Early Childhood Development - Chapter Three (Trawick-Smith) 2014

Chapter 1 Introduction to Clinical PharmacologyJeffrey Trawick-Smith
Sixth Edition
© 2014, 2010, 2006, 2003, 2000 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
A Multicultural Perspective
Theories of Child Development
KEY QUESTIONS
How can theories be useful in working with young children?
What are the key tenets, applications, criticisms, and limitations of the major child development theories?
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MAJOR DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
KEY QUESTIONS
In what ways does new research on the brain help professionals apply each theory of development in the early childhood classroom?
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ABOUT CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
Each theory is based on:
research
Some theories are:
interrelated and complementary
Trawick-Smith Early Childhood Development: A Multicultural Perspective, 6e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
A theory of child development is a belief system about how and why children grow, learn, and behave as they do. Theories are very practical; they can guide adults in making decisions about teaching and caring for children.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #1
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Clarify your own theories about children and how they develop.
A clearly articulated theory leads to thoughtful and consistent parenting and teaching.
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HOW ARE THEORIES USEFUL?
Purpose for routines and rules
Consistency in practice
Seven predominant theories of child development can be identified in the literature. All hold some value in resolving classroom dilemmas. Each provides useful guidance to parents and teachers.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #2
Become familiar with alternative theories of child development.
Borrow critical concepts and strategies from each theory in your professional practice.
MATURATIONAL THEORY
Characteristics and abilities unfold as children mature.
Assigns relatively little importance to the environment, BUT:
Developmental problems can occur if the environment restricts normal growth.
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VALIDATION OF MATURATIONAL THEORY
Research supports a strong genetic influence on SOME developmental traits:
Some developmental characteristics emerge in a fixed order at about the same age, even when environmental conditions are very different!
e.g. walking
Some personality characteristics seem to be strongly influenced by genetics
e.g. temperament, attention span, schizophrenia
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CRITIQUE OF MATURATIONAL THEORY
Example:
More than ½ of intelligence can be accounted for by environmental factors
‘heritability ratio’
CONCERNS ABOUT MATURATIONAL THEORY
‘buy a year’ = ‘lose a year’ ?
Genetic determinism cultural bias
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The maturationist theory holds that most of what children become is inherited at birth.
Behaviors and abilities simply unfold as children mature.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #3
Recognize that some characteristics of children are genetically determined at birth.
Appreciate and accept diverse interpersonal styles and temperaments that are part of children’s biological heritage.
Adapt classrooms to meet the unique inborn traits of individual children instead of expecting them to adapt to classrooms.
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BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Children’s development depends entirely on their experiences with the environment.
Children are ‘blank slates.’
All learning is observable behavior.
Learning occurs in small incremental steps.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Learning to respond to a neutral event with the same behavior as to a naturally pleasurable (or unpleasurable) one
Adults can use this process to shape children’s behavior.
Watson conditioned Little Albert to be afraid of rats by associating them with a startling noise
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
Learning of desirable behaviors by being systematically rewarded for them.
Behavior can only be shaped gradually in small steps.
Skinner recommended:
Rewarding good behavior with reinforcers such as praise and tangible rewards
Ignoring undesirable behavior
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Imitation is more likely if children see behavior being rewarded.
Children will repeat imitated behavior if they are rewarded for it.
Major researcher = Bandura
LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Reinforcement and modeling do not completely explain some kinds of learning.
Examples:
New utterances and words.
New ways of thinking.
Does not take into account the development of internal, mental states and their role in learning.
Praise and rewards can be excessive and limit learning, creativity, and self-esteem.
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CRITIQUE OF BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Positive reinforcement is not useful for children in some cultural groups.
Ex: Asian cultures value modesty
Problems can occur when adults reinforce behaviors not valued by some cultural groups
confusing socialization signals
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CRITIQUE OF BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Longitudinal studies have shown that behavioristically based programs do not work well for some children.
Historically underrepresented groups
Low SES families
Behaviorist theory holds that the child is a blank slate at birth and is filled in over time by experience.
From this perspective, adults can use rewards, praise, modeling, and other tools to shape children’s development in any desired direction.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #4
Use positive feedback and other rewards to influence children’s behavior.
Behave as you want children to behave – they will imitate what you do.
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PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
internal desires and impulses
FREUD’S PERSPECTIVE
Id
Present at birth
Develops throughout childhood
End of childhood
ERIKSON’S PERSPECTIVE
Infancy
Toddler
Independence Individuality and uniqueness
School Years
LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Ignores interrelatedness of physical, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual.
Theory is based on small sample of observations.
Freud: upper-class Viennese women
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CRITIQUE OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Ex: autonomy and individualism less valued in collectivistic cultures
Males are considered normal – females are considered deficient.
Autonomy is ‘male’ value and attachment and intimacy are more‘female,’but the latter is viewed as a sign of overdependence.
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Psychoanalysts focus on personality formation, characterizing growth as resolving conflicts between inner desires and demands of the outer world.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #5
Be nurturing and responsive to the needs of infants and toddlers so children will learn to trust.
Encourage autonomy by allowing exploration and self-expression without punishment and over-restriction.
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Promote a sense of initiative by encouraging children to assert themselves, be creative, take risks, and reach out to peers.
Promote a sense of industry – a feeling of competence – by providing experiences with success.
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COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
Intellectual growth is the most important aspect of development.
Almost all aspects of life directly influenced by thinking and language.
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PIAGET’S PERSPECTIVE
Knowledge is actively constructed through the action of the learner.
Learning involves action.
PIAGET’S PERSPECTIVE
Learning process = assimilation
Assimilation: New information is integrated into what we already know
Accommodation: What we already know is changed to make room for new information
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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
AGE STAGE DESCRIPTION
Birth 18 mos.
18 mos 6/7 yrs.
8 12 yrs.
12 yrs Adult
LIMITATIONS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
Research indicates children may be more intellectually competent than Piaget thought.
Ex: Mexican children with pottery experience understand quantity at an earlier age than Piaget would predict
Piaget’s observations reflect development in only one culture.
Focus on PROCESSES could make this theory applicable to a variety of cultures.
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SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Focuses on the influence of language, social interaction, and culture on intellectual development
Most prominent figure: Lev Vygotsky
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VYGOTSKY’S PERSPECTIVE
Non-conceptual speech = making sounds that don’t have meaning
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Toddlers learn to connect language and thinking by associating meaning with sounds.
Preschoolers and primary-aged children use language and thought together:
Verbal thought: Concepts are understood by using words.
Self-directed speech: Using language to guide learning
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Goal is for children to learn to solve problems independently.
Learning occurs when challenge is just slightly above child’s ability level.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Zone in which children can learn with indirect help.
Scaffolding
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LIMITATIONS AND MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Collaborative approach to joint problem-solving reflects non-Western collective culture.
Appreciates the influence of culture on development.
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Cognitive-developmental and sociocultural theories focus on the critical role of intellectual functioning in development.
Development is an active, internal construction of knowledge.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #6
Sociocultural theorists view language and social interaction as an integral part of mental growth.
Intellectual development is seen as an active and internal construction of knowledge.
Sociocultural theory is viewed as one of the more culturally sensitive perspective on child development.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #6 (cont).
Provide interesting experiences, ask questions, and pose challenges that lead children to actively solve problems and construct their own knowledge of the world.
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Scaffold children’s learning by asking questions, prompting, or giving hints when a child is within the zone of proximal development.
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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
Focus is on intellectual development and learning by active construction of meaning from the world.
Focus is on the roles of specific processes in learning:
Previous knowledge and thinking skills
Attention
Remembering
Computers provide an analogy for thinking
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CONCEPTS FROM
INFORMATION PROCESSING
To learn, children must pay attention to the important aspects of a learning task and ignore irrelevant information.
Children gradually learn how to focus their attention on what is most important.
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CONCEPTS FROM
To learn, children must actively choose learning strategies to store the information they want to remember.
Rehearsal = repetition
Children gradually learn how to use these strategies.
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CONCEPTS FROM
Children gradually learn what the word “remember” means and how to gain control over the learning process.
Social information processing theorists apply these principles to helping children learn social skills.
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STRENGTHS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS THEORY
Compatible with cognitive-developmental and sociocultural developmental theories
Useful in explaining how children learn in specific social situations
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LIMITATIONS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
Focus is on specific learning situations rather than broader cognitive processes.
Little detail is provided about the nature of stored memories.
Research has been done on Euro-American children without considering cultural differences.
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The information processing theory describes how children use memory, attention, and other specific learning processes to learn in new situations.
Social information processing theorists show how the theory is useful in helping children process and resolve social problems, using previously stored experiences to guide them.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #7
Help children become aware of and use attention and memory to solve problems by pointing out the things that are most important for them to attend to or remember.
Guide children in social situations by helping them pay attention to social cues—smiling, crying, shouting—of peers and to reflect on past experiences in resolving conflicts.
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ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
Leading proponent: Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecology = the settings and institutions that influence the growing person
Ecologies lie in interacting system layers around the developing person
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BRONFENBRENNERS’ ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Listed in the order they most directly influence the child.
SYSTEM
INSTITUTIONS
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
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STRENGTHS OF ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
Very useful in identifying social issues concerning children in poverty or in historically underrepresented groups
Emphasizes the important of family and cultural influences on individual development
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LIMITATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
Little research has been done from this perspective– very time-consuming and challenging
Rather, research has focused on specific microsystem and exosystem factors that influence children’s health and risk:
Risk factors = conditions leading to poor development
Protective factors = conditions that may insulate children from harm
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RESEARCH FINDINGS
Risk factors:
poverty – lack of social services – violence in the community – poor housing – family disharmony – child abuse
Protective factors
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Ecological systems theories hold that developmental processes do not occur in a psychological vacuum but rather that individual child development is influenced by factors in the immediate environment as well as society and culture as a whole.
Ecological systems theories are thought to be most useful in defining social issues and guiding social policy decisions.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #8
Realize that classroom intervention alone will not ensure positive child development.
Family, community, and societal factors must also be optimal for children to learn and be healthy.
Help parents and families access community resources.
Expand your role as a professional to include advocacy.
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In what ways does new research on the brain help professionals apply each theory of development in the early childhood classroom?
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NEUROSCIENCE AND THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
The investigation of the structure and mechanisms of the brain and how they affect development
Methods include:
MRI: Magnetic scanner used to take pictures of tissues in the brain, connections between them, and brain activity (as indicated by blood flow)
ERP: Measures electrical activity in the brain in response to actions and stimuli
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NEUROSCIENCE AND MATURATIONIST THEORY
Normative growth of critical brain regions occurs during development. Parents and teachers should reduce stress on children to allow these important developments to occur.
Changes in brain chemistry over time are related to maturation of temperament and other factors.
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NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Neuroscientists have identified a reward center in the brain:
Allows humans and other animals to respond to and be reinforced by reward
Children particularly responsive to reward, including social reward from positive teacher and peer responses
Children’s brains are more responsive to positive feedback than negative feedback
Parents and teachers should be aware of the importance of social rewards in structuring learning!
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NEUROSCIENCE AND PYSCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Certain brain regions have been associated with Freud and Erikson’s concepts:
Frontal lobe: Responsible for regulation of emotions and behavior, much like the ego and superego
Fusiform face area: Activated by human faces at birth, suggests a potential innate tendency to connect with other humans and promote trust
Research suggests children may benefit from exposure to some stressors. Schedule changes, meeting new people, and gaining increased responsibility promote healthy brain growth.
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NEUROSCIENCE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
Social interaction activates various neural areas, leading them to become more connected over time
Social interaction during learning leads to greater neural activation than learning alone
Implication: To promote cognitive growth, children should be exposed to a variety of types of social interactions. Language and social interaction play an important role in scaffolding learning.
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NEUROSCIENCE AND INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
Neuroscientists have identified regions of the brain that regulate attention and memory.
Some regions that are involved in social processing also regulate attention and memory.
-Highlights the interrelatedness of social and cognitive processing
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NEUROSCIENCE AND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
The brain is influenced by each layer and system.
-Ex. Government cuts in nutrition programs for pregnant mothers (macrosystem) negatively influence brain development of the growing fetus
Children in poverty more susceptible to harmful influences of various systems.
- Neural regions associated with self-control, memory, and language negatively affected
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New research on the brain allows professionals to better understand why children think, learn, and behave as they do.
This research does not answer, once and for all, which theory of development is most accurate or how professionals should address children’s problems.
It does provide guidance to teachers on how each theory can be applied and made more effective in the classroom.
CRITICAL CONCEPT #9
Promote healthy brain maturation by providing nutritious snacks and lunches and encourage parents to provide good nutrition at home.
Before using praise and rewards, observe children to determine what experiences are rewarding to them and whether children are responsive to these strategies
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Use positive peer interactions as a reward.
Reduce major classroom stressors but provide some minor “good stress” such as providing responsibilities and challenging learning tasks.
Provide diverse challenges, including social problems to solve, so that children can use all parts of their brain.
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Ask questions, use language, and pose attention and memory tasks.

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Early Childhood Development - Chapter Three (Trawick-Smith) 2014

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