Chapter 19

Early Latin AmericaChapter 19

15th 16th centuries : Spain and Portugal created empires in AmericaIn contrast to Russia, these were dependent empiresWestern forms were imposed on many Latin American people, Russian leaders decided what aspects of the West to borrowWestern advantages gunpowder, metal equipment, horses, diseaseConquerors force highly unequal relationships on subject populations

Latin America was immediately drawn into New World economyProvided silver, new crops, and other goodsSocieties of Latin America created new political and cultural formsSpanish and Portuguese (Iberians) mixed with Native Americans (and their earlier civilization forms) and imported African slavesPortuguese, English, Spanish, and French all created large landed estates (plantations) worked by coerced laborers ultimately African slavesEuropeans exploited precious metals when they were discovered

Spaniards and Portuguese: From Reconquest to ConquestIberian Peninsula Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, GothsDuring the Middle Ages had become a cultural frontier between Christianity and IslamCreated a strong tradition of military conquest and rule over peoples of other beliefs and customsChristian Kingdoms had emergedPortugal (Atlantic coast)Aragon (Eastern Spain)Castile (center of Iberian Peninsula)

Mid-15th century process of political and religious unification of Iberian PeninsulaFerdinand of AragonIsabella of Castile1492 - With the fall of Granada (the last Muslim Kingdom) Christianity triumphed throughout the peninsulaIsabella ordered Jews within her territory to convert or leave the countryWould ultimately support Christopher Columbus

Iberian Society and TraditionSpanish and Portuguese were heavily urbanMany peasants living in small towns and villagesMany commoners who came to America as conquerors sought to recreate themselves as a new nobilityWould use Indians as their serfsEncomiendas provided the framework for relations based on economic dominanceIberian peninsula maintained a tradition of holding slavesAfrican slaves had been imported from the trans-Sahara tradeThe extension of slavery to America built on this tradition

Political centralization of both Portugal and Castile depended on a professional bureaucracyLawyers and judgesComparison with ChinaReligion and the church played an important role in Iberian politicsClose links between church and stateWould extend to the New WorldIn the Atlantic islands, extensive estates were established, leading to a slave trade with Africa and a highly commercial agricultural system based on sugarBrazil would extend this patternThe Chronology of Conquest1492-1570 : Era of ConquestMain lines of administration and economy were set outHuman destruction and creationVast areas of two continents and millions of people were brought under European control1570-1700: Phase of consolidation and maturityColonial institutions and societies took their definite form18th century: Period of reform and reorganizationSpanish AmericaPortuguese BrazilIntensified the colonial relationshipPlanted the seeds of dissatisfaction and revoltThe Caribbean CrucibleAfter Columbus's original voyage in 1492, a return expedition in the next year established a colony on island of Santo Domingo (Hispaniloa)1508 - Puerto Rico 1511 Cuba1513 settlements existed in Panama and on northern coast of South AmericaAll fell under Spanish control

In the Caribbean, the agricultural Taino Indians of the islands provided surplus of laborEncomienda grants of Indians given to individual SpanishSimilar to serfdomGold hunting, slaving, and European diseases rapidly depopulated the islandsWithin two decades little was left there to hold Spanish attentionSpanish would set up a few strongly fortified ports to guard their commerce, but Caribbean would become a colonial backwater until sugar and slaves created resurgence

The Caribbean served as a testing groundSpaniards established Iberian-style cities but had to adapt them to American realitiesHurricanes and Indians caused many towns to be moved or abandonedRoyal administrationCreation of administrative institutionsGovernorshipTreasury officeRoyal court of appeals (staffed by professional magistrates)A body of laws was developed based on those of Spain (and changed by American experience)The church First individual priestsThen missionaries (such as the Dominicans)1530 cathedral built on Hispaniola

Rumors and hopes stimulated immigration from Spain1510 large numbers of Spanish womenImportation of African slaves to work on few sugar plantations that operated on islandsVirtual annihilation of the Indians on CaribbeanWithin 30 years most of the Indian population had died or been killedDestruction of Indians led to further expeditions toward the mainlandTransformation of the islands economies sugar productionWould setup African slave trade

As early as 1510 the mistreatment and destruction of the Indians led to attempts by clerics and royal administrators to end the worst abusesDominican friar Bartolome de Las Casas (1484-1566)Conquistador turned priestInitiated the struggle for justice

The Paths of ConquestIn less than a century, a large portion of two continents and islands, inhabited by millions of people, was brought under Spanish controlSpanish expeditions 50 to 500 menAfter conquest women, missionaries, administrators, and artisans came in to form societyConquerors

HERNAN CORTES Mexico/AztecsFRANCISCO PIZARRO- Peru/IncaThe conquest of the Americas was two prongedMexico South America1519 Hernan Cortes led an expedition of 600 men to the coast of MexicoEstablished base at VeracruzBattled towns subject to Aztec Empire Created alliancesReached island capital TenochtitlanAztec emperor Moctezuma II was captured and killed

1535 most of central Mexico had been brought under Spanish control as the kingdom of New SpainNetwork of towns Dense agricultural populationsSpanish pushed their conquest southward into Guatemala and Honduras and northward into the area of the nomadic Indians of north central Mexico

Second area of conquests was northern South America and Panama1535 Francisco Pizarro led his men to the conquest of the Inca Empire (had been weakened by long civil war)Fewer than 200 Spaniards and Indian allies brought a great Indian Empire down1533 Cuzco fellSpanish decided to build their major city at LimaCloser to the coast1540 most of Peru was under Spanish controlActive resistance continued for another 30 years

1540-1542: Francisco Vazquez de CoronadoSearching for mythical cities of goldSouthwestern United States (as far as Kansas)1541 Pedro de ValdiviaConquered the Araucanian Indians of central Chile Setup Santiago1536 Spain founded Buenos Aires1541-1542: Gonzalo PizarroWent into Amazon Basin1570 192 Spanish cities and towns throughout the Americas

The ConquerorsFew of the conquerors were professional soldiersIn general, the conquerors were men on the make, hoping to better themselves and serve God by converting the IndiansMost conquerors were satisfied by grants of Indians, who could be taxed or put to workHorses, firearms, and steel weapons gave them a great advantage over the stone technology of the IndiansEuropeans aided by diseaseInternal divisions and rivalries within the Indian Empires made civilizations vulnerable

1570 age of conquest coming to a closeGeneration of conquerors were replacedBureaucratsMerchantsColonistsInstitutions of colonial rule and basis of economy were regularizedViceroysLaw courts in main centersConquest and MoralityWho were the Indians?Were they fully human?Not fully humanBorn to serveWas it proper to convert them to Christianity?Was the conquest of their lands justified?Used Aristotles argument, that it wasCame to FREE Indians from unjust lords and bring the light of salvationFather Bartolome de las Casas argued that it was not; they had never brought harm on Christians

Destruction and Transformation of Indian SocietiesSuffered a severe decline of population demographic catastropheOn the main islands of the CaribbeanIndian population nearly disappeared by 1540In central Mexico1519 25 million1580 2 millionPeru1530 10 million1590 1.5 millionSmallpox, influenza, and measles wreaked havoc on Indian population, which had developed no immunities against these diseases

Exploitation of the IndiansPriestly class eliminatedTraditional Indian nobility remained and became the middlemen for taxes, etc.Originally encomiendas were given to conquerors and you could use or tax the Indians didnt have a reciprocal relationshipTerms changed and they ended around 1620sAs the Indian population declined, the value of encomiendas diminished

Colonial government expected labor and taxes (like Chinese) for state projectscalled mitaUsed to work in the minesPaid a wage, but system was abusedLeft land and preferred working in the city or for Spanish landowners to avoid mitaled to the growth of wage laborMany Indians began working on Spanish owned mines and farms or in cities (for wages)Colonial Economies and GovernmentsSpanish America was an agrarian society80 percent of population lived and worked on landMining was the essential activity and the basis of Spains rule in the IndiesExchange of Americas precious metals for manufactured goods from EuropeGold was found in the Caribbean, Colombia, and Chile, but it was silver far more than gold that formed the basis of Spains wealth in AmericaThe Silver Heart of Empire1545 1565 : major silver discoveries made in Mexico and PeruPeru PotosiMexico ZacatecasBoth areas became wealthy mining centers with lavish churches and a luxurious way of life for someAlthough indigenous methods were used at first, most mining techniques were European in origin

Spanish law says all subsoil rights belong to the crown, but mines owned by individualsHad to pay the crown 1/5th Mining stimulated many other aspects of the economyFood and clothingFrom Spains perspective, mining was the heart of the colonial economyHaciendas and VillagesHaciendas family owned rural estates (plantations, mines, factories)Produced grains, grapes, and livestockmainly for consumers in AmericaDeveloped throughout the central areas of Spanish AmericaMost of the labor force on these estates came from Indians who had left the communities and from people of mixed Indian and European heritageBecame the basis of wealth and power for the local aristocracy in many regions

Industry and CommerceEcuador, New Spain, Peru sheep raising led to the development of small textile sweatshopsProduced common clothUsually by womenAmerica became self-sufficient for its basic foods and material goodsLooked to Europe only for luxury items not locally availableAmerican kingdoms had a silver heart, and the whole Spanish commercial system was organized around that factSpain allowed only Spaniards to trade with America and imposed tight restrictionsOther Europeans looked on the Indies trade with envyIn general, the supply of American silver to Spain was continuous and made the colonies seem worth the effortMuch of the wealth flowed out of Spain to pay for Spains European wars, its long-term debts, and the purchase of manufactured goods to be sent back to the IndiesProbably less than half of the silver remained in SpainArrival of America treasure Created sharp rise in prices and a general inflationFirst in Spain and then throughout western Europe during the 16th centurySpain depended more on the taxes levied on its own population than it did on the exploitation of its Native American subjects

Ruling and Empire: State and ChurchSpain controlled its American empire through a carefully regulated bureaucratic systemSovereignty rested with the crownBased not on the right of conquest but on a papal grant that awarded the Indies to Castile in return for its services in bringing those lands and peoples into the Christian community1494 Treaty of TordesillasBetween Castile and PortugalClarified the spheres of influence and right of possession of the two kingdoms by drawing a hypothetical north-south line around the globe Portugal lands to the east of lineCastile lands to the west of the line

When Columbus returned from his first voyage, the Spanish rulers were worried that the Portuguese would send ships to this new world andget richtoo. So, the Spanish asked Pope Alexander VI to give them control of the sea routes and the lands where Columbus had visited. Spanish empire became a great bureaucratic system built on a juridical core and staffed by letrados (university-trained lawyers from Spain)Judicial officers also exercised legislative and administrative authorityRecopilacion (1681) codified laws into the basis for government in the coloniesKing ruled through the Council of Indies in SpainIssued the laws and advised himWithin the Indies, Spain created two viceroyalities in the 16th centuryMexico CityLimaViceroys high ranking nobles who were direct representatives of the kingMilitary, legislative, and judicial powersViceroyalities of New Spain and Peru were subdivided into ten judicial divisions controlled by superior courts Called audienciesStaffed by professional royal magistrates who helped to make and apply law

Local level royally appointed magistrates applied the laws, collected taxes, and assigned the work required of Indian communitiesBelow them were other lower level bureaucrats minor officials, customs and tax collectors, municipal officers, and inspectors

To some extent, the clergy formed another branch of the state apparatus Catholic religious orders carried out the widespread conversion of the Indians, established churches in the towns and villages Franciscans, Dominicans, JesuitsPope Christianize the peoples of the new landsPrimary justification for Spains ruleSome of the early missionaries became ardent defenders of Indian rights and admirers of Indian cultureFranciscan priest Fray Bernardino de Sahagun

Some Spanish priests, who attempted to convert the native peoples to Christianity by gentle means, tried to protect the Indians. However, these priests were few in number, and rarely succeeded.In core areas of Peru and New Spain, the missionary church eventually was replaced by an institutional structure of parishes and bishopricsComplicated church hierarchy developedThe Catholic church profoundly influenced the cultural and intellectual life of the coloniesStimulated the work of architects and artistsPublished a high percentage of religious books, as well as works of history, poetry, philosophy, law, and languageSchools run by clergyBrazil: The First Plantation Colony1532 settlement establishedPortuguese nobles were given strips of land along the coast to colonize and developSugar plantations were established using first Indian, then African slaves1549 Portuguese king sent a governor general and other officials to create a royal capital at SalvadorFirst Jesuit missionaries also arrived1600 Indian resistance had been broke in many places by military action, missionary activity, or epidemic diseaseBrazil: Sugar and SlaveryThe plantation economy gave rise to a social hierarchy based on race The white plantation owners became an aristocracy Artisans, small farmers, and free laborers were drawn from the ranks of people born of marriages between Indians, whites, and African slaves. At the bottom were the slaves, whose condition was marked both by race and servile status.

Brazils age of GOLDIn 1695, explorers in the interior of Brazil discovered gold in the region of Minas GeraisLabor in the mines, as in the plantations, was provided mostly by slavesBrazil would be the greatest source of gold in the Western worldThe Portuguese govt. moved to promote its interests in mining production (immigration)Had disastrous effects on the Indian population; expansion of slaveryRio de Janeiro, the city closest to the mines replaced Salvador as the capital of Brazil Brazil signed a treaty with Britain to obtain manufactured productsMuch of the Brazilian gold flowed from Portugal to England to pay for manufactured goodsBrazil and Portugal were economically dependent on England.

Multiracial societiesIndians, Europeans, AfricansEuropeans conquerors and voluntary immigrantsIndians conquered peoplesAfricans slavesSituation created hierarchies of masters and servants

The Society of Castas1516 Spanish crown tried to sponsor mixed marriagesWould later try to limit the opportunities for mixed offspringWith few European women available, mixed marriages and informal unions were commonResult growth of a large population of mixed background called mestizosTheir status (especially in early years) was higher than IndiansBecame members of an intermediate categoryNot fully accepted as equals to Spaniards and yet expected to live according to the standards of Spanish societySimilar process in Brazil and Caribbean Large number of African slavesResult mulatto

Together, the people of mixed origins were called castas1650 5 to 10 percent of population1750 35 to 40 percent of populationAs mixed population grew in Spanish America, increasing restrictions were placed on themMost of the wealthy merchants, land owners, bureaucrats, and miners were whitePeninsulares vs CreolesCreoles dominated local economies, and their growing sense of self-identity would eventually contribute to the movements for independence in Latin America

Women were in a subordinate positionCould not serve in government and were expected to assume the duties of motherhood and householdAfter marriage, women came under the authority of their husbandsLower class women often controlled small-scale commerce in towns and villages, worked in the fields, and labored at the looms of small factories. Marriages often were arranged and accompanied by the payment of a dowryShifting Balance of Politics and TradeThe Spanish kings were weak by the late 17th century and did not provide adequate leadershipoverwhelmed by foreign wars, increasing debt, declining population, and internal revoltsSpain threatened by a powerful France and the rising mercantile strength of England and Holland (whose Protestantism also made them rivals of Catholic Spain)1654 English took Jamaica1697 French take western Hispaniola (Haiti)Other islands fell to the English, French, and DutchMany of the islands turned to sugar production and the creation of slave and plantation colonies (similar to Brazil)

Failure of Spanish mercantile and political systemAnnual fleets became irregularSilver payments from America declineMost goods shipped to the Indies and even the ships that carried them were non-Spanish in originColonies became increasingly self-sufficient in basic commodities As central government became weaker local aristocrats in the colonies exercised increasing control over the economy and government of their regionscorruption were widespread in many branches of governmentFinal crisis1701 Spanish king Charles II died without a heirPhilip of Anjou (a Bourbon) and a relative of the king of France was named successor of the Spanish throneWar of Spanish Succession (1702-1713) Ended with the concession of Spain to the French Bourbon familyCommercial concessions giving France and England more controlSpains commercial monopoly was now broken

Philip V of Spainand theDuke of Vendmecommanded the Franco-Spanish charge at theBattle of VillaviciosabyJean Alaux(1840).The Bourbon ReformsThe new Bourbon dynasty in Spain launched a series of reforms aimed at strengthening the state and its economyenlightened despotismMoved by economic nationalismDesire for strong centralized government to institute economic, administrative, and military reforms in Spain and its empireGoal revive Spain within the framework of its traditional society by applying principles of rational and planned governmentJusuits expelledIn general, the interests of the church and nobility were not attacked as long as they did not conflict with the authority of the crownSystem of taxation was improvedNavy reformsNew ships builtNew ports were opened in Spain and America for the Indies tradeEfforts to eliminate Creoles from the upper bureaucracy of the coloniescorruptionMany of the reforms in America were linked directly to defense and military mattersDuring the Bourbon reforms, the government took an active role in the economyState monopolies established Tobacco and gunpowderMonopoly companies were granted exclusive rights to develop certain colonial areas In return developing the economies of those areasMining inspectors and experts had been sent to Peru and New Spain to suggest reforms and introduce new techniquesAllow production to expandSilver output reached new heightsShort run restructuring of government and economy revived the Spanish EmpireLong run removal of Creoles from government, the creation of a militia with a Creole officer crops, the opening of commerce, and other such changes contributed to a growing sense of dissatisfaction among the eliteReaction and RevoltDespite evident prosperity, reforms disturbed social and political relations in the colonies and led to colonial resistanceThe Comunero Revolt in New Granada (1781) Tupac Amaru rebellion in Peru

Social and racial divisions prevented common action against colonial administrations

ConclusionThe New World economy was largely defined by outside control and dependence on a coercive labor system. Latin America was another of the dependent economic zones subject to dominance by Europeans