Earthquake.docx

7/27/2019 Earthquake.docx

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Top 22 Benefits of TreesHere are 22 of the best reasons to plant and care for trees or defend a trees standing:

Trees combat the greenhouse effectGlobal warming is the result of excess greenhouse gases, created by burning fossil fuels and destroying tropical

rainforests. Heat from the sun, reflected back from the earth, is trapped in this thickening layer of gases,

causing global temperatures to rise. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a major greenhouse gas. Trees absorb CO2, removing

and storing the carbon while releasing the oxygen back into the air. In one year, an acre of mature trees absorbs the

amount of CO2 produced when you drive your car 26,000 miles.

Trees clean the airTrees absorb odors and pollutant gases (nitrogen oxides, ammonia, sulfur dioxide and ozone) and filter particulates

out of the air by trapping them on their leaves and bark.

Trees provide oxygenIn one year an acre of mature trees can provide enough oxygen for 18 people.

Trees cool the streets and the cityAverage temperatures in Los Angeles have risen 6F in the last 50 years as tree coverage has declined and the

number of heat-absorbing roads and buildings has increased.

Trees cool the city by up to 10F, by shading our homes and streets, breaking up urban heat islands and releasing

water vapor into the air through their leaves.

Trees conserve energyThree trees placed strategically around a single-family home can cut summer air conditioning needs by up to 50percent. By reducing the energy demand for cooling our houses, we reduce carbon dioxide and other pollution

emissions from power plants.

Trees save waterShade from trees slows water evaporation from thirsty lawns. Most newly planted trees need only fifteen gallons of

water a week. As trees transpire, they increase atmospheric moisture.

Trees help prevent water pollutionTrees reduce runoff by breaking rainfall thus allowing the water to flow down the trunk and into the earth below the

ree. This prevents stormwater from carrying pollutants to the ocean. When mulched, trees act like a sponge that

filters this water naturally and uses it to recharge groundwater supplies.

Trees help prevent soil erosionOn hillsides or stream slopes, trees slow runoff and hold soil in place.

Trees shield children from ultra-violet raysSkin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States. Trees reduce UV-B exposure by about 50

percent, thus providing protection to children on school campuses and playgrounds - where children spend hours

outdoors.

Trees provide foodAn apple tree can yield up to 15-20 bushels of fruit per year and can be planted on the tiniest urban lot. Aside from

fruit for humans, trees provide food for birds and wildlife.

Trees heal

Studies have shown that patients with views of trees out their windows heal faster and with less complications.Children with ADHD show fewer symptoms when they have access to nature. Exposure to trees and nature aids

concentration by reducing mental fatigue.

Trees reduce violenceNeighborhoods and homes that are barren have shown to have a greater incidence of violence in and out of the home

han their greener counterparts. Trees and landscaping help to reduce the level of fear.

Uses for Trees

Many trees have uses which were once commonplace but have been largely forgotten, such as

ropemaking from species such as lime. Others have uses which are becoming ever more applicable inhe modern world, such as biomass production from willow species. This is a fascinating subject, and

at Gawmless End we are growing many different varieties out of interest, to see which do best and might therefore have a

place in the modern version of hillfarming.


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Edible UsesThere are many trees and shrubs which produce fruit or nuts, or products such as oil from these, which are delicious raw or

when processed, eg. for jam. Some trees produce edible saps, others edible leaves. Still others can be managed as useful

orage crops for livestock.

We have several varieties of apple, pear, plum and cherry growing on, and a productive range of red- white- and

blackcurrants, gooseberries and hybrid and other berries. Berry shrubs seem to do exceptionally well here with minimal

attention, apart from the nurturing of any plant which provides nectar or pollen around their flowering time (in order to

attract and encouragebeesto pollinate the berry bushes). Different sorts of nut trees, including pine nuts and edible acorn

varieties, are also present - see ourunusual trees

pages.Other Uses

Trees can be grown as a crop in themselves, for timber, biomass, or basketry. Many trees and shrubs were formerlyimportant for uses such as ropemaking or in medicinal preparations.

Trees and shrubs can represent a valuable soil stabilizing or windbreak resource, enabling adjacent crops, includinggrass and other fodder crops, to grow better.

Some trees fix nitrogen in the soil, which directly benefits adjoining crops, or enrich it by taking up scarce minerals andother nutrients from deep in the soil, where more shallow-rooted plants cannot reach them, and making them

available through its leaves when they fall in autumn. Where particular soils are known to be poor in particular

minerals, judicious planting of particular accumulator species of trees and shrubs can help redress this vital balance

(indeed, in a Forest Garden setting, tree species and numbers are carefully chosen to obviate entirely any need for

application of specific soil additives). In careful plantings the benefit to surrounding soils is greater than any disadvantage such as shading by mature trees.

Livestock benefits from both the improved shelter, and from improved forage quality and quantity.

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Samarth RamdasFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

ump to:navigation,search

Ramdas(Rmds) (Marathi:) (16081681) wasnoted 17th-century saint and spiritual poet

Maharashtra. He is most remembered for hisAdvaita

Vedanta(Non-dualism) textDasbodh.[1]Samarth

Ramdas was a devotee of LordHanumanand Lord

Rama. His birth name was Narayan SuryajipantKulkarniThosar.

Contents[show]

Early life and background[edit source|

editbeta]RamdasSwamiwas born in aDeshasthaRugvedi

Brahmin family to Suryji and Rnu-Bi Thosar in

Jmb inJalna Districtof Maharashtra onRam

Navami(the birth festival ofLord Ram), 1530

according to "Shliwhan Shak" calendar. His givenname was Nryan.

As a child, Ramdas showed an inclination toward

metaphysical contemplation and spirituality. When

Ramdas was eight, his father died; and when he was 12,

his mother arranged his marriage. However, he

wanted to pursue a monastic life. He ran away in the

middle of the wedding ceremony, before the marriage

ceremony was completed.

During the Hindu marriage ceremony, the last word

which seals the marriage is "Saavdhan" meaning, 'be

careful'. Swami Ramdas interpreted that word tomean that he had to be careful not to get entangled in the

bonds ofMaya, and must seek Self-realization.

Residences[edit source|editbeta]

Samadhiof Samarth Ramdas atSajjangad.

Ramdas moved around quite a lot, and in the process, used

several Ghal (Marathi:), which are small caves used for meditation. The famous ones include:[2] Ramghal, onSajjangad Morghal, at Morbag village nearSajjangad Tondoshi Ghal, North of Chaphal Taakli, nearNashik Chandragiri, opposite Vasantgad, nearKarad Helwak, nearHelwakvillage Shiganwadi, near Chandragiri Shivthar Ghal, nearMahad[3]

Spiritual DevelopmentFor the next twelve years, Ramdas devoted himself to studying Indian spiritual scriptures, to meditation, and to

prayers in a place named Takli, nearNashikon the banks of theNandini River. At the of age 12 as soon as he ran

away from his home he took the name "Ramdas", meaning "servant of LordRam," anincarnationof God.

Ramdas practisedphysical yoga exercisesas well as meditation. TheSurya Namaskaraor Sun Salutation was hisfavourite as it involves every part of the body. It is said that he would do 1,200 Sun Salutations every day, believing

hat no spirituality could be attained if the physical body was not strong.

In addition to his veneration of Ram, Ramdas worshipped Ram's divinely strong servant LordHanuman. He

established11 temples of Hanumanin Maharashtra and promoted physical exercise to develop a healthy society.

Samarth Ramdas

Samarth Ramdas

Born

Narayan Thosar

1608

Jamb (present-dayJalna District,

Maharashtra,India)

Died1681

Sajjangad(present-day India)

Titles/honoursSantin Marathi, meaning "Saint"

Literary worksShri Manche Shlok,

ShrimatDasbodh,

Maruti Stotra
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#mw-navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-AyyappappanikkarAkademi1997-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-AyyappappanikkarAkademi1997-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-AyyappappanikkarAkademi1997-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulkarnihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulkarnihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&veaction=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&veaction=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deshasthahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deshasthahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deshasthahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Navamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Navamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Navamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Navamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_%28illusion%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_%28illusion%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_%28illusion%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi_%28shrine%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi_%28shrine%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helwakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helwakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helwakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivthar_Ghalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivthar_Ghalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nandini_River&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nandini_River&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nandini_River&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Namaskarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Namaskarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Namaskarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Temples,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Temples,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Temples,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Stotrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Stotrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Samarth_Ramdas_swami.JPEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sajjangad_samadhi.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Stotrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Samarth_Ramdas_swami.JPEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sajjangad_samadhi.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Temples,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Namaskarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nandini_River&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivthar_Ghalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helwakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajjangadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi_%28shrine%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&veaction=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_%28illusion%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Navamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Navamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalna_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deshasthahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&veaction=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarth_Ramdas&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulkarnihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#cite_note-AyyappappanikkarAkademi1997-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasbodhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedantahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas#mw-navigation


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DnyaneshwarFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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"Sant Dnyaneshwar" redirects here. For the film about his life, see

Sant Dnyaneshwar (film).

Sant Dnyneshwar (orSant Jneshwar) (Marathi:) (12751296), also known as Janadeva(Marathi:

),[1][2]was a 13th-centuryMaharashtrianHindusaint(Sant- a title by which he is often referred), poet,

philosopher andyogiof theNathtradition whose works

Bhavartha Deepika (a commentary onBhagavad Gita,

popularly known as "Dnyaneshwari"), andAmrutanubhav

are considered to be milestones inMarathi literature.

Contents[show]

Biography[edit source|editbeta]Early years[edit source|editbeta]

Dnyaneshwar was born in 13th century Maharashtra, before

he Muslim invasions of the region started. During this

period, arts and sciences prospered under the patronage of

he newly ascendedYadava kings.[3]However, this period

also witnessed religious degeneration, superstitions, and

rituals which involved animal sacrifices and worship of

many deities.[4]Jnandeva emerged as one the first original

philosophers to write inMarathilanguage in this era.[5]Some

of his works were critical of the notions of asceticism and

deity worship prevalent in the time.[4]

According toNathtradition Dnyaneshwar[6]was the second

of the four children of Vitthal GovindKulkarniand Rukmini,

a pious couple from Apegaon nearPaithanon the banks of

he riverGodavari. Vitthal had studiedVedasand set out on

pilgrimages at a young age. InAlandi, about 30 km from

Pune, Sidhopant, a localYajurvedaBrahmin, was very much

mpressed with him and Vitthal married his daughter

Rukmini.

After some time, getting permission from Rukmini, Vitthal

went toKashi(VaranasiinUttar Pradesh, India), where he met Ramananda Swami and requested to be initiated into

sannyas, lying about his marriage. But Ramananda Swami later went to Alandi and, convinced that his studentVitthal was the husband of Rukmini, he returned to Kashi and ordered Vitthal to return home to his family. The

couple was excommunicated from the Brahmincasteas Vitthal had broken with sannyas, the last of the fourashrams.

Four children were born to them; Nivrutti in 1273, Dnyandev (Dnyaneshwar) in 1275, Sopan in 1277 and daughter

Mukta in 1279. According to some scholars their birth years are 1268, 1271, 1274, 1277 respectively. It is believed

hat later Vitthal and Rukmini ended their lives by jumping into the waters atPrayagwhere the riverGangesmeets

Yamunahoping that their children would be accepted into the society after their death.

The couple set out on a pilgrimage with their children to Tryambakeshwar, nearNashik, where their elder son

Nivrutti (at the age of 10) was initiated into theNathtradition by Gahininath. The paternal great grandfather of

Dnyaneshwar had been initiated into the Nath cult by Goraksha Nath (Gorakh Nath). Theorphanedchildren grew up

onalms. They approached the Brahmin community of Paithan to accept them but the Brahmins refused. According to

he disputed "Shuddhi Patra" the children were purified by the Brahmins on condition of observingcelibacy. Theirargument with the Brahmins earned the children fame and respect due to their righteousness, virtue, intelligence,

knowledge and politeness. Dnyaneshwar became the student ofNivruttinathalong with his younger siblings Sopan

and Mukta at the age of 8. He learnt and mastered the philosophy and various techniques ofkundaliniyoga.Start of literary activity[edit source|editbeta]Main article:Dnyaneshwari

Sant Dnyaneshwar

Sant Dnyaneshwar

Born

Dnyaneshwar

1275 AD

Apegaon, TalukaPaithan,Aurangabad

district,Maharashtra, India

Died 1296 AD (aged 21)Alandi

Titles/honoursSantin Marathi, meaning "Saint"

Guru Nivruttinath

Philosophy Varkari,Hinduism

Literary worksAbhangapoetry,Dnyaneshwari,

Amrutanubhav,Haripath, Changdev

Paasashti
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The child moved toNevasa, a village inAhmednagardistrict, where Dnyaneshwar began his literary work when

Nivruttinathinstructed him to write a commentary onBhagavad Gita. TheDnyaneshwariorBhavartha Deepika was

written down by Sacchidananandbaba from discourses by Dnyaneshwar. By the time the commentary was complete

Dnyaneshwar was only 15 years old.

Considered a masterpieces of Marathi literature, the Dnyaneshwari's 18 chapters are composed in a metre called

"ovi". Dnyaneshwar liberated the "divine knowledge" locked in the Sanskrit language to bring that knowledge into

Prakrit(Marathi) and made it available to the common man. He was confident that he would write in marathi in as

good or better manner than Sanskrit.

Amrutanubhav, written some time after, is difficult and finds fewer readers[citation needed]. Containing 10 chapters and

806 ovi, the basis of this book isnondualism(advaitasiddhanta). The seventh and biggest chapter (295 ovi) is themost important. Apart fromDnyaneshwari andAmrutanubhav works like Changdev Paasashti (a collection of 65 ovi

addressed to an allegedly 1400 years old yogi namedChangdev Maharaj),Haripathand around 1000 "abhanga"

(authorship of many is disputed due to differences in writing style) are attributed to Dnyaneshwar.

c
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EarthquakeAn earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor ortemblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in theEarth'scrustthatcreatesseismic waves. The seismicity, seismism orseismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size ofearthquakes experienced over a period of time.Earthquakes are measured using observations fromseismometers. Themoment magnitudeis the most common scale on whichearthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller thanmagnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred toas theRichterscale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes aremostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending

on their depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to thepossible magnitude. The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a9.0 magnitude earthquake in Japan in2011(as of October 2012), and it was the largest Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured onhe modifiedMercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.[1]

At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. When theepicenterof a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause atsunami. Earthquakes canalso trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.n its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic eventwhether natural or caused by humanshat generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as

volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, andnuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called itsfocusorhypocenter. Theepicenteris the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.

Naturally occurring earthquakes

Fault types

Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strainenergy to drive fracture propagation along afault plane. The sides of a fault move past each othersmoothly andaseismicallyonly if there are no irregularities orasperitiesalong the fault surface thatincrease the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a formofstick-slip behaviour. Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leadsto increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. Thiscontinues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowingsliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing thestored energy. This energy is released as a

combination of radiated elasticstrainseismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, andcracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stresspunctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as theelastic-rebound theory. It isestimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy.Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquakefracturegrowth or is converted into

heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's availableelastic potential energyand raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive andconvective flow of heat out from theEarth's deep interior.[2]An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in theEarth'scrustthat createsseismicwaves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking and sometimes

displacement of the ground. The vibrations may vary in magnitude. Earthquakes are caused mostlyby slippage within geologicalfaults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, andnuclear tests.

The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called thefocus. The point directly above the focus on the surface is calledhe epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such

as building collapse, fires,tsunamis(seismic sea waves) and volcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Many of thesecould possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and planning. Some of the most significantearthquakes in recent times include: The2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the third largest earthquake recorded in

history,registering amoment magnitudeof 9.1-9.3. The hugetsunamistriggered by this earthquake killed at least 229,000people.

The2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunamiregistered amoment magnitudeof 9.0. The death toll from the earthquakeand tsunami is over 13,000, and over 12,000 people are still missing.

The 8.8 magnitude February 27,2010 Chile earthquakeand tsunami cost 525 lives.[7] The 7.9 magnitude May 12,2008 Sichuan earthquakein Sichuan Province, China. Death toll at over 61,150 as of May

27, 2008.

The 7.7 magnitudeJuly 2006 Java earthquake, which also triggeredtsunamis. The 6.9 magnitude2005 Azad Jammu & Kashmir and KPK province Earthquake, which killed or injured above 75,000

people inPakistan.

Tsunami
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A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; fromJapanese:, lit. "harbour wave";[1]

English pronunciation:/sunmi/soo-

NAH-meeor/tsunmi/tsoo-NAH-mee[2]) is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body

of water, generally an ocean or alarge lake.Earthquakes,volcanic eruptionsand otherunderwater explosions(includingdetonations of underwaternuclear devices), landslides,glacier calvings,meteorite impactsand other disturbances above orbelow water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.

[3]

Tsunami waves do not resemble normalsea waves, because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breakingwave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly risingtide, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves.Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves withperiodsranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "waverain".

[4]Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal

areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the2004 Indian Ocean tsunamiwas

among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with over 230,000 people killed in 14 countries bordering theIndianOcean.TheGreekhistorianThucydidessuggested in his late 5th century BC,History of the Peloponnesian War, that tsunamis wererelated tosubmarine earthquakes,

[5][6]but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and much

remains unknown. Major areas of current research include trying to determine why some large earthquakes do not generatesunamis while other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and also to

forecast how tsunami waves would interact with specific shorelines.

Etymology

Tsunami warning bilingual sign in Ulee Lheue,Banda AcehinAcehneseandIndonesian

The term tsunamicomes from the Japanese, composed of the twokanji(tsu)

meaning "harbour" and(nami), meaning "wave". (For the plural, one can either

follow ordinary English practice and add ans, or use an invariable plural as in theJapanese.

[7])

Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves, which are unusually high sea wavesthat are triggered especially by earthquakes.[8]In recent years, this term has fallen out

of favor, especially in the scientific community, because tsunami actually have nothing to do withtides. The once-popular termderives from their most common appearance, which is that of an extraordinarily hightidal bore. Tsunami and tides both producewaves of water that move inland, but in the case of tsunami the inland movement of water is much greater and lasts for a longerperiod, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. Although the meanings of "tidal" include "resembling"

[9]or "having the

form or character of"[10]

the tides, and the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsunami are not limited to harbours, use of

he term tidal wave is discouraged bygeologistsandoceanographers.Tsunami

The tsunami of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

A large ferry boat rests inland amidst destroyed houses after a 9.0earthquakeand subsequent

tsunami struck Japan in March 2011.

Main article:Tsunami

Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abruptmovement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance between wave

crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 mi), and the wave periods can vary from five

minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers per hour (373497 miles per hour), depending on water depth.Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes.

Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after theearthquake that generated them.

[51]

Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances ofhis have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

[5

VolcanoA volcano is an opening, orrupture, in a planet's surface orcrust, which allows hotmagma,volcanic ashand gases to escapefrom the magma chamber below the surface.Volcanoes are generally found wheretectonic platesaredivergingorconverging. Amid-oceanic ridge, for example theMid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused bydivergent tectonic platespulling apart; thePacific Ring of Firehas

examples of volcanoes caused byconvergent tectonic platescoming together. By contrast, volcanoes are not usually createdwhere two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of theEarth'scrustin the interiors of plates, e.g., in theEast African Rift, theWells Gray-Clearwater volcanic fieldand theRio Grande RiftinNorth America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate hypothesis" volcanism.

[1]Volcanism away from plate

boundaries has also been explained asmantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arisefrom upwellingdiapirswith magma from thecoremantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.
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Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of theeruption. Volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those withjet engines

where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the meltedparticles then adhere to theturbineblades and alter their shape, disrupting the operationof the turbine. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets ofsulfuricacidobscure thesunand cool the Earth's lower atmosphere ortroposphere; however,they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming thestratosphere.

Historically, so-calledvolcanic wintershave caused catastrophicfamines.Divergent plate boundaries

Main article:Divergent boundary

At themid-oceanic ridges, twotectonic platesdiverge from one another. Newoceanic crustis being formed by hot molten rockslowly cooling and solidifying. The crust is very thin at mid-oceanic ridges due to the pull of the tectonic plates. The release ofpressure due to the thinning of the crust leads toadiabaticexpansion, and the partial melting of themantlecausing volcanismand creating new oceanic crust. Mostdivergent plate boundariesare at the bottom of the oceans, therefore most volcanic activitys submarine, forming new seafloor.Black smokersor deep sea vents are an example of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the

mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example,Iceland.Convergent plate boundaries

Main article:Convergent boundary

Subduction zonesare places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanicplate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process calledfluxmelting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating

magma. This magma tends to be veryviscousdue to its highsilicacontent, so often does not reach the surface and cools at

depth. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples for this kind of volcano areMount Etnaand thevolcanoes in thePacific Ring of Fire."Hotspots"

Main article:Hotspot (geology)

"Hotspots" is the name given to volcanic provinces postulated to be formed bymantle plumes. These are postulated to comprisecolumns of hot material that rise from the core-mantle boundary. They are suggested to be hot, causing large-volume melting,and to be fixed in space. Because the tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant after a while and a newvolcano is then formed as the plate shifts over the postulated plume. TheHawaiian Islandshave been suggested to have beenformed in such a manner, as well as theSnake River Plain, with theYellowstone Calderabeing the part of the North Americanplate currently above the hot spot. This theory is currently under criticism, however.

[1]

Etymology

The word volcano is derived from the name ofVulcano, a volcanic island in theAeolian Islandsof Italy whose name in turnoriginates fromVulcan, the name of a god of fire inRoman mythology.[2]The study of volcanoes is calledvolcanology,sometimes spelled vulcanology.

Volcanic eruptions[edit source|editbeta]Main articles:List of largest volcanic eruptionsandTypes of volcanic eruptions

Artist's impression of the volcanic eruptions that formed theDeccan Trapsin India.

Volcanoescan cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. The effects include thevolcanic eruptiontself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second,lavamay be produced during the

eruption of a volcano. As it leaves the volcano, the lava destroys many buildings and plants it encounters. Third,volcanic ashgenerally meaning the cooled ash - may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water this formsa concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight but even small quantities willharm humans if inhaled. Since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such asengines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surroundings of a volcanic eruption is thepyroclastic flows, which consistof a cloud of hot volcanic ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruption noonger supports the lifting of the gases. It is believed thatPompeiiwas destroyed by a pyroclastic flow. Alaharis a volcanic

mudflow or landslide. The 1953Tangiwai disasterwas caused by a lahar, as was the 1985Armero tragedyin which the town ofArmero was buried and an estimated 23,000 people were killed .A specific type of volcano is thesupervolcano. According to theToba catastrophe theory75,000 to 80,000 years ago a supervolcanic event atLake Tobareduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs creating a bottleneck inhuman evolution.

[8]It also killed three quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. The main danger from a

supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.
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