initial syllables within words af-ter /a/ and /ə/ and often also at the beginning of aword.

• The realization of /r/ phoneme varies considerablyfrom dialect to dialect and even between speakersin the same dialect area. Common realisations arean alveolar trill [r], alveolar tap [ɾ], uvular trill [ʀ],voiced uvular fricative [ʁ], and alveolar approximant[ɹ].

• The realization of /ʋ/ also varies somewhat by areaand speaker. The main realisation is a labioden-tal approximant [ʋ], but some speakers, particularlyin the south, use a bilabial approximant [β̞] or alabiovelar approximant [w].

• The lateral /l/ is slightly velarized postvocalically inmost dialects, particularly in the north.[83]

• /x/ and /ɣ/ may be true velars [x] and [ɣ], uvular [χ]and [ʁ] or palatal [ç] and [ʝ]. The more palatal reali-sations are common in southern areas, while uvularsare common in the north.

• Some northern dialects have a tendency to devoiceall fricatives regardless of environment. This is par-ticularly common with /ɣ/ but can affect others aswell.

6.4 Phonotactics 11

• /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are not native phonemes of Dutch, andusually occur in borrowed words, like show andbagage ('baggage').

• /a/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occursin borrowed words, like garçon.

6.2 Vowels

Like English, Dutch did not develop i-mutation as a mor-phological marker and shares with most Germanic lan-guages the lengthening of short vowels in stressed opensyllables, which has led to contrastive vowel length thatis used as a morphological marker. Dutch has an exten-sive vowel inventory. Vowels can be grouped as backrounded, front unrounded and front rounded. They arealso traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness.Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive fea-ture in Dutch phonology, because it normally co-occurswith changes in vowel quality. One feature or the othermay be considered redundant, and some phonemic anal-yses prefer to treat it as an opposition of tenseness. How-ever, even if not considered part of the phonemic oppo-sition, the long/tense vowels are still realised as phonet-ically longer than their short counterparts. The changesin vowel quality are also not always the same in all di-alects, and in some there may be little difference at all,with length remaining the primary distinguishing feature.And while it is true that older words always pair vowellength with a change in vowel quality, new loanwords havereintroduced phonemic oppositions of length. Comparezonne(n) [ˈzɔnə] (“suns”) versus zone [ˈzɔːnə] (“zone”)versus zonen [ˈzoːnə(n)] (“sons”), or kroes [krus] (“mug”)versus cruise [kruːs] (“cruise”).Notes:

• The distinction between /i y u/ and /iː yː uː/ is onlyslight, and may be considered allophonic for mostpurposes. However, some recent loanwords haveintroduced distinctively long /iː yː uː/, making thelength distinction marginally phonemic.

• The long close-mid vowels /eː øː oː/ are realised asslightly closing diphthongs [eɪ øʏ oʊ] in many north-ern dialects.

• The long open-mid vowels /ɛː œː ɔː/ only occur in ahandful of loanwords, mostly from French.

• The long close and close-mid vowels are often pro-nounced more closed or as centering diphthongs be-fore an /r/ in the syllable coda. This may occur be-fore coda /l/ as well.

6.3 Diphthongs

See also: IJ (digraph)

Unique to the development of Dutch is the collaps ofolder ol/ul/al + dental into ol + dental, followed by vo-calisation of pre-consonantal /l/ and after a short vowel,creating the diphthong /ɑu/ e.g., Dutch goud, zout andbout corresponds with LowGermanGold, Solt, Bolt; Ger-man Gold, Salz, Balt and English gold, salt, bold. This isthe most common diphthong along with /ɛi œy/. All threeare commonly the only ones considered unique phonemesin Dutch. The tendency for native English speakers is topronounce Dutch names with /ɛi/ (written as ij or ei) as/aɪ/, (like the English vowel y) which does not normallylead to confusion among native listeners, since in a num-ber of dialects (e.g. in Amsterdam[84]) the same pronun-ciation is heard.In contrast, /ɑi/ and /ɔi/ are rare in Dutch, and occur onlyin some words. The “long/tense” diphthongs, while theyare indeed realised as proper diphthongs, are generallyanalysed phonemically as a long/tense vowel followed bya glide /j/ or /ʋ/. All diphthongs end in a close vowel (/iy u/). They are grouped here by their first element.

6.4 Phonotactics

The syllable structure of Dutch is(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Many words, as in En-glish, begin with three consonants; for example, straat/straːt/ (street). There are words that end in four conso-nants, e.g., herfst /ɦɛrfst/ 'autumn', ergst /ɛrxst/ 'worst',interessantst 'most interesting', sterkst /stɛrkst/ 'strongest',the last three of which are superlative adjectives.The highest number of consonants in a single cluster isfound in the word slechtstschrijvend /ˈslɛxtstˌsxrɛiv̯ənt/'writing worst' with 7 consonant phonemes. Similar isangstschreeuw /ˈɑŋstsxreːu̯/ “scream in fear”, with sixin a row.

6.5 Polder Dutch

A notable change in pronunciation has been occurring inyounger generations in the provinces of Utrecht, Northand South Holland, which has been dubbed “PolderDutch” by Jan Stroop.[85] These speakers pronounce⟨ij/ei⟩, ⟨ou/au⟩, and ⟨ui⟩, which used be pronounced as/ɛi/, /ʌu/, and /œy/, increasingly lowered, as [ai], [au],and [ay] respectively. Instead, /eː/, /oː/, and /øː/ are pro-nounced as diphthongs now, as [ɛi], [ɔu], and [œy] re-spectively, whichmakes this change an instance of a chainshift.This change is interesting from a sociolinguistic point ofview because it has apparently happened relatively re-cently, in the 1970s, and was pioneered by older well-educated women from the upper middle classes.[86] Thelowering of the diphthongs has long been current in manyDutch dialects, and is comparable to the English GreatVowel Shift, and the diphthongisation of long high vowels

12 7 GRAMMAR

in Modern High German, which centuries earlier reachedthe state now found in Polder Dutch. Stroop theorizes thatthe lowering of open-mid to open diphthongs is a pho-netically “natural” and inevitable development and thatDutch, after having diphthongised the long high vowelslikeGerman and English, “should” have lowered the diph-thongs like German and English as well.Instead, he argues, this development has been artificiallyfrozen in an “intermediate” state by the standardisation ofDutch pronunciation in the 16th century, where lowereddiphthongs found in rural dialects were perceived as uglyby the educated classes and accordingly declared substan-dard. Now, however, in his opinion, the newly affluentand independent women can afford to let that natural de-velopment take place in their speech. Stroop comparesthe role of Polder Dutch with the urban variety of BritishEnglish pronunciation called Estuary English.Among Belgian and Surinamese Dutch speakers andspeakers from other regions in the Netherlands, this vowelshift is not taking place.

7 Grammar

Main article: Dutch grammarSee also: DT-Manie

Dutch is grammatically similar to German, such asin syntax and verb morphology (for a comparison ofverb morphology in English, Dutch and German, seeGermanic weak verb and Germanic strong verb). Dutchhas grammatical cases, but these are now mostly limitedto pronouns and a large number of set phrases. Inflectedforms of the articles are also often found in surnames andtoponyms.Standard Dutch uses three genders to differentiate be-tween natural gender and three when discerning gram-matical gender. But for most non-Belgian speakers, themasculine and feminine genders have merged to form thecommon gender (de), while the neuter (het) remains dis-tinct as before. This gender system is similar to those ofmost Continental Scandinavian languages. As in English,but to a lesser degree, the inflectional grammar of the lan-guage (e.g., adjective and noun endings) has simplifiedover time.

7.1 Verbs and tenses

When grouped according to their conjugational class,Dutch has fourmain verb types: weak verbs, strong verbs,irregular verbs and mixed verbs.Weak verbs are the most numerous verbs, constitutingabout 60% of all verbs. In weak verbs, the past tenseand past participle are formed with a dental suffix:

• Weak verbs with past in -de

• Weak verbs with past in -te

Strong verbs are the second most numerous verb group.Here the past tense is formed by changing the vowel of thestem. This pattern is not uniform and Dutch distinguishesbetween 7 classes of strong verbs, of which 5 have aninternal variant allowing for 12 different patterns of strongverb conjugation.Mixed verbs are verbs which have a weak past tense (-de or -te), but strong past participle (-en) or a strong pasttense (vowel change), but weak past participle.In Dutch the irregular verbs are the least numerous, butmost used verb forms.The reflexive pronoun zich (Germ sich) is used for thethird person singular in reflexive verbs. It was origi-nally borrowed from Limburgish, which is why in allother Dutch dialects (like in English) the usual reflexiveis hem/haar or z'n eigen.

7.2 Genders and cases

As in English, the case system of Dutch and thesubjunctive have largely fallen out of use, and the sys-tem has generalised the dative over the accusative casefor certain pronouns (Du me, je, Eng me, you, and LGmi, di vs. Germ mich/mir dich/dir). Dutch has also fewergrammatical genders than German (Eng: none; Du/LG:common and neuter, but not in Belgium where com-mon/masculine, feminine and neuter is in use).Modern Dutch has mostly lost its case system.[87] How-ever, certain idioms and expressions continue to includenow archaic case declensions. The article has just twoforms, de and het, more complex than English, which hasonly “the”. The use of the older inflected form den inthe dative or accusative as well as use of 'der' in the da-tive are restricted to numerous set phrases, surnames andtoponyms.In modern Dutch, the genitive articles 'des’ and 'der'are commonly used in idioms. Other usage is typicallyconsidered archaic, poetic or stylistic. In most circum-stances, the preposition 'van' is instead used, followed bythe normal definitive article 'de' or 'het'. For the idiomaticuse of the articles in the genitive, see for example:

• Masculine singular: "des duivels" (litt: of the devil)(common proverbial meaning: Seething with rage)

• Feminine singular: het woordenboek der Friese taal(the dictionary of the Frisian language)

• Neuter singular: de vrouw des huizes (the lady ofthe house)

• Plural: de voortgang der werken (the progress of(public) works)

7.3 Word order 13

In contemporary usage, the genitive case still occurs a lit-tle more often with plurals than with singulars, as the plu-ral article is 'der' for all genders and no special noun in-flectionmust be taken account of. 'Der' is commonly usedin order to avoid reduplication of 'van', e.g. het merendeelder gedichten van de auteur instead of het merendeel vande gedichten van de auteur (“the bulk of the author’s po-ems”).There are also genitive forms for the pronoun die/dat(“that [one], those [ones]"), namely diens for masculineand neuter singulars and dier for feminine singular andall plurals. Although usually avoided in common speech,these forms can be used instead of possessive pronounsto avoid confusion, these forms often occur in writing .Compare:

• Hij vertelde van zijn zoon en zijn vrouw. – He toldabout his son and his (own) wife.

• Hij vertelde van zijn zoon en diens vrouw. – He toldabout his son and the latter’s wife.

Analogically, the relative and interrogative pronoun wie(“who”) has the genitive forms wiens and wier (corre-sponding to English “whose”, but less frequent in use).Dutch also has a range of fixed expressions that makeuse of the genitive articles, which can be abbreviatedusing apostrophes. Common examples include "'s ocht-ends” (with 's as abbreviation of des; in the morning) and“desnoods” (lit: of the need, translated: if necessary).The Dutch written grammar has simplified over the past100 years: cases are now mainly used for the pronouns,such as ik (I), mij, me (me), mijn (my), wie (who), wiens(whose: masculine or neuter singular),wier (whose: fem-inine singular; masculine, feminine or neuter plural).Nouns and adjectives are not case inflected (except forthe genitive of proper nouns (names): -s, -'s or -'). In thespoken language cases and case inflections had alreadygradually disappeared from a much earlier date on (prob-ably the 15th century) as in many continental West Ger-manic dialects.Inflection of adjectives is more complicated. The adjec-tive receives no ending with indefinite neuter nouns insingular (as with een /ən/ 'a/an'), and -e in all other cases.(This was also the case in Middle English, as in “a goodeman”.) Note that fiets belongs to the masculine/femininecategory, and that water and huis are neuter.An adjective has no e if it is in the predicative: De soep iskoud.More complex inflection is still found in certain lexical-ized expressions like de heer des huizes (literally, the manof the house), etc. These are usually remnants of cases (inthis instance, the genitive case which is still used in Ger-man, cf. Der Herr des Hauses) and other inflections nolonger in general use today. In such lexicalized expres-sions remnants of strong and weak nouns can be found

too, e.g. in het jaar des Heren (Anno Domini), where "-en” is actually the genitive ending of the weak noun. Alsoin this case, German retains this feature. Though the gen-itive is widely avoided in speech.

7.3 Word order

Dutch shares with German: Word order. Dutch exhibitssubject–object–verb word order, but in main clauses theconjugated verb is moved into the second position in whatis known as verb second or V2 word order. This makesDutch word order almost identical to that of German, butoften different from English, which has subject–verb–object word order and has since lost the V2 word orderthat existed in Old English.[88]

An example sentence used in some Dutch languagecourses and textbooks is "Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden om-dat het veel te donker is", which translates into Englishword for word as "I can my pen not find because it fartoo dark is", but in standard English word order would bewritten "I cannot find my pen because it is far too dark".If the sentence is split into a main and subclause and theverbs highlighted, the logic behind the word order can beseen.Main clause: "Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden "Verbs are placed in the final position, but the conjugatedverb, in this case “kan” (can), is made the second elementof the clause.Subclause: "omdat het veel te donker is "The verb or verbs always go in the final position.In an interrogative main clause the usual word order is:conjugated verb followed by subject; other verbs in finalposition: "Kun jij je pen niet vinden?" (literally "Can youyour pen not find?") "Can't you find your pen?"In the Dutch equivalent of a wh-question the word orderis: interrogative pronoun (or expression) + conjugatedverb + subject; other verbs in final position: "Waaromkun jij je pen niet vinden?" ("Why can you your pen notfind?") "Why can't you find your pen?""In a tag question the word order is the same as in a declar-ative clause: "Jij kunt je pen niet vinden?" ("You can yourpen not find?") "You can't find your pen?""A subordinate clause does not change its word order:"Kun jij je pen niet vinden omdat het veel te donker is?"("Can you your pen not find because it far too dark is?")"Can you not find your pen because it’s too dark?""

7.4 Diminutives

See also: List of diminutives by language § Dutch

In Dutch, the diminutive is used extensively. It is thenuances of meaning expressed by the diminutive whichmake it peculiarly unique Dutch but also difficult to mas-ter for non-native speakers. It is a very productive[89] and

14 7 GRAMMAR

formed by adding one of the suffixes to the noun in ques-tion, depending on the latter’s phonological ending:

• -je for ending in -b, -c, -d, -t, -f, -g, -ch, -k, -p, -v,-x, -z or -s: neef → neefje (male cousin, nephew)

• -pje for ending in -m: boom (tree) → boompje

• -kje for ending in -ing: koning (king) → koninkje(the 'ng'-sound transforms into 'nk'), but vondeling→ vondelingetje (foundling)

• -tje for ending in -h, -j, -l, -n, -r, -w, or a vowelother than -y: zoen → zoentje (kiss). A single openvowel is doubled when adding "-tje” would changethe pronunciation: auto→ autootje (car).

• -′tje for ending in -y and for abbreviations: baby →baby'tje, cd → cd'tje, A4 → A4'tje

• -etje for ending in -b, -l, -n, -ng or -r preceded bya “short” (lax) vowel: bal → balletje (ball). Finalconsonant is doubled (except for -ng) to preserve thevowel’s shortness.

The diminutive suffixes -ke (from which -tje has de-rived by palatalization), -eke, -ske, -ie, -kie, and -pieare used in southern dialects. Some of these form partof expressions that became standard language, like eenmakkie, from gemak = ease). The form -ke is also presentin many women’s names: Janneke, Marieke, Marijke,Mieke, Meike etc.In Dutch, the diminutive is not merely restricted to nounsand exist in numerals (met z'n tweetjes, “the two ofus”), pronouns (onderonsje, “tête-à-tête”), verbal parti-cles (moetje, “shotgun marriage”), and even prepositions(toetje, “dessert”).[90] Most notable however, are thediminutive forms of adjectives and adverbs. The formertake an diminutive ending and thus functions as a noun,the latter remain adverbs and have always the diminutivewith the -s appended, e.g. adjective: groen (“green”) →noun: groentje (“rookie”); adverb: even (“just”) → ad-verb: eventjes (“just a minute”).Some nouns have two different diminutives, each witha different meaning: bloem (flower) → bloempje (lit.“small flower”), but bloemetje (lit. also “small flower”,meaning bouquet). A few nouns exist solely in a diminu-tive form, e.g. zeepaardje (seahorse), while many, e.g.meisje (girl), originally a diminutive of meid (maid), haveacquired a meaning independent of their non-diminutiveforms. A diminutive can sometimes be added to an un-countable noun to refer to a single portion: ijs (ice, icecream) → ijsje (ice cream treat, cone of ice cream), bier(beer) → biertje. Some diminutive forms only exist inplural, e.g. kleertjes (clothing).When used to refer to time, the Dutch diminutive formcan indicate whether the person in question found it pleas-ant or not: een uurtje kletsen (chatting for a “little” hour.)

The diminutive can, however, also be used pejoratively:Hij was weer eens het “mannetje”. (He acted as if he wasthe “little” man.)

7.5 Pronouns and determiners

There are two series of personal pronouns, subject andobjects pronouns. The forms on the right-hand sideswithin each column are the unemphatic forms; those notnormally written are given in brackets. Only ons and u donot have an unemphatic form. The distinction betweenemphatic and unemphatic pronouns is very important inDutch. It does exist in English as well but not in writtenform.[91]

Like in English, Dutch has generalised the dative over theaccusative case for all pronouns, e.g. Du me, je, Eng me,you, vs. Germmich/mir dich/dir. There is one exception:the standard language prescribes that in the third personplural, hen is to be used for the direct object, and hun forthe indirect object. This distinction was artificially intro-duced in the 17th century by grammarians, and is largelyignored in spoken language and not well understood byDutch speakers. Consequently, the third person pluralforms hun and hen are interchangeable in normal usage,with hun being more common. The shared unstressedform ze is also often used as both direct and indirect ob-jects and is a useful avoidance strategy when people areunsure which form to use.[92]

Dutch shares also with English the presence of h- pro-nouns, e.g. Du hij, hem, haar, hun and Eng he, him, hervs. Germ er, ihn, ihr, ihnen.

7.6 Compounds

Dutch language street sign in the Netherlands

Like most Germanic languages, Dutch forms nouncompounds, where the first noun modifies the categorygiven by the second (hondenhok = doghouse). Unlike En-glish, where newer compounds or combinations of longernouns are often written in open form with separating

15

spaces, Dutch (like the other Germanic languages) ei-ther uses the closed form without spaces (boomhuis = treehouse) or inserts a hyphen (VVD-coryfee = outstandingmember of the VVD, a political party). Like German,Dutch allows arbitrarily long compounds, but the longerthey get, the less frequent they tend to be.The longest serious entry in the Van Dale dictio-nary is wapenstilstandsonderhandeling (ceasefire ne-gotiation). Leafing through the articles of associa-tion (Statuten) one may come across a 30-lettervertegenwoordigingsbevoegdheid (authorisation of repre-sentation). An even longer word cropping up in of-ficial documents is ziektekostenverzekeringsmaatschap-pij (health insurance company) though the shorter ziek-tekostenverzekeraar (health insurer) is more common.Notwithstanding official spelling rules, some Dutch peo-ple, like some Scandinavians and Germans, nowadaystend to write the parts of a compound separately, a prac-tice sometimes dubbed de Engelse ziekte (the Englishdisease).[93]

8 Vocabulary

Dutch vocabulary is predominantly Germanic in origin,with an additional share of loanwords of 20%.[94] Themain foreign influence on Dutch vocabulary since the12th century and culminating in the French period hasbeen French and (northern) French, accounting for anestimated 6.8%, or more than a third of all loanwords.Latin, that has been spoken for centuries in the south ofthe Low Countries, and has since then for centuries plaida major role as the language of science and religion, fol-lows with 6.1%. High German and Low German, influ-ential until the mid of the 19th century, account for 2.7%,but are mostly unrecognizable since many German loan-words have been “Dutchified”, e.g. German “Fremdling”become Dutch “vreemdeling”. From English, Dutch hastaken over words since the middle of the 19th century,as a consequence of the gaining power of Britain and theUnited States. The share of English loanwords is about1.5%, but this number is still on the increase.[95] Con-versely, Dutch contributed many loanwords to English,accounting for 1.3%.[96]

The main Dutch dictionary is the Van Dale groot woor-denboek der Nederlandse taal containing some 268,826headwords.[97] In the field of linguistics, the 45,000-pageWoordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is also readilyused. This scholarly endeavor took 147 years to completeand contains all recorded Dutch words from the EarlyMiddle Ages onward, making it the largest dictionary inthe world in print with over 430,000 entries.[98]

9 Spelling and writing system

Main articles: Dutch orthography and Dutch BrailleThe official spelling is set by the Wet schrijfwijze Ned-

Dutch uses the digraph IJ as a single letter. Shown is a bus roadmarking.

A comparison of letter frequency between Dutch, English andGerman

erlandsche taal (Law on the writing of the Dutch lan-guage; Belgium 1946, Netherlands 1947; based on a 1944spelling revision; both amended in the 1990s after a 1995spelling revision). The Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal,more commonly known as “het groene boekje” (i.e. “thegreen booklet”, because of its color), is usually acceptedas an informal explanation of the law.Dutch is written using the Latin script. Dutch uses oneadditional character beyond the standard alphabet, thedigraph IJ. It has a relatively high proportion of doubledletters, both vowels and consonants, due to the forma-tion of compound words and also to the spelling devicesfor distinguishing the many vowel sounds in the Dutchlanguage. An example of five consecutive doubled let-ters is the word voorraaddoos (food storage container).The diaeresis (Dutch: trema) is used to mark vowelsthat are pronounced separately when involving a pre- orsuffix. Whereas a hyphen is used when this problemoccurs in compound words. For example; "beïnvloed”(influenced), but zee-eend (sea duck). Generally, otherdiacritical marks only occur in loanwords, though the

16 11 NOTES

acute accent can also be used for emphasis or to differ-entiate between two forms. Its most common use is todifferentiate between the indefinite article 'een' (a, an)and the numeral 'één' (one).

10 See also• Bargoens

• Dutch braille

• Dutch grammar

• Dutch Language Union

• Dutch linguistic influence on military terms

• Dutch literature

• Dutch name

• Dutch orthography

• Dutch-based creole languages

• Flemish

• French Flemish

• Grand Dictation of the Dutch Language

• Indo-European languages

• Istvaeones

• List of English words of Dutch origin

• Low Dietsch

• Low Franconian

• Meuse-Rhenish

• Middle Dutch

• Old Frankish

11 Notes[1] In France, a historical dialect called French Flemish

is spoken. There are about 80,000 Dutch speakers inFrance; see Simpson 2009, p. 307. In French Flanders,only a remnant of 20,000 Flemish-speakers remain; seeBerdichevsky 2004, p. 90. Flemish is spoken in the north-west of France by an estimated population of 20,000 dailyspeakers and 40,000 occasional speakers; see EuropeanCommission 2010.A dialect continuum exists between Dutch and Germanthrough the South Guelderish and Limburgish dialects.In 1941, 400,000 Indonesians spoke Dutch, and Dutch ex-erted a major influence on Indonesian; see Sneddon 2003,p. 161. In 1941, about 0.5% of the inland populationhad a reasonable knowledge of Dutch; see Maier 2005,

p. 12. At the beginning of World War II, about one mil-lion Asians had an active command of Dutch, while anadditional half million had a passive knowledge; see Jones2008, p. xxxi. Many older Indonesians speak Dutch as asecond language; see Thomson 2003, p. 80. Some of theethnic Chinese in Indonesia speak Dutch amongst eachother; see Tan 2008, pp. 62–64, Erdentuğ & Colom-bijn 2002, p. 104. Dutch is spoken by “smaller groupsof speakers” in Indonesia; see Bussmann 2002, p. 83.Some younger Indonesians learn Dutch as a foreign lan-guage because their parents and grandparents may speakit and because in some circles, Dutch is regarded as thelanguage of the elite; see Vos 2001, p. 91. At present,only educated people of the oldest generation, in additionto specialists who require knowledge of the language, canspeak Dutch fluently; see Ammon 2006, p. 2017. Around25% of present-day Indonesian vocabulary can be tracedback to Dutch words, see Maier 2005, p. 17.

[2] 410,000 in USA, 159,000 in Canada, 47,000 in Australia;see Simpson 2009, p. 307. Between 200,000 and 400,000in USA alone; see McGoldrick, Giordano & Garcia-Preto2005, p. 536.

[3] Afrikaans is a daughter language of Dutch; see Booij1999, p. 2, Jansen, Schreuder & Neijt 2007, p. 5,Mennen, Levelt & Gerrits 2006, p. 1, Booij 2003, p. 4,Hiskens, Auer & Kerswill 2005, p. 19, Heeringa & deWet 2007, pp. 1, 3, 5.Afrikaans was historically called Cape Dutch; seeDeumert & Vandenbussche 2003, p. 16, Conradie 2005,p. 208, Sebba 1997, p. 160, Langer & Davies 2005, p.144, Deumert 2002, p. 3, Berdichevsky 2004, p. 130.Afrikaans is rooted in 17th century dialects of Dutch;see Holm 1989, p. 338, Geerts & Clyne 1992, p. 71,Mesthrie 1995, p. 214, Niesler, Louw & Roux 2005, p.459.Afrikaans is variously described as a creole, a partiallycreolised language, or a deviant variety of Dutch; seeSebba 2007, p. 116.

[4] It has the widest geographical and racial distribution of allofficial languages of South Africa; see Webb 2003, pp. 7,8, Berdichevsky 2004, p. 131. It has by far the largestgeographical distribution; see Alant 2004, p. 45.It is widely spoken and understood as a second or thirdlanguage; see Deumert & Vandenbussche 2003, p. 16,Kamwangamalu 2004, p. 207, Myers-Scotton 2006, p.389, Simpson 2008, p. 324, Palmer 2001, p. 141, Webb2002, p. 74, Herriman & Burnaby 1996, p. 18, Page &Sonnenburg 2003, p. 7, Brook Napier 2007, pp. 69, 71.An estimated 40 percent of South Africans have at leasta basic level of communication in Afrikaans; see Webb2003, p. 7 McLean & McCormick 1996, p. 333.Afrikaans is a lingua franca of Namibia; see Deumert2004, p. 1, Adegbija 1994, p. 26, Batibo 2005, p.79, Donaldson 1993, p. xiii, Deumert & Vandenbuss-che 2003, p. 16, Baker & Prys Jones 1997, p. 364,Domínguez & López 1995, p. 399, Page & Sonnenburg2003, p. 8, CIA 2010.While the number of total speakers of Afrikaans isunknown, estimates range between 15 and 23 million.Afrikaans has 16.3 million speakers; see de Swaan 2001,p. 216. Afrikaans has a total of 16 million speakers; see

17

Machan 2009, p. 174. About 9 million people speakAfrikaans as a second or third language; see Alant 2004,p. 45, Proost 2006, p. 402. Afrikaans has over 5 millionnative speakers and 15 million second language speak-ers; see Réguer 2004, p. 20. Afrikaans has about 6 mil-lion native and 16 million second language speakers; seeDomínguez & López 1995, p. 340. In South Africa, over23 million people speak Afrikaans, of which a third arefirst-language speakers; see Page & Sonnenburg 2003, p.7. L2 “Black Afrikaans” is spoken, with different degreesof fluency, by an estimated 15 million; see Stell 2008–11,p. 1.Dutch and Afrikaans share mutual intelligibility; seeGooskens 2007, p. 453, Holm 1989, p. 338, Baker &Prys Jones 1997, p. 302, Egil Breivik &Håkon Jahr 1987,p. 232. For written mutual intelligibility; see Sebba 2007,p. 116, Sebba 1997, p. 161.It is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaansthan the other way around; see Gooskens 2007, p. 454.

[5] Dutch and English are the closest relatives of German; seeAbraham 2006, p. 124. Dutch is the closest relative ofGerman; see Czepluch & Abraham 2004, p. 13. Dutchand English are closely related; see Ingram 1989, p. 494,Todd 2004, p. 37, Kager 1989, p. 105, Hogg 2002, p.134, De Bot, Lowie & Verspoor 2005, pp. 130, 166,Weissenborn & Höhle 2001, p. 209, Crisma & Longo-barde 2009, p. 250. Dutch and English are very closelyrelated languages; see Fitzpatrick 2007, p. 188. Dutch is,after Frisian, the closest relative of English; see Mallory& Adams 2006, p. 23, Classe 2000, p. 390, Hogg 2002,p. 3, Denning, Kessler & Leben 2007, p. 22. English ismost closely related to Dutch; see Lightfoot 1999, p. 22,and more so than to German; see Sonnenschein 2008, p.100, Kennedy Wyld 2009, p. 190.

[6] Dutch is traditionally described as morphologically be-tween English and German, but syntactically closer toGerman; see Clyne 2003, p. 133. Dutch has been po-sitioned to be between English and German; see Putnam2011, p. 108, Bussmann 2002, p. 83, Müller 1995, p.121, Onysko & Michel 2010, p. 210. Typologically,Dutch takes a midway position between English and Ger-man, with a similar word order to that of German, gram-matical gender, and a largely Germanic vocabulary. It ismorphologically close to English, and the case system andsubjunctive have largely fallen out of use; see Swan &Smith 2001, p. 6.

[7] Dutch shares with English its simplified morphology andthe abandonment of the grammatical case system; seeBooij 1999, p. 1, Simpson 2009, p. 309. In contrastto German, case markings have become vestigial in En-glish and Dutch; see Hogg 2002, p. 134, Abraham 2006,p. 118, Bussmann 2002, p. 83, Swan & Smith 2001, p.6. The umlaut in Dutch and English matured to a muchlesser extent than in German; see Simpson 2009, p. 307,Lass 1994, p. 70, Deprez 1997, p. 251.

[8] Dutch has effectively two genders; see Booij 1999, p.1, Simpson 2009, p. 309, De Vogelaer 2009, p. 71.Grammatical gender has little grammatical consequencesin Dutch; see Bussmann 2002, p. 84

[9] Simpson 2009, p. 307, Booij 1999, p. 1 Dutch and Ger-man not have a strict SVO order as in English; see Hogg

2002, pp. 87, 134. In contrast to English, which has SVOas the underlying word order, for Dutch and German thisis SV1OV2 or (in subordinate clauses) SOV; see Ingram1989, p. 495, Jordens & Lalleman 1988, pp. 149, 150,177. Dutch has almost the same word order as German;see Swan & Smith 2001, p. 6.

[10] Dutch vocabulary has more Germanic words than Englishand more Romance words than German; see Simpson2009, p. 309, Swan & Smith 2001, p. 17. Dutch vo-cabulary is mostly Germanic; see Swan & Smith 2001, p.6. Dutch has the most similar vocabulary to English; seeMallory & Adams 2006, p. 1.

[11] There are 15,700,000 native speakers in the Netherlands.

12 References[1] Dutch/Flemish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)

West Flemish (Vlaams) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)Zealandic (Zeeuws) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)

[2] European Commission (2006). “Special Eurobarometer243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF).Europa. Retrieved 2007-02-03. “1% of the EU popu-lation claims to speak Dutch well enough in order to havea conversation.” (page 153)

[3] “Dutch — University of Leicester”. .le.ac.uk. Retrieved2015-08-12.

[4] Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel,Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). “ModernDutch”. Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evo-lutionary Anthropology.

[5] “Het Nederlandse taalgebied” (in Dutch). NederlandseTaalunie. 2005. Retrieved 2008-11-04.

[6] “Netherlandic language - Encyclopedia Britannica”. Bri-tannica.com. Retrieved 2014-06-11.

[7] Willemyns, Roland (2002). “Language Contact atthe Romance-Germanic Language Border”. In JeanineTreffers-Daller, Roland Willemyns. Journal of multilin-gual and multicultural development. Multilingual Matters.p. 4. ISBN 1853596272.

[8] “A Guide to Dutch - 10 facts about the Dutch language”.BBC.

[9] Britannica on Netherlandic Language; see also C.B. vanHaeringen, Netherlandic language research. Men andworks in the study of Dutch, 2nd edition, Leiden: Brill1960.

[10] Georges De Schutter, “Dutch”, The Germanic Languages,eds. Ekkehard König and Johan van der Auwera (London:Routledge, 1994), 439.

[11] Old Dutch Dictionary

[12] Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd re-vised edn., s.v. “Dutch” (Random House Reference,2005).

18 12 REFERENCES

[13] Roland Willemyns (2013). Dutch: Biography of a Lan-guage. Oxford University Press. p. 5.

[14] (Dutch) See J. Verdam, Middelnederlandsch handwoor-denboek (The Hague 1932 (reprinted 1994)): “Nederlant,znw. o. I) Laag of aan zee gelegen land. 2) land aan denNederrijn; Nedersaksen, -duitschland.”

[15] “Hermes in uitbreiding”. Users.pandora.be. Retrieved2015-08-12.

[16] (Dutch) neder- corresponds with the English nether-,which means “low” or “down”. See Online etymologicaldictionary. Entry: Nether.

[17] http://www.statenvertaling.net/bijbel/psal/55.html Psalm55:19

[18] http://bible.cc/psalms/55-18.htm Psalm 55:18

[19] “Languages of theWorld: Germanic languages”. TheNewEncyclopædia Britannica. Chicago, IL, United States: En-cyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1993. ISBN 0-85229-571-5.This long-standing, well-known article on the languagescan be found in almost any edition of Britannica.

[20] Hawkins, John A. (1987). “Germanic languages”. InBernard Comrie. The World’s Major Languages. OxfordUniversity Press. pp. 68–76. ISBN 0-19-520521-9.

[21] Robinson, Orrin W. (1992). Old English and Its ClosestRelatives. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2221-8.

[22] Willemyns, Roland (2013). Dutch: Biography of a Lan-guage. Oxford University Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-19-932366-1.

[23] “Dutch & Other Languages”. Ccjk.com. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[24] “Taal in Nederland .:. Brabants”. Taal.phileon.nl. Re-trieved 2014-06-11.

[25] FriedrichMaurer uses the term Istvaeonic instead of Fran-conian; see Friedrich Maurer (1942), Nordgermanen undAlemannen: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschenSprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde, Bern: Ver-lag Francke.

[26] Willemyns, Roland (2013). Dutch: Biography of a Lan-guage. OUP USA. ISBN 0199858713., p.10.

[27] Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, Marjatta Palander, EsaPenttilä (2005): Dialects Across Borders: Selected pa-pers from the 11th International Conference on Methodsin Dialectology (Methods XI), John Benjamins Publishing,ISBN 9027294046, 9789027294043, p. 21

[28] Folkert de Vriend, Charlotte Giesbers, Roeland van Hout& Louis ten Bosch (2009): The Dutch–German dialectborder: relating linguistic, geographic and perceptual dis-tances, in: the International Journal of Humanities andArts Computing, Special Issue on Language Variation

[29] “Dutch”. Ethnologue. 1999-02-19. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[30] Archived December 6, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.

[31] “Hoeveel studenten studeren er jaarlijks Nederlands aanuniversiteiten buiten het taalgebied?" (in Dutch). Neder-landse Taalunie. 2012.

[32] “Hoe trots zijn wij op het Nederlands?". Taaluniever-sum.org. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[33] M. van der Wal, Geschiedenis van het Nederlands, 1992.ISBN 90-274-1839-X

[34] B. van den Berg, Morfologische Atlas van de NederlandseDialecten, 2008. ISBN 9053567747

[35] “Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development”(PDF). Multilingual-matters.net. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[36] “Flemish in France”. Uoc.edu. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[37] “Nederlands studeren wereldwijd”. Taalunieversum.org.Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[38] “Neerlandistiek wereldwijd”. Neerlan-distiek.taalunieversum.org. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[39] Baker (1998), p.202.

[40] Ammon (2005), p.2017.

[41] Booij (1999), p.2

[42] “Dutch worldwide”. Taalunieversum. 2012-12-20. Re-trieved 2015-08-12.

[43] “Taalunie | Beleidsorganisatie voor het Nederlands”.Taalunieversum.org. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[44] “Taalunie | Beleidsorganisatie voor het Nederlands”.Taalunieversum.org. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[45] Joel Corneal Kuipers (1998). Language, identity, andmarginality in Indonesia: the changing nature of ritualspeech on the Island of Sumba. Cambridge UniversityPress. p. 9. Retrieved 2010-06-29.

[46] “Internet Archive Wayback Machine” (PDF).Web.archive.org. 2013-10-01. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[47] Sneddon (2003), p.162.

[48] Hendrik M. Maier (Feb 8, 2005). “A Hidden Language– Dutch in Indonesia”. Institute of European Studies,.Berkeley: University of California.

[49] “Indonesia: Fight over the Papuans”. TIME. 1961-12-29.Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[50] “Census Home”. Censusdata.abs.gov.au. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[51] “2006 Census Data - QuickStats About Culture and Iden-tity - Tables”. Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 14 Au-gust 2011.

[52] Archived August 28, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.

[53] “CIA – The World Factbook – Suriname”. Cia.gov. Re-trieved 2012-08-19.

[54] “Documentaire”. Taalunieversum. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

19

[55] Source: Zevende algemene volks- en woningtelling 2004,Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek

[56] “About us”. Taalunieversum.org. 2010-01-26. Retrieved2015-08-12.

[57] “Ethnologue on Sranan”. Ethnologue.com. Retrieved2012-08-19.

[58] Recognition of Surinamese-Dutch (Surinaams-Nederlands) as an equal natiolect was expressed in1976 by the publication of the Woordenboek van hetSurinaams-Nederlands – een geannoteerde lijst vanSurinaams-Nederlandse woorden en uitdrukkingen(Dictionary of Surinam Dutch – an annotated list ofSurinam-Dutch words and expressions), see Johannes vanDonselaar Woordenboek van het Surinaams-Nederlands– een geannoteerde lijst van Surinaams-Nederlandsewoorden en uitdrukkingen, Utrecht : Instituut A. W.de Groot voor Algemene Taalwetenschap van de Rijk-suniversiteit te Utrecht (1976), Amsterdam, E.T.Rap(1977) ISBN 90-6005-125-4, published in 1989 as theWoordenboek van het Surinaams-Nederlands (Dictionaryof Surinam Dutch), by Van Donselaar, and later by thepublication of the Woordenboek Surinaams Nederlands(Dictionary Surinam Dutch) in 2009 (editor Renata deBies, in cooperation with lexicologists Willy Martinen Willy Smedts), which was previously published asthe Woordenboek van de Surinaamse Bijdrage aan hetNederlands (Dictionary of the Surinam Contribution toDutch”).

[59] “CIA – The World Factbook – Aruba”. Cia.gov. Re-trieved 2012-08-19.

[60] “Jersey Dutch”. Bartleby.com. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[61] “German Myth 7 - Pennsylvania Dutch or German?".German.about.com. 2012-04-10. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[62] “Dutch”. Mla.org. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[63] “Statistics Canada 2006 (Dutch and Flemish grouped to-gether)". 2.statcan.ca. 2011-07-04. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[64] “Agriculture-population linkage data for the 2006 Census.The Daily”. Statcan.gc.ca. 2008-12-02. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[65] Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal ElectoralDistricts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobilityand Migration and Immigration and Citizenship. Ottawa,2007, pp. 6–10.

[66] Language Standardization and Language Change: TheDynamics of Cape Dutch. Ana Deumert (John BenjaminsPublishing Company). 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-10.

[67] Standaard Afrikaans (PDF). Abel Coetzee (AfrikanerPers). 1948. Retrieved 2014-09-17.

[68] Abel Jacobus Coetzee (1940). Die verhaalskat vanOns Klyntji (1896-1905) (in Afrikaans). Johannesburg:Voortrekkerpers. OCLC 63430958.

[69] “South Africa: Legislation: 1910-2015”. Archontol-ogy.org. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[70] Archived August 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.

[71] Language and Social History: Studies in South African So-ciolinguistics (page 214). Rajend Mesthrie (New AfricaBooks). 1995. Retrieved 2008-11-03.

[72] The Dutch Language: A Survey (page 132). PierreBrachin, Paul Vincent (Brill Archive). 1985. Retrieved2008-11-03.

[73] “Oxford Journal on Mutual Comprehensibility of WrittenAfrikaans and Dutch”. Llc.oxfordjournals.org. 2006-08-27. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[74] Name (Required): (2012-08-14). “Retrieved 12 April2010”. Kwintessential.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[75] Key results of the 2011 census, Statistics South Africa

[76] Primary tables: 1996 and 2001 compared, Statistics SouthAfrica

[77] (PDF) https://web.archive.org/20031209231442/http://www.up.ac.za:80/academic/libarts/crpl/language-dev-in-SA.pdf. Archived from the origi-nal (PDF) on December 9, 2003. Retrieved November 5,2008. Missing or empty |title= (help)

[78] “The World Factbook (CIA) — Namibia”. Cia.gov. Re-trieved 2012-08-19.

[79] Language Attitudes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Sociolinguis-tic Overview (page 26). Efurosibina E. Adegbija (Multilin-gual Matters). 1994. Retrieved 2008-11-10.

[80] Archived December 6, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.

[81] “Ethnologue on Afrikaans”. Ethnologue.com. Retrieved2012-08-19.

[82] Frans Hinskens, Johan Taeldeman, Language andspace: Dutch, Walter de Gruyter 2014. 3110261332,9783110261332, p.66

[83] Verhoeven (2005:245)

[84] Onderzoek naar de Amsterdamse Volkstaal

[85] Stroop, Jan (October 1999). “YoungWomen’s Farewell toStandard Dutch”. Poldernederlands. Retrieved 2 January2010.

[86] “History of the Dutch Language: Language change inthe 19th and 20th century”. Neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[87] “Grammatical Cases in Dutch”. Zeer Goed Dutch. Re-trieved 2015-08-12.

[88] “Verb Movement in Old and Middle English: Di-alect Variation and Language Contact”. Ling.upenn.edu.1995-01-20. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

[89] Bruce Donaldson, Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar,Routledge, 2008. ISBN 1134082363, 9781134082360,p.61

[90] Bruce Donaldson, Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar,Routledge, 2008. ISBN 1134082363, 9781134082360,pp.64-65

20 13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[91] Bruce Donaldson, Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar,Routledge, 2008. ISBN 1134082363, 9781134082360,p.67

[92] "Hun of hen?". Onze Taal Taaladviesdienst. Retrieved2007-05-23.

[93] “SOS - Signalering Onjuist Spatiegebruik”. Spatiege-bruik.nl. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

[94] “Loanwords in the World’s Languages: A ComparativeHandbook, p.349”. Walter de Gruyter, 2009.

[95] “Loanwords in the World’s Languages: A ComparativeHandbook, p.352”. Walter de Gruyter, 2009.

[96] “Loanwords in the World’s Languages: A ComparativeHandbook, p.370”. Walter de Gruyter, 2009.

[97] “Home | Van Dale” (in Dutch). Vandale.nl. Retrieved2015-08-12.

[98] “Welkom bij de GTB van het INL”. Gtb.inl.nl. Retrieved2012-08-19.

13 Bibliography• Abraham, Werner (2006), Kulikov, L.I.;Malchukov, A.L.; De Swart, Peter, eds., “Case,valency and transitivity”, Studies in Language (JohnBenjamins Publishing Company) 77, retrieved2010-11-06 |contribution= ignored (help)

• Adegbija, Efurosibina E. (1994), Language Attitudesin Sub-Saharan Africa: A Sociolinguistic Overview,Multilingual Matters, retrieved 2008-11-10

• Alant, Jaco (2004), Parlons Afrikaans (in French),Éditions L'Harmattan, retrieved 2010-06-03

• Ammon, Ulrich (2006), Sociolinguistics: an interna-tional handbook of the science of language and soci-ety (3), Walter de Gruyter, retrieved 2010-06-29

• Baker, Colin; Prys Jones, Sylvia (1997),Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual ed-ucation, Multilingual Matters Ltd., retrieved2010-05-19

• Berdichevsky, Norman (2004), Nations, language,and citizenship, Norman Berdichevsky, retrieved2010-05-31

• Batibo, Herman (2005), Language decline and deathin Africa: causes, consequences, and challenges,Multilingual Matters Ltd, retrieved 2010-05-24

• Booij, Geert (1999), “The Phonology of Dutch.”,Oxford Linguistics (Oxford University Press), ISBN0-19-823869-X, retrieved 2010-05-24

• Booij, Geert (2003), “Constructional idioms and pe-riphrasis: the progressive construction in Dutch.”(PDF), Paradigms and Periphrasis (University ofKentucky), retrieved 2010-05-19

• Brachin, Pierre; Vincent, Paul (1985), The DutchLanguage: A Survey, Brill Archive, retrieved 2008-11-03

• Bromber, Katrin; Smieja, Birgit (2004),“Globalisation and African languages: risksand benefits”, Trends in Linguistics (Walter deGruyter), retrieved 2010-05-28

• Brook Napier, Diane (2007), Schuster, Katherine;Witkosky, David, eds., “Language of the land: pol-icy, politics, identity”, Studies in the history of educa-tion (Information Age Publishing), retrieved 2010-05-19 |contribution= ignored (help)

• Bussmann, Hadumod (2002), Gender across lan-guages, John Benjamins Publishing Company, re-trieved 2011-04-07

• Classe, Olive (2000), “Encyclopedia of LiteraryTranslation into English”, Second Edition (FitzroyDearborn), retrieved 2010-05-19

• Clyne, Michael G. (2003), Dynamics of languagecontact: English and immigrant languages, Cam-bridge University Press, retrieved 2011-04-07

• Crisma, Paola; Longobarde, Giuseppe (2009),“Historical syntax and linguistic theory”, Oxfordlinguistics (Oxford University Press US), retrieved2010-11-06

• Czepluch, Hartmut; Abraham, Werner (2004),Focus on Germanic typology, Akademie Verlag, re-trieved 2010-05-19

• Conradie, C. Jac (2005), “The final stages of de-flection – The case of Afrikaans “het"", HistoricalLinguistics 2005 (John Benjamins Publishing Com-pany), retrieved 2010-05-29

• De Bot, Kees; Lowie, Wander; Verspoor, Marjolyn(2005), Second language acquisition, Routledge, re-trieved 2010-11-06

• Denning, Keith; Kessler, Brett; Leben, William R.(2007), English vocabulary elements, Oxford Uni-versity Press US, retrieved 2010-05-19

• Deprez, Kas (1997), Clyne, Michael G., ed., “Diets,Nederlands, Nederduits, Hollands, Vlaams, Bel-gisch Nederlands”, Undoing and redoing corpusplanning (Walter de Gruyter), pp. 249–312, re-trieved 2011-05-10

• Deumert, Ana (2002), “Standardization and socialnetworks – The emergence and diffusion of standardAfrikaans”, Standardization – Studies from the Ger-manic languages (John Benjamins Publishing Com-pany), retrieved 2010-05-29

21

• Deumert, Ana; Vandenbussche, Wim (2003),“Germanic standardizations: past to present”,Trends in Linguistics (John Benjamins PublishingCompany), retrieved 2010-05-28

• Deumert, Ana (2004), Language Standardizationand Language Change: The Dynamics of CapeDutch, John Benjamins Publishing Company, re-trieved 2008-11-10

• de Swaan, Abram (2001), Words of the world:the global language system, A. de Swaan, retrieved2010-06-03

• De Vogelaer, Gunther (2009), Tsiplakou, Stavroula;Karyolemou, Marilena; Pavlou, Pavlos Y., eds.,“Language variation—European perspectives II”,International Conference on Language Variation inEurope (John Benjamins Publishing Company), re-trieved 2011-05-09 |contribution= ignored (help)

• Domínguez, Francesc; López, Núria (1995),Sociolinguistic and language planning organizations,John Benjamins Publishing Company, retrieved2010-05-28

• Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), A grammar ofAfrikaans, Walter de Gruyter, retrieved 2010-05-28

• Egil Breivik, Leiv; Håkon Jahr, Ernst (1987),Language change: contributions to the study of itscauses, Walter de Gruyter, retrieved 2010-05-19

• Erdentuğ, Aygen; Colombijn, Freek (2002), Urbanethnic encounters: the spatial consequences, Rout-ledge, retrieved 2010-06-29

• European Commission (2010), “Flemish in France”,Research Centre of Multilingualism (Euromosaic),retrieved 2010-06-29

• Fitzpatrick, Eileen (2007), “Corpus linguistics be-yond the word: corpus research from phrase todiscourse, Volume 2004”, Language and Comput-ers: Studies in Practical Linguistics (Rodopi) 60, re-trieved 2010-11-09

• Geerts, G.; Clyne, Michael G. (1992), Pluricentriclanguages: differing norms in different nations,Walter de Gruyter, retrieved 2010-05-19

• Gooskens, Charlotte (2007), “The Contribution ofLinguistic Factors to the Intelligibility of CloselyRelated Languages” (PDF), Journal of Multilingualand Multicultural Development, Volume 28, Issue6 November 2007 (University of Groningen), pp.445–467, retrieved 2010-05-19

• Heeringa, Wilbert; de Wet, Febe (2007), The ori-gin of Afrikaans pronunciation: a comparison towest Germanic languages and Dutch dialects (PDF),University of Groningen, pp. 445–467, retrieved2010-05-19

• Herriman, Michael L.; Burnaby, Barbara (1996),Language policies in English-dominant countries: sixcase studies, Multilingual Matters Ltd., retrieved2010-05-19

• Hiskens, Frans; Auer, Peter; Kerswill, Paul(2005), The study of dialect convergence and di-vergence: conceptual and methodological considera-tions. (PDF), Lancaster University, retrieved 2010-05-19

• Hogg, Richard M. (2002), An introduction to OldEnglish, Oxford University Press US, retrieved2010-11-06

• Holm, John A. (1989), Pidgins and Creoles: Refer-ences survey, Cambridge University Press, retrieved2010-05-19

• Ingram, David (1989), First language acquisition:method, description, and explanation, CambridgeUniversity Press, retrieved 2010-11-06

• Jansen, Carel; Schreuder, Robert; Neijt, Anneke(2007), “The influence of spelling conventions onperceived plurality in compounds. A comparisonof Afrikaans and Dutch.” (PDF), Written Language& Literacy 10:2 (Radboud University Nijmegen),archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2011,retrieved 2010-05-19

• Jones, Russell (2008), “Loan-words in Indone-sian and Malay”, Indonesian Etymological Project,KITLV Office Jakarta (Yayasan Obor Indonesia), re-trieved 2010-06-29

• Jordens, Peter; Lalleman, Josine A. (1988),“Language development”, Algemene Verenigingvoor Taalwetenschap (Walter de Gruyter) 5, re-trieved 2010-11-06

• Kager, René (1989), “A metrical theory of stressand destressing in English and Dutch”, Linguisticmodels (Walter de Gruyter) 14, retrieved 2010-06-29

• Kamwangamalu, NkonkoM. (2004), “The languageplanning situation in South Africa”, in Baldauf,Richard B.; Kaplan, Robert B., Language planningand policy in Africa, Multilingual Matters Ltd., re-trieved 2010-05-31

• Kennedy Wyld, Henry Cecil (2009), The Growthof English: An Elementary Account of the PresentForm of Our Language, and Its Development, Bib-lioBazaar, LLC, retrieved 2010-11-06

• Langer, Nils; Davies, Winifred V. (2005), Linguisticpurism in the Germanic languages, Walter deGruyter, retrieved 2010-05-28

22 13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Lass, Roger (1994), Old English: a historical lin-guistic companion, Cambridge University Press, re-trieved 2010-11-06

• Lightfoot, David (1999), “The development of lan-guage: acquisition, change, and evolution”, Black-well/Maryland lectures in language and cognition(Wiley-Blackwell) 1, retrieved 2010-11-06

• Machan, Tim William (2009), Language anxiety:conflict and change in the history of English, OxfordUniversity Press, retrieved 2010-06-03

• Maier, H.M.J. (2005), A Hidden Language – Dutchin Indonesia, Institute of European Studies, UCBerkeley, retrieved 2010-06-03

• Mallory, J.P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006), TheOxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European andthe Proto-Indo-European world, Oxford UniversityPress, retrieved 2010-05-31

• Maurer, Friedrich (1942), Nordgermanen undAlemannen: Studien zur germanischen undfrühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- undVolkskunde, Strasbourg: Hünenburg.

• McGoldrick, Monica; Giordano, Joseph; Garcia-Preto, Nydia (2005), Ethnicity and family therapy,Guilford Press, retrieved 2011-04-07

• McLean, Daryl; McCormick, Kay (1996), “Englishin South Africa 1940–1996”, in Fishman, JoshuaA.; Conrad, Andrew W.; Rubal-Lopez, Alma, Post-imperial English: status change in former British andAmerican colonies, 1940–1990, Walter de Gruyter,retrieved 2010-05-31

• Mennen, Ineke; Levelt, Clara; Gerrits, Ellen (2006),“Acquisition of Dutch phonology: an overview.”(PDF), Speech Science Research Centre Working Pa-per WP10 (Queen Margaret University College), re-trieved 2010-05-19

• Mesthrie, Rajend (1995), Language and Social His-tory: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics, NewAfrica Books, retrieved 2008-08-23

• Mesthrie, Rajend (2002), Language in South Africa,Cambridge University Press, retrieved 2010-05-18

• Müller, Gereon (1995), A-bar syntax: a study inmovement types, Walter de Gruyter, retrieved 2011-04-07

• Myers-Scotton, Carol (2006),Multiple voices: an in-troduction to bilingualism, Blackwell Publishing, re-trieved 2010-05-31

• Niesler, Thomas; Louw, Philippa; Roux, Jus-tus (2005), “Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, En-glish, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speechdatabases” (PDF), Southern African Linguistics and

Applied Language Studies 23 (4): 459–474, archivedfrom the original (PDF) on December 21, 2012

• Onysko, Alexander; Michel, Sascha (2010),Cognitive Perspectives on Word Formation, Walterde Gruyter, retrieved 2011-04-07

• Palmer, Vernon Valentine (2001), Mixed jurisdic-tions worldwide: the third legal family, Vernon V.Palmer, retrieved 2010-06-03

• Page, Melvin Eugene; Sonnenburg, Penny M.(2003), Colonialism: an international, social, cul-tural, and political encyclopedia, Melvin E. Page, re-trieved 2010-05-19

• Proost, Kristel (2006), Proost, Kristel; Winkler,Edeltraud, eds., “Von Intentionalität zur Bedeu-tung konventionalisierter Zeichen”, Studien zurDeutschen Sprache (in German) (Gunter Narr Ver-lag), retrieved 2010-06-03 |contribution= ignored(help)

• Putnam, Michael T. (2011), [tp://books.google.com/books?id=UkZTLU0ftjQC Studies onGerman-language Islands], John BenjaminsPublishing Company, retrieved 2011-04-07

• Réguer, Laurent Philippe (2004), Si loin, siproche...: Une langue européenne à découvrir : lenéerlandais (in French), Sorbonne Nouvelle, re-trieved 2010-06-03

• Sebba, Mark (1997), Contact languages: pidgins andcreoles, Palgrave Macmillan, retrieved 2010-05-19

• Sebba, Mark (2007), Spelling and society: the cul-ture and politics of orthography around the world,Cambridge University Press, retrieved 2010-05-19

• Shetter, William Z.; Ham, Esther (2007), Dutch:an essential grammar, Taylor & Francis, retrieved2010-06-29

• Simpson, Andrew (2008), Language and nationalidentity in Africa, Oxford University Press, retrieved2010-05-31

• Simpson, J.M.Y. (2009), “Dutch”, in Brown, Keith;Ogilvie, Sarah, Concise encyclopedia of languages ofthe world, Elsevier, retrieved 2010-06-29

• Sneddon, James N. (2003), The Indonesian lan-guage: its history and role in modern society, UNSWPress, retrieved 2010-06-29

• Sonnenschein, E.A. (2008), A New English Gram-mar Based on the Recommendations of the JointCommittee on Grammatical Terminology, ReadBooks, retrieved 2010-11-06

23

• Stell, Gerard (2008),Mapping linguistic communica-tion across colour divides: Black Afrikaans in CentralSouth Africa, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, retrieved2010-06-02

• Swan, Michael; Smith, Bernard (2001), Learner En-glish: a teacher’s guide to interference and otherproblems, Volume 1, Cambridge University Press,retrieved 2011-04-07

• Tan, Mely G. (2008), “Etnis Tionghoa di Indonesia:kumpulan tulisan”, Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia; col-lected articles. (Yayasan Obor Indonesia), retrieved2010-06-29

• Thomson, William R. (2003), “Indonesia”, in Page,Kogan, Asia & Pacific Review 2003/04: The Eco-nomic and Business Report, Kogan Page Publishers,pp. 76–85, retrieved 2010-06-03

• Todd, Loreto (2004), Pidgins and Creoles, Rout-ledge, retrieved 2010-11-06

• Vos, Mei Li (2001), International cooperation be-tween politics and practice: how Dutch Indonesiancooperation changed remarkably little after a diplo-matic rupture, Het Spinhuis, retrieved 2010-06-29

• Webb, Victor N. (2002), “Language in SouthAfrica: the role of language in national transforma-tion, reconstruction and development”, Impact Stud-ies in Language and Society (John Benjamins Pub-lishing Company)

• Webb, Victor N. (2003), “Language policy develop-ment in South Africa” (PDF), Centre for Researchin the Politics of Language (University of Pretoria),archived from the original (PDF) on December 9,2003

• Weissenborn, Jürgen; Höhle, Barbara (2001),“Approaches to bootstrapping”, Phonological, lexi-cal, syntactic and neurophysiological aspects of earlylanguage acquisition (John Benjamins PublishingCompany) 1, retrieved 2010-11-06

• Willemyns, Roland (2013), Dutch: Biographyof a Language, Oxford University Press, ISBN9780199858712

• Namibian Population Census (2001), LanguagesSpoken in Namibia, Government of Namibia,archived from the original on May 16, 2010, re-trieved 2010-05-28

• CIA (2010), TheWorld Factbook (CIA)—Namibia,Central Intelligence Agency, retrieved 2010-05-28

14 External links• Dutch language at DMOZ

• The Nederlandse Taalunie, Dutch language union

• Learn Dutch - Zeer Goed Interactive lessons forlearning Dutch vocabulary and grammar

24 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• Dutch language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language?oldid=711898547 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Jeronimo, Aidan

Elliott-McCrea, Andre Engels, Scipius, Danny, XJaM, Walter, Rmhermen, Aldie, Unukorno, Toby Bartels, PierreAbbat, Deb, Ortolan88,Ewlloyd, G from B, FvdP, Fredb, Heron, Q~enwiki, Icarus~enwiki, Branko, Atlan, Leandrod, Mrwojo, GreenPen, Edward, Patrick,Abc~enwiki, Tillwe, Kwertii, DopefishJustin, Dhum Dhum, Dominus, Menchi, Sannse, AlexR, 6birc, (, Ihcoyc, Ronz, TUF-KAT, Jebba,Bogdangiusca, DaMatriX, Kwekubo, Junesun, Jiang, GCarty, John K, Ruhrjung, Tobias Conradi, Raven in Orbit, Dwo, Hashar, Ffransoo,Charles Matthews, Guaka, Berteun, Timwi, Nohat, Lfh, Viajero, Andrewman327, Wik, Myshkin, IceKarma, Maximus Rex, Matithyahu,Furrykef, Gutsul, Christopher Sundita, Topbanana, Joy, Mtcv, Bcorr, Ronald~enwiki, Secretlondon, PuzzletChung, Amphioxys, Donar-reiskoffer, Branddobbe, JVLebbinkweb.de, Robbot, RedWolf, Altenmann, Naddy, Modulatum, Chris Roy, Desmay, Yacht, Diderot, Hip-pietrail, Bkell, Intangir, UtherSRG, Saforrest, Delpino, JackofOz, David Edgar, Ungvichian, Spellbinder, Qa'pIn, Stay cool~enwiki, Jor,HaeB, Davedx, Giftlite, DocWatson42, MPF, Andries, ComaVN, Wonder al, Nlevitt, Haeleth, Seabhcan, Meursault2004, Martijn faassen,Dissident, Monedula, Muke, No Guru, Moyogo, Alison, Beardo, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Rstens, Node ue, Eequor, Matthead, Angelo.romano,Pne, Ragib, Rudi Dierick, Thewikipedian, Toytoy, J. 'mach' wust, J~enwiki, LiDaobing, Quadell, Iceager, Känsterle~enwiki, CaribDigita,Augur, AlexanderWinston, Mzajac, Martin Wisse, Sam Hocevar, Asbestos, JulieADriver, Sarcelles, Sonett72, Picapica, Cwoyte, Canter-bury Tail, Azzurro~enwiki, Lacrimosus, Esperant, Thorwald, Grstain, Everlong, Mormegil, Perey, Freakofnurture, Poccil, EugeneZelenko,An Siarach, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Dpm64, AxSkov, Ardonik, Florian Blaschke, Wikiacc, Quiensabe, Arthur Hol-land, Captain Q, MuDavid, Gronky, Bender235, ZeroOne, Petrus~enwiki, Kjoonlee, Aecis, Thorin~enwiki, Livajo, Purplefeltangel, ElC, Gertjan R., Lycurgus, Kwamikagami, Lswartz, QuartierLatin1968, Kross, Ajunne, Sietse Snel, EmilJ, Saturnight, Femto, Bobo192,Circeus, Dri3s, Pokrajac, Giraffedata, Guidod, Man vyi, Jojit fb, Nk, Hargrimm, Polylerus, Nsaa, Xideum, Ogress, Zachlipton, MarkDingemanse, Marnen, Joost~enwiki, Rd232, Improv, Antman, Demi, Pfooh, Dmismir, Ross Burgess, Superbob, Ksnow, Velella, Gdavidp,Ish ishwar, GL, Garzo, Arno Verweij, Oghmoir, Gpvos, Grenavitar, Woodstone, Pdwerryh, Anjelen, Gijs Kruitbosch, HenryLi, Richwales,Bturner, Angr, Woohookitty, PeterR2, Vikramkr, Uncle G, Plek, Ruud Koot, Chochopk, Kristaga, Kelisi, Eldin, Cbdorsett, Sixtus, Blue-moose, Steinbach, Joygerhardt, Maartenvdbent, Evdrneut, Karmosin, Haunti, Junes, Doric Loon, Tokek, Salocin, Gerbrant, Stevey7788,Mandarax, RichardWeiss, Graham87, BD2412, Dpr, Sherpa~enwiki, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Fwend, Tangotango, Feydey, Funny-hat, HappyCamper, Cassowary, Twerbrou, Ian Moyes, MWAK, Ravidreams, FlaBot, Drepanopulos, Wazzup1990alvin~enwiki, Doc glas-gow, Crazycomputers, RexNL, Colonel Mustard, Gurch, Preslethe, Gurubrahma, It’s-is-not-a-genitive, Suso de la Vega~enwiki, Chobot,Bgwhite, Gwernol, Roboto de Ajvol, Mortenoesterlundjoergensen, YurikBot, Wester, Hairy Dude, TodorBozhinov, Gene.arboit, RussBot,Crazytales, Lenthe, IByte, Maor X, Mithridates, C777, Gaius Cornelius, Yyy, Eleassar, Ugur Basak, Jplatts, Msikma, Aeusoes1, Veledan,Test-tools~enwiki, Welsh, Daanschr, Nick, Mal2k1, Johnnychips, Numendil~enwiki, Benne, E rulez, Voidxor, Denihilonihil, Tony1, Pad-dyBriggs, Bucketsofg, Michaelmarinus, Htonl, Gadget850, Lcmortensen, Bota47, Doncram, Maunus, AjaxSmack, Crisco 1492, Kelovy,SanderNL, Zzuuzz, Patrick79, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Diemietrie~enwiki, Pietdesomere, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, JoanneB,Barbatus, Melodius~enwiki, Fram, Globe-trotter, Hayden120, Radioflux, Spliffy, Mzzl, X3210, Che829, Bluezy, Squell, Shepard, Fas-tifex, Philip Stevens, PaulCook, Amberrock, C mon, Sardanaphalus, Sassisch, Chicocvenancio, Neier, Stalfur, SmackBot, Pbb, DerekAndrews, Imz, PEHowland, Martin.Budden, MHD, DCDuring, C.Fred, Jim62sch, Big Adamsky, AndreasJS, Gold333, Svenlafe, Ben01,Jstumpel, Wakuran, Boris Barowski, HeartofaDog, Alsandro, LittleRoughRhinestone, Sebesta, Commander Keane bot, Uxejn, Peter Iso-talo, Ohnoitsjamie, Garfieldt~enwiki, Hmains, BirdValiant, Bluebot, Kurykh, TimBentley, Eighthave, Lamadude, Rex Germanus, Ksenon,Hebel, Dzhatse, MalafayaBot, Dlohcierekim’s sock, J. Spencer, Octahedron80, Aerol, Croquant, Oatmeal batman, Gracenotes, Joelvt, Scw-long, Wynand.winterbach, Ian Burnet~enwiki, Mike hayes, Egsan Bacon, Emrrans, Tamfang, AussieLegend, MaartenVidal, Writtenright,Avb, Intelligent Mr Toad, JonHarder, Michkalas, Jezpuh, SundarBot, Elendil’s Heir, Cameron Nedland, Huon, ClairSamoht, Khoikhoi,Steven X, Foros2000, Decltype, Nakon, Funky Monkey, Iblardi, RandomP, LoveEncounterFlow, Derek R Bullamore, Kleuske, Bombshell,Epf, Matthew hk, Curly Turkey, Clicketyclack, JLogan, Spacejumper, The undertow, SashatoBot, Madchen Hoch, Paul Willocx~enwiki,Lambiam, Vildricianus, Mukadderat, Arnoutf, Niels, MegA, Soap, J. Finkelstein, Cat Parade, Heimstern, Lucius1976, Njk92, Summer-bell, JorisvS, Tim Q. Wells, Texteditor, BenLewy, Deviathan~enwiki, Ckatz, CJ Withers, Agathoclea, Filanca, Vaniba12, FredrickS, Er-win, Clq, CharlesMartel, Sijo Ripa, Jasmbspidy, P199, Hikitsurisan~enwiki, Jose77, Matthew.priem, Samstayton, Keycard, Gandalf1491,Jack Waugh, DouglasCalvert, Iridescent, JMK, Laurens-af, Joseph Solis in Australia, Amakuru, Dionysos1~enwiki, Newyorkbrad, Euro-canna, Bruinfan12, MrBoo, Godlikemammal, Pithecanthropus, INkubusse, Belginusanl, Phillip J, CmdrObot, Amalas, Van helsing, JD-Dunn9, Picaroon, Rulla~enwiki, Collideascope, R9tgokunks, Outriggr (2006-2009), Timtrent, Markosm, Lokal Profil, Smudley~enwiki,FilipeS, Rudjek, Edwing~enwiki, Miketorr, Eve, Cydebot, Red4tribe, Keeshu, Travelbird, Tono-bungay, Sempai, Dusty relic, Roberta F.,Joskramer, Ulritz, Finaldeamon, Viridae, Garik, Richardvanegdom, Omicronpersei8, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot, Fisherjs, Barticus88,Sagaciousuk, WH1953, Helmut the Nut, Marek69, John254, Thor NL, Pemboid, Haleth, Armchairlinguist, SomeHuman, Escarbot, OreoPriest, Dajagr, AntiVandalBot, QuiteUnusual, Erwin85Bot, Flibjib8, Owenb1, Kenny.mak, Zweifel, Vanjagenije, Darklilac, Minhtung91,Hamaryns, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, Coreydragon, Äpple, 100110100, Naval Scene, Magioladitis, Agoston, Wizymon, VoABot II,Apollyon48, Deepdive217, Avicennasis, Chabadam, Marcvanderloo, CodeCat, Clockwork Orange~enwiki, Andres68, SlamDiego, Mino-tauros, Annamuschinzki, Electriceel, JdeJ, Wayne Miller, Exhuy, Welshleprechaun, Adriaan, Magnus Bakken, Adjwilli, Mermaid from theBaltic Sea, Ryanbrock73, Tuggz85, TaliSaar, R'n'B, PrestonH, Lilac Soul, Joebyday, J.delanoy, KramerNL, Thaurisil, Rannit, Robertgreer,Aminullah, Micro01, Bonadea, Ad43, Halmstad, Davecrosby uk, Squids and Chips, Arael2, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Craitman17, W2ch00,Clowningar, VolkovBot, That-Vela-Fella, ABF, TylerJarHead, Scoub, Homun, Funkysapien~enwiki, Rokus01, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT,Jalwikip, Roger Pilgham, Cobylub, Fertejol~enwiki, Wobuzowatsj, Melsaran, Traaymakers, Fractalizator, Martin451, JhsBot, Blakewiki,Davin, Natg 19, Maxim, Ino mart, Rajeshmsharma, Uannis~enwiki, MADe, Lerdthenerd, Meters, Synthebot, Mlsekeres, Jabuuti, Cnilep,Mallerd, Doc James, AlleborgoBot, Thunderbird2, HansHermans, Stryik, SPQRobin, The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick, SieBot, StAnselm,Frans Fowler, BotMultichill, PeterPredator, Jauerback, Fantastic fred, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Albanman, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn,Faradayplank, Targeman, KathrynLybarger, Fratrep, Vicarvictor, Maelgwnbot, Cyfal, BGTopDon, Mygerardromance, Roofbird, Ulamm,Hooiwind, Malbers~enwiki, Trachoni, Regushee, -The Bold Guy-, Francvs, Amazonien, Mr. Granger, Ooswesthoesbes, Cholmondeley-Smythe, ClueBot, Traveler100, Brian Tjoe-Nij, PipepBot, Vacio, Unbuttered Parsnip, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Knepflerle, Mild Bill Hiccup,Joren Frielink, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, RafaAzevedo, Joepnl, Bensci54, DragonBot, Excirial, Pcyrus, Alexbot, Levenius, Gwguffey,Ni'jluuseger, Tnxman307, Foogus, BOTarate, Versus22, Hans Kamp, Csprrr, Lutje, DumZiBoT, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Ag-nosticPreachersKid, Fastily, TaalVerbeteraar, Americo1977, Facts707, SP1R1TM4N, SelfQ, Koraki, D.M. from Ukraine, HP1740-B,Atethnekos, Ben Bezuidenhout, Tifoo, Cuaxdon, Kman543210, Leszek Jańczuk, Scubongo, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Mac Dreamstate,SpillingBot, Jubiline, Fentener van Vlissingen, Jim10701, Joycloete, Buster7, AnnaFrance, Favonian, SpBot, SamatBot, LinkFA-Bot, Wire-maxman, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, Konstantinos~enwiki, Erutuon, MarQ, Handige Harrie, Vrrad, AussieLegend2, Alfie66, Luckas-bot,

15.2 Images 25

Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Yngvadottir, Anypodetos, KamikazeBot, Velocitas, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Mike Hayes, Rjanag, Galou-bet, Yadamavu, Materialscientist, XsadXAliceX, XXGazzaXX, Eumolpo, Maxis ftw, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Daan2,Oyebo, Jouke Bersma, Estlandia~enwiki, TechBot, Francis8836669, Locos epraix, Mikey234534, JanDeFietser, Mark Schierbecker, Ri-botBOT, SassoBot, Mathonius, Dale Chock, Finbarcurtin, The Wiki ghost, GhalyBot, Eisfbnore, N419BH, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT,Grunnen, PM800, SD5, Janssenvisser, Joostik, Hyperboreer, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Thayts, Flip1989, Angeluser, HRoestBot, AmphBot,Gimelthedog, RedBot, Klavertwee, User456, Jeppiz, Reconsider the static, Horst-schlaemma, Cl!ckpop, Leasnam, FoxBot, TobeBot, Lotje,Sattam320, LawBot, Felipito1.966, Sgravn, , Cosijnlv, Watisfictie, Underlying lk, Tony419c, Onel5969, Mindy Dirt, Fornaxx,Rainfrog, EmausBot, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Mordgier, Dewritech, Primefac, RenamedUser01302013, Mmeijeri, K6ka, AvicBot,Nicob1984, Redav, TheV7, Whatisinaname, H3llBot, SporkBot, ScalaDiSeta, Ikkemye, Neddy1234, Hendecagon, Jakywaky, MichaelJackson (not king of pop), Morgengave, ChuispastonBot, Targaryen, LarsJanZeeuwRules, Jkriel, Wafaashohdy, ClueBot NG, I90Christian,Politiek, Jack Greenmaven, Leandro81, Iiii I I I, Gilderien, Movses-bot, Loginnigol, Emmet133, P.regeer, Editør, Frietjes, Mattie156,Costesseyboy, Widr, Grommenzes, Jrobin08, Verhoevenben, JpMarat, Zyztem2000, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Vagobot, Avocato-Bot, Thechampishere101, CarloMartinelli, Accentman, Monsieur H, DPL bot, Glacialfox, Renzootjes, Cassandra Penwarden, Dlituiev,Asenoner, Jak2399, Cyberbot II, David Regimbal, Torvalu4, Khazar2, Dexbot, Elf edit, FoCuSandLeArN, ProSa, Hmainsbot1, Mogism,Lugia2453, Humans Can't Be Trusted, Krakkos, XXelitesnipesXX, Amendez190, MaungSiliwangi, Burninthruthesky, Abrahamic Faiths,Hazelares, Southparkfan, Indikamonatheiya, Vitani III, Hansmuller, Bronx Discount Liquor, SEPRodrigues, Kind Tennis Fan, Anitanegro,UY Scuti, AbelM7, Riaz butt numl, GGmaybelol, Helloworlditsme, Meiræ, JaconaFrere, Library Guy, Onuphriate, Moonchïld9, Monkbot,Iontrail, Gati123, Cole is a lump, Peter238, Banit2014, SalopianTank01,Werzaz, Funny Gardaland, Yeowe, KH-1, Jordyhendrix, Zarpboer,Some Gadget Geek, Anonimmuz, Shahrazkhan, Chilles, Tovasor, Jpmaterial, KasparBot, Wouter Maes, Anne-Sophie Girard, Nieles12 andAnonymous: 973

15.2 Images• File:Amsterdamse_tram_-_De_Red_Crosser_-_from_Flickr_2838709455_cropped_lijnbus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.

org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Amsterdamse_tram_-_De_Red_Crosser_-_from_Flickr_2838709455_cropped_lijnbus.jpg License: CCBY 2.0 Contributors: This file was derived from: Amsterdamse tram - De Red Crosser - from Flickr 2838709455.jpgOriginal artist: Flickr user gen gibson

• File:Bord_Hemelwaterinfiltratiegebied.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Bord_Hemelwaterinfiltratiegebied.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 nl Contributors: Own work Original artist: Onderwijsgek

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Aruba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Aruba.svg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.vexilla-mundi.com/aruba.htm Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svgLicense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Benelux.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Benelux.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Guilherme Paula

• File:Flag_of_CARICOM.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Flag_of_CARICOM.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Denelson83 assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Flag_of_Curaçao.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Flag_of_Cura%C3%A7ao.svg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domainContributors:

• File based on the specification given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp

• File:Flag_of_Sint_Maarten.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Sint_Maarten.svg License:Public domain Contributors: SVG source for the coat of arms is from File:Coat of arms of Sint Maarten.svg, with background colorsand dimensions hand-drawn per previous versions. Original artist: User:Shervinafshar, based on work of User:Washiucho. Earlier non-PDversions by User:SiBr4, User:Fry1989, and User:Andrwsc.

• File:Flag_of_Suriname.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Drawn according Description of flag and Corporate design guidelines - National flag colours. Original artist:Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'/></a>

• File:Flag_of_UNASUR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_UNASUR.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on official emblem provided by UNASUR. Original artist: Oficina de Coordinación UNASUR

• File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:GERMANICEXPANSION.GIF Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/GERMANICEXPANSION.GIFLicense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

26 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Gallee_(cropped).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Gallee_%28cropped%29.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: scan from 1895 facsimile (2009); other version at titus.uni-frankfurt.de Original artist: Anonymous

• File:Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Based on Germanic Groups ca. 0CE.jpg by Varoon Arya (source used is König,Werner (2001). dtv-Atlas Deutsche Sprache. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag 2001. ISBN: 3-423-03025-9; pp. 46, 52.). Addi-tionally, corrections have been made (e.g. North Germanic spoken on the island of Zealand, rather than East Germanic). Original artist:Hayden120

• File:Idioma_neerlandés.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Idioma_neerland%C3%A9s.PNG Li-cense: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fobos92

• File:Koart_Leegsaksisch.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Koart_Leegsaksisch.png License: CCBY2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: nds-nl:Gebruker:Grönneger 1

• File:Letter-frequency_West-Germanic.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Letter-frequency_West-Germanic.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wouter Maes

• File:LocationNetherlandsAntillesWithAruba.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/LocationNetherlandsAntillesWithAruba.png License: Public domain Contributors:

• LocationNetherlandsAntilles.png Original artist: LocationNetherlandsAntilles.png: User:Vardion• File:LocationSuriname.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/LocationSuriname.png License: Public do-

main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?• File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contrib-

utors: New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected byZoid

• File:Map_Dutch_World_scris.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Map_Dutch_World_scris.png Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Niederländische_Dialekte.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Niederl%C3%A4ndische_Dialekte.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: selbst gezeichnet) Original artist: Et Mikkel at GermanWikipedia

• File:OldDutcharea.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/OldDutcharea.png License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Parentesi_Quadre.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Parentesi_Quadre.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: GJo

• File:South_Africa_Afrikaans_speakers_proportion_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/South_Africa_2011_Afrikaans_speakers_proportion_map.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Statistics South Africa’s Census 2011is the source of the basic population data. The map results from my own processing of the data. For ward boundaries see File:South Africaelectoral wards 2011 blank.svg. Original artist: Htonl

• File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readableauthor provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:West_Germanic_languages_(simplified).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/18/West_Germanic_languages_%28simplified%29.png License: PD Contributors:I created this work entirely by myself. Based on a commons image released into the public.Original artist:HP1740-B (talk)

• File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad

• File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: File:Wikipedia-logo.svg as of 2010-05-14T23:16:42 Original artist: version 1 by Nohat (concept by Paullusmagnus); Wiki-media.

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

• File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CCBY-SA 3.0Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p)

• File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw

• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

15.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0