t CENGAGE Learning*
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore United Kingdom • United States
E. Bruce Goldstein University of Pittsburgh University of Arizona
Connecting Mind, Research, and
Everyday Experience
4th Edition
Contents
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 2
Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind 4
What Is the Mind? 5
Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology 5
Abandoning the Study of the Mind 9
Watson Founds Behaviorism 9
Skinner's Operant Conditioning 10
Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology 11
The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind 12
Introduction of the Digital Computer 12
Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory 13
The Cognitive "Revolution" Took a While 14
Looking Ahead 14
Modern Research in Cognitive Psychology 15
Following a Trail: How Research Progresses From One Question to Another 15
The Role of Models in Cognitive Psychology 17
Something to Consider: Learning From This Book 20
• TEST YOURSELF 1.1 21
Chapter Summary 21
Think About It 22
Key Terms , , , 22
CogLab Experiment.,.. ...22
CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Neuroscience 24
Why Study Cognitive Neuroscience? 27
Neurons: Communication and Representation 28
The Microstructure of the Brain: Neurons 28
The Signals That Travel in Neurons 30
Method: Recording From a Neuron 31
The Principle of Neural Representation 33
Representation by Neurons 33
Representation by Single Neurons 34
Sensory Coding 35
«TEST YOURSELF 2.1 38
Organization: Neuropsychology and Recording From Neurons 39
Localization Demonstrated by Neuropsychology 39
Method: Demonstrating a Double Dissociation 40
Localization Demonstrated by Recording From Neurons 40
Organization: Brain Imaging 41
Method: Brain Imaging 41
Brain Imaging Evidence for Localization of Function 42
Distributed Representation Across the Brain 44
All Together Now: Neural Networks 45
Something to Consider: What Neuroscience Tells Us About Cognition 46
TEST YOURSELF 2.2 47
Chapter Summary 48
Think About It 48
Key Terms.,,, , , , , .„„.49
Coglab Experiment ...,„ , .....49
CHAPTER 3 Perception .....50
The Nature of Perception 52
Some Basic Characteristics of Perception 52
Perceiving a Scene 53
Demonstration: Perceptual Puzzles in a Scene 54
Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? 57
The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous 57
Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred 57
Objects Look Different From Different Viewpoints 58
Information for Human Perception 59
Perceiving Objects 59
Demonstration: Finding Faces in a Landscape 60
Hearing Words in a Sentence 60
Experiencing Pain 61
TEST YOURSELF 3.1 63
Conceptions of Object Perception 63
Helmholtz's Theory of Unconscious Inference 63
The Gestalt Principles of Organization 64
Taking Regularities of the Environment Into Account 67
Demonstration: Visualizing Scenes and Objects 69
Bayesian Inference 70
Comparing the Four Approaches 71
t TEST YOURSELF 3.2 72
Neurons and Knowledge About the Environment 72
Neurons That Respond to Horizontals and Verticals 72
Experience-Dependent Plasticity 73
The Interaction Between Perceiving and Taking Action 74
Movement Facilitates Perception „ 74
The Interaction of Perception and Act ion. / 75
The Physiology of Perception and Action 76
Method: Brain Ablation 76
Picking Up a Coffee Cup and Other Behayiors 78
Something to Consider: Where Perception fleets Memory 79
Method: Recording From Single Neurons in Humans 79
• TEST YOURSELF 3.3 80
Chapter Summary 81
Think About It 81
Key Terms 8Z
Coglab Experiments .„83
CHAPTER 4 Attention 84
Attention as Information Processing 87
Broadbent's Filter Model of Attention 87
Demonstration: Focusing on One Message 88
Modifying Broadbent's Model: More Early Selection Models 89
A Late Selection Model 91
Processing Capacity and Perceptual Load 91
Demonstration: The Stroop Effect 93
TEST YOURSELF 4.1 94
Attention as Selection: Overt and Covert Attention 94
Overt Attention: Scanning a Scene With Eye Movements 95
Demonstration: Looking for a Face in a Crowd 95
Demonstration: Looking Off to the Side 95
Covert Attention: Directing Attention Without Eye Movements 98
Method: Precueing 99
Divided Attention: Can We Attend to More Than One Thing at a Time? 100
Divided Attention Can Be Achieved With Practice:
Automatic Processing 101
Divided Attention Becomes More Difficult When Tasks Are Harder 102
Distractions While Driving 102
TEST YOURSELF 4,2 104
What Happens When We Don't Attend? 105
Inattentional Blindness 105
Change Detection 106
Demonstration: Change Detection 106
What About Everyday Experience? 107
Attention and Experiencing a Coherent World 109
Why Is Binding Necessary? 109
Feature Integration Theory 109
Demonstration: Searching for Conjunctions 111
Something to Consider: Taking Possession by the Brain 112
TEST YOURSELF 43 114
Chapter Summary 115
Think About It 116
Key Terms , 116
CogLab Experiments , , 117
CHAPTER 5 Short-Term and Working Memory ..,.,. , „....118
The Modal Model of Memory 121
Sensory Memory 122
The Sparkler's Trail and the Projector's Shutter 122
Sperling's Experiment: Measuring the Capacity and Duration of the Sensory Store 124
Short-Term Memory 126
Method: Recall 127
What Is the Duration of Short-Term Memory? 127
Demonstration: Remembering Three Letters 127
How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? 129
Demonstration: Digit Span 129
Method: Change Detection 129
Demonstration: Remembering Letters 130
How Much Information Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? 131
TEST YOURSELF 5.1 132
Working Memory 133
Demonstration: Reading Text and Remembering Numbers 134
The Phonological Loop 135
Demonstration: Word Length Effect 135
Demonstration: Articulatory Suppression 136
TheVisuospatial Sketch Pad 136
Demonstration: Comparing Objects 137
Demonstration: Recalling Visual Patterns 137
Demonstration: Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind 138
The Central Executive 138
Method: Event-Related Potential 139
The Episodic Buffer 141
Working Memory and the Brain 141
The Effect of Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex 142
Prefrontal Neurons That Hold Information 143
Holding Information in the Visual Cortex 143
Method: Neural Mind Reading 145
Something to Consider: Math Performance and Working Memory 146
TEST YOURSELF 5.2 147
Chapter Summary , 147
Think About It 148
Key Terms ..,.,. , , , , 148
CogLab Experiments 149
CHAPTER 6 Long-Term Memory; Structure 150
Comparing Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Processes 152
Method: Measuring a Serial Position Curve 154
Serial Position Curve 154
Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 157
Method: Measuring Recognition Memory 158
Demonstration: Reading a Passage 159
Comparing Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 159
Locating Memory in the Brain 160
TEST YOURSELF 6.1 161
Episodic and Semantic Memory 162
Distinctions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory 162
Interactions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory 164
What Happens to Episodic and Semantic Memories as Time Passes? 165
Method: Remember/Know Procedure 165
Imagining the Future 166
TEST YOURSELF 6.2 167
Procedural Memory, Priming, and Conditioning 168
Procedural Memory 168
Demonstration: Mirror Drawing 169
Priming 170
Method: Avoiding Explicit Remembering in a Priming Experiment 171
Classical Conditioning 172
Something to Consider: Memory Loss in the Movies 172
TEST YOURSELF 6.3 174
Chapter Summary 174
Think About It 175
Key Terms 176
CogLab Experiments 176
CHAPTER? Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation.... ........178
Encoding: Getting Information Into Long-Term Memory 180
Levels of Processing Theory 180
Forming Visual Images 181
Linking Words to Yourself 182
Generating Information 182
Organizing Information 182
Demonstration: Reading a List 183
Relating Words to Survival Value 185
Demonstration: Remembering Lists 185
Retrieval Practice 186
TEST YOURSELF 71 187
Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory 187
Retrieval Cues 188
Method: Cued Recall 188
Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval 189
TEST YOURSELF 72 192
Consolidation: The Life History of Memories 193
Synaptic Consolidation: Experience Causes Changes at the Synapse 193
Systems Consolidation: The Hippocampus and the Cortex 195
Consolidation and Sleep: Enhancing Memory 197
Consolidation and Retrieval: Reconsolidation 198
Something to Consider: Effective Studying 202
TEST YOURSELF 73 204
Chapter Summary 204
Think About It 205
Key Terms , 205
CogLab Experiments , 205
CHAPTER 8 Everyday Memory and Memory Errors , 206
Autobiographical Memory: What Has Happened in My Life 208
The Multidimensional Nature of AM 208
Memory Over the Life Span 209
Memory for "Exceptional" Events 212
Memory and Emotion 212
Flashbulb Memories 213
Method: Repeated Recall 214
TEST YOURSELF 8.1 218
The Constructive Nature of Memory 218
Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" Experiment 218
Source Monitoring and Source Monitoring Errors 219
Method: Testing for Source Monitoring 221
How Real-World Knowledge Affects Memory 222
Demonstration: Reading Sentences 223
Demonstration: Memory for a List 225
Taking Stock: The Pluses and Minuses of Construction 225
TEST YOURSELF 8.2 227
Memory Can Be Modified or Created by Suggestion 227
The Misinformation Effect 227
Method: Presenting Misleading Postevent Information 227
Creating False Memories for Early Events in People's Lives 230
Why Do People Make Errors in Eyewitness Testimony? 231
Errors of Eyewitness Identification 231
Errors Associated With Perception and Attention 232
Misidentifications Due to Familiarity 232
Errors Due to Suggestion 233
What Is Being Done? 236
Something to Consider: The Power of Pictures 238
TEST YOURSELF 8.3 239
Demonstration: Reading Sentences (continued) 240
Chapter Summary... 240
Think About It 241
Key Terms 242
CogLab Experiments 242
CHAPTER 9 Knowledge .......244
How Are Objects Placed Into Categories? 247
Why Definitions Don't Work for Categories 247
The Prototype Approach: Finding the Average Case 249
Demonstration: Family Resemblance 250
Method: Sentence Verification Technique 250
The Exemplar Approach: Thinking About Examples 253
Which Approach Works Better: Prototypes or Exemplars? 253
Is There a Psychologically "Privileged" Level of Categories? 253
Rosch's Approach: What's Special About Basic Level Categories? 254
Demonstration: Listing Common Features 254
Demonstration: Naming Things 255
How Knowledge Can Affect Categorization 255
TEST YOURSELF 9.1 256
Representing Relationships Between Categories: Semantic Networks 256
Introduction to Semantic Networks: Collins and Quillian's Hierarchical Model 256
Method: Lexical Decision Task 259
Criticism of the Collins and Quillian Model 259
Representing Concepts in Networks: The Connectionist Approach 260
What Is a Connectionist Model? 260
How Are Concepts Represented in a Connectionist Network? 261
The Representation of Concepts in the Brain 264
The Sensory-Functional Hypothesis 265
The Semantic Category Approach 265
The Multiple-Factor Approach 266
The Embodied Approach 268
Sorting Out the Approaches 269
Something to Consider: The Hub and Spoke Model 270
Method: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) 270
tTEST YOURSELF 9.2 271
Chapter Summary 272
Think About It 272
Key Terms 273
Cogtab Experiments 273
CHAPTER 10 Visual Imagery. 274
Demonstration: Experiencing Imagery 276
Imagery in the History of Psychology 277
Early Ideas About Imagery 277
Imagery and the Cognitive Revolution 277
Method: Paired-Associate Learning 277
Imagery and Perception: Do They Share the Same Mechanisms? 278
Kosslyn's Mental Scanning Experiments 278
Method/Demonstration: Mental Scanning 279
The Imagery Debate: Is Imagery Spatial or Propositional? 279
Comparing Imagery and Perception 282
Is There a Way to Resolve the Imagery Debate? 283
TEST YOURSELF 10.1 284
Imagery and the Brain 284
Imagery Neurons in the Brain 284
Brain Imaging 285
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 287
Neuropsychological Case Studies 287
Conclusions From the Imagery Debate 290
Using Imagery to Improve Memory 291
(Placing Images at Locations 291
Demonstration: Method of Loci 292
Associating Images With Words 292
Something to Consider: Visual Imagery and Food Craving 292
TEST YOURSELF 10.2 294
Chapter Summary 294
Think About It 295
Key Terms 295
Coglab Experiments „295
CHAPTER 11 Language , 296
What Is Language? 298
The Creativity of Human Language 298
The Universal Need to Communicate With Language 298
Studying Language 299
Perceiving Phonemes, Words, and Letters 300
Components of Words 300
How Perceiving Sounds and Letters Is Affected by Meaning 301
Method: The Word Superiority Effect 303
Understanding Words 303
The Word Frequency Effect 304
Demonstration: The Lexical Decision Task 304
Method: Eye Movements in Reading 305
Lexical Ambiguity 305
TEST YOURSELF 11.1 307
Understanding Sentences 308
Semantics and Syntax 308
Method: The Event-Related Potential and Language 309
Understanding Sentences: Parsing 310
The Syntax-First Approach to Parsing 311
The Interactionist Approach to Parsing 312
TEST YOURSELF 11.2 317
Understanding Text and Stories 317
Making Inferences 317
Situation Models 319
Producing Language: Conversations 322
Taking the Other Person Into Account 322
Syntactic Coordination 324
Method: Syntactic Priming 324
Something to Consider: Culture, Language, and Cognition 326
TEST YOURSELF 11.3 329
Chapter Summary 330
Think About It 331
Key Terms 331
CogLab Experiments ,...,.,. , 332
CHAPTER 12 Problem Solving 334
What Is a Problem? 336
The Gestalt Approach: Problem Solving as Representation and Restructuring 336
Representing a Problem in the Mind 336
& - : , • : .
Restructuring and Insight 337
Demonstration: Two Insight Problems 338
Obstacles to Problem Solving 338
Demonstration: The Candle Problem 339
Modern Research on Problem Solving: The Information-Processing Approach 341
Newell and Simon's Approach 341
Demonstration: Tower of Hanoi Problem 342
The Importance of How a Problem Is Stated 345
Demonstration: The Mutilated Checkerboard Problem 346
Method: Think-Aloud Protocol 347
TEST YOURSELF 12.1 348
Using Analogies to Solve Problems 348
Analogical Transfer 349
Analogical Problem Solving and the Duncker Radiation Problem 349
Demonstration: Duncker's Radiation Problem 349
Analogical Encoding 353
Analogy in the Real World 354
Method: In Vivo Problem-Solving Research 354
How Experts Solve Problems 355
Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems 355
Expertise Is Only an Advantage in the Expert's Specialty 357
Creative Problem Solving 357
What Is Creativity? 358
Practical Creativity 358
Generating Ideas 360
Demonstration: Creating an Object 361
Something to Consider: Creativity, Mental Illness, and the Open Mind 363
'EST YOURSELF 12.2 364
Chapter Summary .,.,.365
Think About It 366
Key Terms ..., 366
CHAPTER 13 Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning 368
Making Judgments 370
The Nature of Inductive Reasoning 370
The Availability Heuristic 371
Demonstration: Which Is More Prevalent? 371
The Representativeness Heuristic 373
Demonstration: Judging Occupations 373
Demonstration: Description of a Person 374
Demonstration: Male and Female Births 375
Preconceptions, Attitudes, and Judgment 376
# TEST YOURSELF 13.1 377
Decision Making: Choosing Among Alternatives 378
The Utility Approach to Decisions 378
How Emotions Affect Decisions 381
Decisions Can Depend on the Context Within Which They Are Made 382
Decisions Can Depend on How Choices Are Presented 383
Demonstration: What Would You Do? 384
Neuroeconomics:The Neural Basis of Decision Making 385
TEST YOURSELF 13.2 386
Deductive Reasoning: Syllogisms and Logic 387
Validity and Truth in Syllogisms 387
Mental Models of Deductive Reasoning 389
Conditional Syllogisms 391
Conditional Reasoning: The Wason Four-Card Problem 393
Demonstration: Wason Four-Card Problem 393
What Has the Wason Problem Taught Us? 396
Something to Consider: The Dual Systems Approach to Thinking 396
Postscript: Donders Returns 398
TEST YOURSELF 13.3 399
Chapter Summary 399
Think About It 400
Key Terms .,.,. 401
Coglab Experiments...,,,. , , 401
Glossary 402 References 427 Name Index 447 Subject Index 454
