AMENDMENT #5 TO THE ECONOMIC GROWTH INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan Update (PERSUAP Update) PROGRAM/ACTIVITY DATA Activity Location: Turkmenistan/Central Asia (CA) Activity Name: Competitiveness, Trade and Jobs Activity (CTJ) Activity Number: AID-176 - H-16-00001 Life-of-Activity Funding: Est. $2 Million Period Covered: Current date to expiration date as below IEE Prepared by: Svetlana Golovatskaya, CTJ Contracting Officer’s Representative PERSUAP Prepared by: Alan Schroeder, PhD, MBA Current Date: September 5, 2019 Expiration Date: September 5, 2024 IEE Amendment (Y/N): YES – amends CTJ MTF (DCN: MTF#1 to Asia 14- 125) 1 , Economic Growth IEE Amendment #4 (DCN: Asia 18-079 2 ), and all current USAID/Central Asia and USAID/CA/Turkmenistan IEEs covering activities with potential pesticide procurement and use in Turkmenistan DCN: Asia 12-39 (2012 Turkmenistan PERSUAP) 3 DCN: Asia 14-125 (EG IEE amendment #2 4 ) 1 CTJ MTF#1: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/50896.pdf 2 Asia 18-079: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/51007.pdf 3 Asia 12:39: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/38109.pdf 4 Asia 14-125: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/40611.pdf 1 Asia 19-093
Transcript
AMENDMENT #5 TO THE ECONOMIC GROWTH INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION
Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan Update(PERSUAP Update)
PROGRAM/ACTIVITY DATAActivity Location: Turkmenistan/Central Asia (CA)Activity Name: Competitiveness, Trade and Jobs Activity (CTJ)Activity Number: AID-176 - H-16-00001Life-of-Activity Funding: Est. $2 MillionPeriod Covered: Current date to expiration date as belowIEE Prepared by: Svetlana Golovatskaya, CTJ Contracting Officer’s Representative
PERSUAP Prepared by: Alan Schroeder, PhD, MBACurrent Date: September 5, 2019Expiration Date: September 5, 2024IEE Amendment (Y/N): YES – amends CTJ MTF (DCN: MTF#1 to Asia 14-125)1, Economic
Growth IEE Amendment #4 (DCN: Asia 18-0792), and all current USAID/Central Asia and USAID/CA/Turkmenistan IEEs covering activities with potential pesticide procurement and use in Turkmenistan DCN: Asia 12-39 (2012 Turkmenistan PERSUAP)3
DCN: Asia 14-125 (EG IEE amendment #24)
SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL THRESHOLD DECISION (Place X where applicable)Categorical Exclusion: [ ] Negative Determination with Conditions: [x]Positive Determination: [ ] Deferral: [ ]
1.0 Purpose of IEE Amendment #5
The purpose of this Amendment is to: 1) Approve for procurement and use, or both, the list of pesticides permitted for same and similar unrestricted uses analyzed in this 2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP Update; 2) approve the 2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP Update; 3) establish that all conditions approved in the original PERSUAP remain in force until the next revision as proposed below in section 2.1; 4) establish that USAID Turkmenistan Country Office (USAID/CA/TKO) shall ensure that findings, recommendations and pesticides
1 CTJ MTF#1: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/50896.pdf2 Asia 18-079: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/51007.pdf3 Asia 12:39: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/38109.pdf4 Asia 14-125: https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/40611.pdf
approved list is timely and fully transposed into current and future contracts and awards; 5) establish that USAID’s 2019 Global American Fall Armyworm PERSUAP and 2017 Nepal Tuta absoluta PERSUAP shall be used; and 6) establish that timely and comprehensive training shall be provided to USAID/CA/TKO, Agreement/Contracting Officer’s Representatives (AORs/CORs) and implementing partners on findings, recommendations and pesticides approved list.
2.0 2019 PERSUAP Update Scope of Work and Background
The goal of PERSUAP Update was to review and update the list of Turkmenistan-registered pesticides currently permitted by US EPA for the same or similar uses without restriction on target crops listed in the SOW for this work and the primary pests, diseases and weeds limiting the production of each.
2.1. Brief Description:
Major 2019 PERSUAP Update Activities, Findings and Lessons Learned:
--This Update supersedes and replaces the 2012 Turkmenistan Agriculture Technology Program (AgTech) PERSUAP, which analyzed a very limited list of pesticides. It reviews all locally-registered pesticides against their US EPA registration/restriction status vis-a-vis Turkmenistan registered pesticides that could potentially be used for same or similar activities on CTJ and other USAID agriculture projects. And, it’s design and contents are largely modeled after the new 2019 Uzbek and Tajik PERSUAPs.
--In comparison with the 2012 Turkmenistan PERSUAP, this document rejects several insecticide AIs approved in 2012, but that were, and still are, RUP (Restricted Use Pesticides). Further, the SOW for this 2019 document does not cover livestock activities and antibiotics covered in the 2012 study. This study analyses additional crops, below, many of which were not included in the 2012 document. It also analyzes numerous additional pests, diseases and weeds of each crop.
--Rejected synthetic pyrethroid insecticides/miticides: Most synthetic pyrethroids, like those requested for analysis and potential use on this USAID project (alpha-cypermethrin, deltamethrin, esfenvalerate, fenitrothion, lambda-cyhalothrin) are RUP for field uses due to very high toxicity to aquatic organisms. The only EPA-approved non-RUP uses left for most of these synthetic pyrethroids and others are those to be used in well-contained places with low risks of surface water contamination (inside grain storage warehouses) and in very low concentrations in ready to use formulations (inside houses) as household fly and mosquito controls, neither of which are covered in this PERSUAP.
--Lack of registered miticides: Although most synthetic pyrethroids will kill mites, their rejection by this PERSUAP leave few alternatives registered by GOT. Dimethoate is the only pesticide AI that may be used as both insecticide and miticide/acaricide. The use of neonicotinoids (acetamiprid, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam) may actually increase crop susceptibility to mites; thus, they are not recommended. The remaining approved insecticide AIs (cyromazine, indoxacarb) are not listed as useful against mites.
--Few to no “natural” fungicides/bactericides: There is no registration of sulfur- or copper-containing products for controlling fungal or bacterial infections.
--No remaining nematicides. After the rejection of the nematicide oxamyl because all formulations are RUP, no AIs remain to control nematodes. Some natural controls are recommended in Annex 1.
--This Update researches and lists the European Union (EU) registration status of each approved Turkmenistasn-registered pesticide AI in Annex 5; the 2012 PERSUAP did not contain this analysis or information.
--Target crops in this Update include stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries); pome fruits (apples, pears, quince); subtropical fruits (pomegranates, persimmons); tree nuts (walnuts, pistachio); table and wine grapes; mulberry; tomato; cucurbits (especially melons, including watermelons, and
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cucumbers); soybeans; corn; sunflower; sugar cane; and potatoes. The 2012 document did not cover stone fruits, pome fruits, pomegranates, persimmons, walnuts, table and wine grapes, mulberry, melons and watermelons, soybeans, corn, sunflowers and sugar cane. However, the 2012 document covered lemons, eggplants and sweet peppers, which this version does not cover.
--Invasive pests Tomato Leaf Miner (TLM, Tuta absoluta) and American Fall Armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda) are covered in this report as they are invading and become more important pests in Central Asia. USAID’s PERSUAPs for these two species shall be used and all conditions established therein shall be implemented in all USAID-funded activities in Turkmenistan, with the special note that no RUP pesticide AIs contained in them are promoted or used.
--A special draft Pest Management Plan (PMP) in Annex 1 is included in this PERSUAP. It lists all the target crops contained in the SOW for this work, new essential agronomic information to introduce each crop; primary pests, diseases and weeds limiting the production and productivity of each crop; non-chemical IPM (Integrated Pest Management) tools/tactics recommended and used successfully by commercial farmers for the same or similar species in other countries, particularly the USA, and recommended Turkmen- and EPA-registered pesticides for same or similar use against each pest, disease or weed. It is expected that USAID program/project/activity Implementing Partners (IP) use PMP this as a guide to introduce, adapt and adopt IPM tools/tactics that work well in the unique Turkmen geography, climate and pest situations.
--The 2012 PERSUAP contained only garlic as a natural pesticide option. This 2019 PERSUAP includes a number of additional natural, homemade or artisanal pesticides that can be made and used by smallhoder farmers with sufficient knowledge.
--The 2012 PERSUAP did not mention the use of agricultural biolabs or the natural pest controls produced in them; all former Soviet Union countries had such laboratories. Turkmenistan has about 500 of these labs remaining spread across the agriculture producing parts of the country. These labs produce microbial pest and disease controls, predators like lacewings and parasitoids that lay eggs or larvae in pests, which consume and kill them. This 2019 PERSUAP discusses these important IPM resources, especially useful for greenhouse production.
--This Update includes and matches the commercial product names of pesticides containing each specific active ingredient with internet links to same or similar use Safety Data Sheets (SDS) and/or Labels (the 2012 PERSUAP did not and designated this task to IPs) to provide additional clarity to IPs.
--In early 2019, USAID provided funds for a food safety laboratory, which presumably would have the capacity to analyze produce for pesticide residues as well as microbial contaminants and heavy metals. Between 2016 and 2019, little was done by USAID in the agriculture sector; thus, now there are opportunities to do training and refresher training on IPM, Safe Pesticide Use (SPU), first aid for pesticide poisoning and production and use of natural pesticides for beneficiary farmers.
Lessons Learned
--This study finds that there is a paucity of pesticide and active ingredient (AI) choices registered in Turkmenistan, almost the same as in 2012. As Turkmenistan aims to capture regional or, in the future, international, markets with their specialized off-season/early and high quality orchard and greenhouse produce, donors, international projects and activities should encourage GOT (Government of Turkmenistan) to register more pesticide choices, particularly more and newer, safer AIs which could be used and are affordable.
--Many greenhouse and orchard producers still do not use Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) while spraying pesticides. Additional SPU training on the dangers, risks and medical remedies of different types of pesticides is a must in order to continually improve this situation.
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--Many greenhouse and orchard producers still utilize scheduled calendar pesticide sprayings without sufficient monitoring or scouting their crops to see the presence and types of pests, diseases and weeds as well as natural enemies of each pest (which can reduce their levels naturally without the added costs, risks and waste of pesticides) in order to make more rational decisions to spray, not spray or just do highly-targeted spot spraying where there are pest/disease hotspots (instead of spraying the entire greenhouse or orchard).
--Many greenhouse and orchard producers do not know about or use the entire range of preventive IPM tools/tactics available to them. Additional IPM training on the benefits of different types of IPM tools/tactics is a must in order to continually improve this situation. Further, many of these tools that improve and build on natural resources like soil, water and biodiversity also help with resilience to changes in climate. The use of biolabs helps fill this gap.
--For many untrained smallholder greenhouse and orchard producers, there are natural pesticides that can be homemade that reduce pest and disease populations sufficiently that they may not require spraying with costly and risky synthetic pesticides, and may have a lighter impact on natural predators, parasites and pathogens of these pests and diseases. Specialized training should remedy this situation.
Types of Sectors/Services analyzed in the Update: Pesticide use in Agriculture (seed, field and greenhouse production, each of which uses specialized IPM tools/tactics, pesticides, formulations, and carries unique risks).
USAID Goals in Turkmenistan: Strategically located alongside Afghanistan and Iran, Turkmenistan plays an important role in advancing regional integration, security and prosperity across South and Central Asia. With abundant natural resources, Turkmenistan holds the potential to overcome economic and development challenges linked to years of authoritarian rule. The United States partners with Turkmenistan to forge a more open economy and an inclusive, resilient society.
USAID works to strengthen and diversify the Turkmen economy, build citizen-responsive institutions, increase good governance, empower youth, and expand access to health care services. Moreover, USAID aims to increase regional connections between the economies and peoples of Central and South Asia — including Afghanistan to foster greater stability and prosperity. It has had activities primarily in the sectors of good governance; economic growth and trade; water management; workforce development; and global health (primarily TB-tuberculosis).The only sector that uses pesticides is economic growth. Conditions: all conditions established in the 2011EG IEE Amendment 1 (Asia 11-132), EG IEE Amendment 2 (Asia 14-125), 2018 MTF (Memo to File 1 to Asia 14-125), covering CTJ, IEE amendment 4, covering new Future Growth Initiative (FGI) and the 2012 PERSUAP fully apply (except for RUP pesticides now rejected). Among others, they include timely update and substantial review of and training on findings of this 2019 PERSUAP Update:
--USAID/CA Office of Assistance and Aquisition and USAID/CA/TKO shall ensure that findings, recommendations and pesticides approved list is timely and fully transposed into current and future contracts and awards.-- Comprehensive training shall be provided to USAID/CA AORs/CORs, implementing partners and relevant beneficiaries on findings, recommendations and non-RUP pesticides on the approved list. Do regular annual training on use of this PERSUAP for all stakeholders so that they understand how to interpret and use it. The next training will be due in October-November of 2019.
--Annual review and update of the approved pesticides listed in this 2019 PERSUAP Update: To ensure that this PERSUAP stays current & compliant with US EPA registration status, which changes daily, the list of chemicals should be reviewed annually. Thus, the next review, or amendment, will be due for planning in 2020 and include analyses of any newly-registered and project-requested pesticides to that point in time.
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--Substantial update every 3-5 years of the PERSUAP: To distill lessons learned and ensure that all requirements are up-to-date, this document should be substantially updated as soon as Turkmenistan registers additional pesticides. The recommended timing is January 2023.
-- Implementing Partners shall submit pesticide training curricula for the USAID/CA Mission Environmetal Officer’s (MEOand AOR/COR approval prior to conducting training courses. Curricula should include illustrative pest management plans (PMPs) including integrated pest management (IPM) for each target crop, livestock, product or pest as well as pesticide safer use conditions.
--Implementing Partners shall submit pesticide procurement authorization forms for MEO/COR approval prior to purchasing pesticides (see Annex 15).
--Transboundary Pests: To better coordinate responses to transboundary ‘outbreak’ pests and diseases like TLM, FAW, potentially the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug if it appears, locusts, sunn pest, wheat blast, and others, IPs and USAID offices should reference other approved PERSUAPs from the agency and region. USAID Global FAW PERSUAP5, TLM PERSUAP6 and USAID Fumigation Programmatic Environmental Assessment7 shall be used timely.
--Translate this PERSUAP: Key parts of this document should be translated into local (or Russian) language to make it accessible to a wider audience.
-- Although fertilizers are NOT subject to 22 CFR 216 pesticides procedures, AORs/CORsshould take into account that: 1) procurement and use of fertilizers are subject to ADS 310and ADS 312.3.3.7; 2) Ammonium Nitrate (AN) & Calcium Ammonium Nitrate(CAN) are explicitly prohibited for agricultural or construction demolition purposes; and 3) that a new ADS 211 on Genetically Engineered Organisms was issued.
Unrestricted, same and similar uses Turkmenistan-Registered and US EPA-approved pesticides (Assistance for procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by US EPA without restriction). The following is a list of approved pesticides for procurement and use on USAID funded projects in Turkmenistan. Pesticides that are not US EPA registered, have restricted use, or are classified as extremely toxic (Class I) are rejected, see PERSUAP Annex 6. All pesticides, which are not on the approved list, shall not be procured or used on agricultural or other USAID/Turkmenistan programs, projects or activities.
5 American Fall Armyworm (BFS-19-05-001): https://ecd.usaid.gov/repository/pdf/52069.pdf
2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP Update Pesticides with AI, EPA status, product and SDS for same or similar use products
For Same or Similar Use Pesticide Products, as researched on EPA's Website: "Search for Registered Pesticide Products", as follows: https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol/search-registered-pesticide-products
Approved Seed Treatment Insecticides and Fungicides are listed below
Approved Insecticide for Field and Greenhouse Seed treatment AI and a Turkmenistan-Registered Pesticide that contains the AI
Active Ingredient
EPA Status
Turkmenistan Registered Insecticide Product
SDS sources, if available, for "same or similar use" products(Cut and paste address into Browser)
imidacloprid Active Russian Imidor WRK; Turkish Efedor 350 KS; Turkish Resumme 70 RP (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering, due to CCD risks to honeybees)
thiamethoxam Active Cruiser https://www.syngenta.ca/pdf/SDS/Cruiser_5FS_27045_N Variant_en_SDS.pdfhttps://drive.google.com/open?id=1V50oLKRiCm0_rePDFjQNM879K_xTVXuh
Approved Fungicide for Field Seed treatment AIs and Turkmenistan-Registered Pesticides that contains each AI
dimethoate (I, M) Active BASF Bi-58 http://www.agro.basf.md/Documents/migrated_files/md_documentation_files/SDS_files/bi_58_new_1.pdf
imidacloprid Active Russian Imidor WRK; Turkish Efedor 350 KS; Turkish Resumme 70 RP (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering, due to CCD risks to honeybees)
tebuconazole Active Folicur, Raxil https://www.cropscience.bayer.ca/~/media/Bayer%20CropScience/Country-Canada-Internet/Products/Folicur%20EW/Folicur-250-EW-SDS.ashx;Raxil: https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/ppls/000264-00964-20050921.pdf
Approved Greenhouse Fungicides are listed below
Approved Greenhouse Fungicide AIs and Turkmenistan-registered Pesticides that contain each AI
Active Ingredients
EPA Status
Turkmenistan Registered Pesticide Products
SDS sources, if available, for "same or similar use" products(Cut and paste address into Browser)
cyproconazole Active Alto http://www.herbiguide.com.au/SDS/mcypr100_47527-0605.pdfdifenoconazole Active Score http://www.herbiguide.com.au/SDS/MDIFE250_45810-0605.PDF;https://drive.google.com/open?
id=1JxaCxVwjYJRX_q0LW4tbT_AqHhbsVhG3mancozeb Active Turkish Patamil 72
Active Fusilade http://www.falorfarmcenter.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/fusilade_SDS.pdf
glyphosate Active Roundup http://www.fmccrop.com.au/download/herbicides/SDS/glyder_450_SDS_0912.pdf
glyphosate, isopropyl amine salt
Active Roundup https://www.fumigationzone.com/files/53/Roundup+Original+-+EPA; https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1c7X6LQQmdvHWIu9zzl-azoWmxROHsgNb
The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.
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JUNE 2012
This publication was produced by DAI for review by the United States Agency for International Development
Acronyms and a Glossary of Terms used in this Turkmenistan PERSUAP
AI Active Ingredient (when pesticide reference)AN ammonium nitrate APO Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance, PakistanAVC Agriculture Value ChainBMP Best Management PracticeBT Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterium that produces a toxin used as a pesticide)BRC British Retail ConsortiumCAR Central Asian RepublicsCACRP Central Asia and the Caucasus Regional Program CAN calcium ammonium nitrate CAR Central Asian Republics CCD Colony Collapse DisorderCFR Code of Federal RegulationsCGIAR Consultative Group for International Agriculture ResearchCIS Commonwealth of Independent StatesCOP Chief of PartyCOTR Contracting Officer’s Technical RepresentativeCTJ Competitiveness, Trade and Jobs ActivityDAI Development Alternatives InternationalDDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-TrichloroethaneDPP Department of Plant Protection, PakistanDS Powders for dry seed treatment (pesticide formulation)EA Environmental AssessmentEASC EuroAsian Interstate Council for Standardization, Meteorology and CertificationEC Emulsifiable Concentrate (pesticide formulation)EC50 Effective Concentration (acute toxicity measure)EMMP Environmental Mitigation & Monitoring Plan EPA US Environmental Protection Agency (also known as USEPA)EPC empty pesticide container EU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations agency)FAW Fall ArmywormFIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide ActFS Flowable concentrate for seed treatment (pesticide formulation)GAP Good Agriculture PracticeGDP Gross Domestic ProductGHG Green House GasGIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German International Cooperation)GLAAS Global Acquisition and Assistance SystemGlobalGAP Global Good Agriculture Practices, a certification systemGOST Gosudarstvennyy (Russian) standardGOT Government of TurkmenistanGUP General Use Pesticideha hectaresHACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control PointsHT Highly ToxicICAMA Institute for the Control of Agrochemicals of the Ministry of Agriculture, China
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ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry AreasID IdentificationIEE Initial Environmental ExaminationIGR Insect Growth RegulatorIP Implementing PartnerIPM Integrated Pest ManagementIVM Integrated Vector ManagementIWM Integrated Weed ManagementLC50 Lethal Concentration (acute toxicity measure)LD50 Lethal Dose (acute toxicity measure)MAIL Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, AfghanistanM&E Monitoring and Evaluation MD Micro Dispersion (pesticide formulation)MEO Mission Environmental OfficerMOA Ministry of AgricultureMRL Maximum Residue LevelMSDS Material Safety Data Sheet (now just referred to as SDS)MT Moderately ToxicNAT Not Acutely ToxicNCAT National Center for Appropriate TechnologyNGOs Non-Governmental OrganizationsNIFA National Institute of Food and AgriculturePER Pesticide Evaluation ReportPERSUAP Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action PlanpH log of Hydrogen concentration, measure of acidityPHI Pre-Harvest IntervalPIC Prior Informed Consent (a treaty, relates to toxic pesticides)POP Persistent Organic Pollutants (a treaty, relates to toxic persistent pesticides)PMP Pest Management PlanPPE Personal Protection EquipmentR&D toxin Reproductive and Developmental toxinREA Regional Environmental AdvisorReg 216 Regulation 216 (USAID Environmental Procedures)REI Re-Entry Interval (safety period after pesticide spraying)RUP Restricted Use PesticideS&C Standards and CertificationSC Suspension Concentrate (pesticide formulation)SDS Safety Data Sheet ST Slightly ToxicSUAP Safe Use Action PlanUC University of CaliforniaUIET Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs of TurkmenistanUN United NationsUNDP United Nations Development ProgramUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentUSDA United States Department of AgricultureUSEPA US Environmental Protection Agency (also known as EPA)VAT Value Added TaxVHT Very Highly ToxicWHO World Health OrganizationWP Wettable Powder (pesticide formulation)
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WS Water dispersible powder for slurry treatment (pesticide formulation)
Glossary of Terms
MSDS/SDS, Material Safety Data Sheet, a 2-5 page flyer produced by the pesticide manufacturer containing safety information (SDSs can be found at http://www.SDS.com/; www. SDS online.com/ ; http://www.SDSsearch.com/; and http://www.SDSxchange.com/english/index.cfm, and by doing Google searches using the acronym ‘SDS’).
PMP, or Pest Management Plan, which can include an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) plan, includes pest anticipation and prevention planning and decision points, following USAID, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), academia and university extension services advice. Detailed IPM data contained in this PERSUAP is in Annex 1.
HACCP, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, an analysis that identifies and mitigates point sources of contamination risk in food handling and processing.
Acronyms and a Glossary of Terms used in this Turkmenistan PERSUAP................................................16Table of Contents.........................................................................................................................................19ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................................................20EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.........................................................................................................................21Approved Unrestrticted Pesticide Active Ingredients and Products for Same and Similar Use.................23PERSUAP Requirements and Recommendations for Mitigating Risks......................................................31SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................341.1 USAID Environmental Regulations................................................................................................341.2 Differences Between USEPA, WHO and Russian Acute Toxicity Classification Systems, and why this is Important...........................................................................................................................................341.3 Integrated Pest Management—USAID Policy................................................................................341.4 2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP Methodology.................................................................................35SECTION 2: BACKGROUND...................................................................................................................352.1 Country and CTJ Activity Backgrounds..........................................................................................352.2 Pesticide Use Sectors in Turkmenistan (Seed, Greenhouse, Field).................................................372.2.1 Seed Treatment with Pesticides...................................................................................................372.2.2 Field Agriculture Pesticide Use...................................................................................................382.2.3 Greenhouses Treated with Pesticides...........................................................................................392.3 Turkmenistan and International Treaties/Agreement Obligations Related to Pesticides as Prelim to PER Analysis...............................................................................................................................................402.4 Evaluation of Turkmenistan Pesticide Risks as Prelim to PER Analysis........................................412.5 Transboundary Pests........................................................................................................................422.6 Maximum Residue Levels...............................................................................................................43SECTION 3: PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT................................................................................443.1 Factor A: USEPA registration status of the proposed pesticide......................................................443.2 Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides......................................................................................463.3 Factor C: Extent to which the proposed pesticide use is, or could be, part of an IPM program.....473.4 Factor D: Proposed method or methods of application, including the availability of application and safety equipment..........................................................................................................................................483.5 Factor E: Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use, and measures available to minimize such hazards................................533.6 Factor F: Effectiveness of the requested pesticides for the proposed use........................................553.7 Factor G: Compatibility of the proposed pesticide use with target and non-target ecosystems......573.8 Factor H: Conditions under which the pesticide is to be used, including climate, geography, hydrology, and soils.....................................................................................................................................603.9 Factor I: Availability of other pesticides or non-chemical control methods...................................643.10 Factor J: Host country’s ability to regulate or control the distribution, storage, use, and disposal of the requested pesticides................................................................................................................................653.11 Factor K: Provision for training of users and applicators................................................................693.12 Factor L: Provision made for monitoring the use and effectiveness of each pesticide....................70SECTION 4: PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP)...............................................................724.1 Approved Pesticides...............................................................................................................................724.2 Mandatory Safer Use Conditions for Implementing Partners................................................................724.3 Mandatory Conditions for USAID/CA/Turkmenistan Technical Offices.............................................74Annex 1: Matrix of Crops, Pests, Pest Prevention, and Control Tools Including Approved Pesticides IPM Tools for Turkmenistan crops in PERSUAP SOW.....................................................................................75Annex 2. Guidelines for Pest Management Plans (PMPs) for Turkmenistan Crops and Beneficiaries....127
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What is a PMP...................................................................................................................................127Annex 3. Elements of IPM Program..........................................................................................................130Annex 4. Toxicity of Pesticides: EPA, WHO and Russian Classifications...............................................132Annex 5: Analyses of Active Ingredients in Pesticides Registered by Turkmenistan in 2004 and approved by this 2019 document...............................................................................................................................136Annex 6: Rejected Pesticide Active Ingredients in Products Registered in Turkmenistan: NOT to be used on USAID/Turkmenistan projects or by beneficiaries...............................................................................141Annex 7: PIC and POP Chemicals NOT to be used on USAID/Turkmenistan projects or by beneficiaries....................................................................................................................................................................142Annex 8: Training Topics on IPM and Safe Pesticide Use.......................................................................144Annex 9. Monitoring for Best Practices on Turkmenistan Beneficiaries..................................................148Annex 10: Farm and Project Record Keeping Associated with Pesticide Use..........................................150Agricultural pesticide application details...................................................................................................150Annex 11: Pesticides Registered in 2019 by Turkmenistan......................................................................151Annex 12: PERSUAP References.............................................................................................................158Annex 13: Donor-Supported IPM and Pesticide Projects in Turkmenistan..............................................159Annex 14: Pesticide Regulations and Import from Neighboring Countries..............................................161Annex 15: Forms for Implementing Partners: Pesticide Inventory and Environmental Authorization to Purchase Pesticides....................................................................................................................................163Annex 16: SOW for Turkmenistan PERSUAP.........................................................................................167Annex 17: Biography for Alan Schroeder, PhD, MBA.............................................................................171
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The USAID Turkmenistan CTJ Program staff members, especially Country Director Rustam Bekmuradov and CTJ Market Systems Advisor Larry Tweed were a great help locating information the author needed to to this study.
Big thanks to USAID staff CAR Mission Environmental Officer/CIL Nina Kavetskaya and Regional Environmental Advisor for Asia, Middle East & OAPA Andrei Barannik who will review this work and provide feedback and ideas. Special thanks also to Asia Bureau Environmental Officer William Gibson for ultimate review and approval.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This 2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP update was developed for and under the direction of DAI’s CTJ Activity for Central Asia. It supercedes the previous PERSUAP written for Turkmenstan in 2011 and approved in 2012. This approach (codified in 22 CFR 216.6(d)) was used to advise all current and near-future USAID agriculture projects and sub-sectors while economizing resources such that each USAID agriculture project would not need to duplicate costs to produce their own PERSUAP report. Moreover, the objective is to have one document which can guide and inform the work of our A/COR, agriculture advisors and MEO where pesticides are or could be involved in USAID agriculture projects in Turkmenistan.
For the purposes of this PERSUAP, the word pesticide is used, following EPA’s guidelines8, for the following: fumigants, insecticides, miticides/acaricides, nematicides, molluscicides, fungicides, antimicrobials, bactericides/biocides, microbicides/antibiotics, herbicides, rodenticides, avicides, algicides, ovicides (kill eggs), disinfectants/sanitizers and anti-fouling agents (chemicals that repel or kill things like barnacles that attach to boats). Even biological agents such as biopesticides, microbial pesticides, attractants/pheromones, repellents, defoliants, dessicants, insect growth regulators and plant growth regulators have been included as pesticides. Recently, EPA removed attractants/pheromones from the list of pesticides because of very low risks with their use, but primarily because they are not designed to kill anything, only to attract pests into traps for monitoring purposes.
Purpose
The purpose of this document is to conduct a new (2019) Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) and Safe Use and Action Plan (SUAP) in compliance with USAID’s environmental regulations (Title 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), part 216, or Regulation 216) on same or similar pesticide use on USAID-funded projects. In compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this PERSUAP for Turkmenistan:
Establishes the set of pesticides for which ‘support’ is approved on USAID projects. “...assistance for procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction...” The list of permitted pesticides shall comply with this. Support includes purchase, direct use, promotion during training or on demonstration farms/farm plots, recommending for use, financing, application and safety equipment, use by funded partners or subgrantees, and other actions that directly facilitate the use of pesticides.
Establishes requirements attendant to support for these pesticides to assure that pesticide use or support (1) embodies the principles of safer pesticide use (SPU) and, (2) per USAID policy, is within an IPM framework.
These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP and an IEE Amendment or Memo to the File (MTF) by Asia Bureau Environmental Officer (BEO/Asia.) Following approval of this PERSUAP, projects with links to pesticide use will amend their Initial Environmental Examinations (IEEs) so that pest control response is subject to a negative determination with conditions, the condition being compliance with the SUAP, including the recommended chemical controls and IPM practices.
USAID Turkmenistan agriculture programs, projects, and activities of implementing partners (IPs), and the IP’s sub-grantees, partners, financiers and beneficiaries are covered by this PERSUAP. The set of PERSUAP-approved pesticides, and requirements for IPM implementation and SPU are established through Section 3, the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER), which assesses the 12 pesticide risk evaluation factors (identified as A through L) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b). Pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction that clear this 12-factor analysis can be promoted to beneficiaries, financed and used on demonstration farms and activities.
The Safer Use Action Plan (SUAP) in Section 4 provides a succinct, stand-alone statement of compliance requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. The SUAP also provides information useful for an Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan (EMMP) for assigning responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must complete and submit this SUAP and EMMP to its AOR/COR.
Sectors covered by 2019 PERSUAP
This 2019 PERSUAP analyzes and compiles IPM tools and tactics (including pesticides) for the following pesticide use sectors:
Agriculture (Seed, Field and Greenhouse)
2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP Focus Crops
Stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries); Pome fruits (apples, pears, quince); Subtropical fruits (pomegranates, persimmons); Tree nuts (walnuts, pistachio); Table and wine grapes; Mulberry; Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato); Cucurbits (especially melons, including watermelons, and cucumbers); Soybeans; Corn; Sunflower; Sugar cane.
The report begins with sections that evaluate background and risks across the inputs sectors in Turkmenistan, including treatment of seed, field crops, greenhouse crops. And, it promotes the use of IPM and Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs).
This 2019 document takes advantage of, and supercedes, information found in previous PERSUAP studies done in 2012 for Turkmenistan, as well as refers to similar studies done in neighboring countries Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and a recent draft document from Afghanistan. The 2012 AgTech PERSUAP contained and evaluated a small list of pesticides proposed for use by AgTech project farmers. This PERSUAP includes and matches the commercial product names with pesticides containing each specific active ingredient and internet links to same or similar use Safety Data Sheets (SDS) (the 2012 PERSUAP did not and designated this task to IPs) to provide additional clarity to IPs.
This document provides project implementers in each agriculture sub-sector where pesticides will be or might be promoted during training, procured and used on demonstration farms, or both, with the most
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common risks likely to be encountered for that sector. And, it contains, or references recommended mitigation measures and international best practices to reduce each risk. Agriculture projects can then use these risk-mitigation pairings to inform and guide their own development of environmental risk monitoring, mitigation and reporting plans (EMMPs), as USAID requires.
The goal of this PERSUAP is to recommend mitigation measures that can be used to reduce risks to human health and environmental resources. These risks are inevitably present with the use of pesticides and similar chemicals used for agricultural production.
Currently, the biggest risk facing all Turkmen agriculture pesticide use sub-sectors is the fact that the government has not regularly updated its registered pesticides list. This is in spite of the fact that the government would like to find additional export markets for its produce, something that cannot be achieved without having in place a rational modernized pesticide registration system and pesticide import controls.
Note that farmers and others can, with their own funding, buy and use the pesticides they want, as long as they are not part of a USAID project and the treated produce does not enter a USAID-funded processing, marketing or food security program. It is well beyond USAID’s manageable interests to try to control this use; it can only control what is done with USAID funds. USAID projects can also promote, advise, purchase or donate pesticide training, demonstration trials, pesticides, spray services and equipment as long as these activities have been evaluated in a PERSUAP. USAID should seek to promote and train farmers on IPM and SPU. Furthermore, USAID provides guidance, in ADS 312, and on-line9, for fertilizer best practices, as well as a reminder (in addition to project’s USAID contract language) on the prohibition on purchase and use of ammonium nitrate (AN) and calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) in Central Asian Republics (CAR).
This 2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP makes recommendations for actions to mitigate risks from pesticides. Before errors (such as human poisonings) occur, it is the responsibility of USAID project implementers to put these mitigation recommendations into action, as soon as possible. Implementers will then monitor changes in risks, impacts and mitigation success using EMMPs. Finally, the implementers will report positive or negative changes from mitigation success baselines in semi-annual reporting instruments.
Approved Unrestrticted Pesticide Active Ingredients and Products for Same and Similar Use
Synthesizing across the PER 12-Factor analysis, required by Regulation 216, ONLY the below-listed pesticide AIs are approved for support or use (assistance for the procurement or use) on USAID Turkmensitan projects and for their sub-grantees. EPA registration and restriction information for each chemical can be found by using EPA’s website (https://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=PPLS:1) and searching by AI, then product name and uses.
Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the pesticide AIs listed as “approved” in the following tables—and ONLY those AIs—may be supported by the USAID Turkmenistan agriculture projects and their sub-grantees covered by this PERSUAP. Pesticides “recommended” for use are provided for specific crop-pest combinations in Annex 1. Such support is subject to the safe use conditions summarized below and set out in detail in the SUAP, section 4 of this PERSUAP. Approved pesticides are those that passed based on the Regulation 216-required12-factor analyses, particularly Factor A (EPA and Turkmen registration and RUP Status) & Factor E (Acute/Chronic Toxicological Hazards), as analyzed and summarized in Annex 5. 9 http://www.encapafrica.org/meo_course/Course_Materials/Module9--Special_Topics/Fertilizers_and_Reg216/fertilizer_fact_sheet_final--Africa_Bureau.pdf
2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP Pesticides Update with AI, EPA status, product and SDS, in English with a few in Russian, for same or similar use products
For Same or Similar Use Pesticide Products, as researched on EPA's Website: "Search for Registered Pesticide Products", as follows: https://www.epa.gov/safepest control/search-registered-pesticide-products
Approved Seed Treatment Insecticides and Fungicides are listed below
Approved Insecticide for Field and Greenhouse Seed treatment AI and a Turkmenistan-Registered Pesticide that contains the AI
Active Ingredient EPA Status
Turkmenistan Registered Insecticide Product
SDS sources, if available, for "same or similar use" products(Cut and paste address into Browser)
imidacloprid Active Russian Imidor WRK; Turkish Efedor 350 KS; Turkish Resumme 70 RP (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering, due to Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) risks to honeybees)
thiamethoxam Active Cruiser https://www.syngenta.ca/pdf/SDS/Cruiser_5FS_27045_N Variant_en_SDS.pdfhttps://drive.google.com/open?id=1V50oLKRiCm0_rePDFjQNM879K_xTVXuh
Approved Fungicide for Field Seed treatment AIs and Turkmenistan-Registered Pesticides that contains each AI
Active Ingredients EPA Status Turkmenistan Registered Fungicide Products
SDS sources, if available, for "same or similar use" products(Cut and paste address into Browser)
mancozeb Active Turkish Patamil 72 SP; Syngenta Ridomil gold
metalaxyl Active Patamil 72 SP http://www.agrobestgrup.com/files/pdf/Patamil72WP_etkt_iml_Rev.001-1117_Arlk17.pdf
propamocarb hydrochloride
Active Previcur https://kernred.co.kern.ca.us/kern-agcomm/products/PREVICUR%20FLEX%20FUNGICIDE.pdf
propiconazole Active Tilt http://www.syngentacropprotection.com/pdf/SDS/tilt%20a6140a%2002052015.pdf
tebuconazole Active Folicur, Raxil https://www.cropscience.bayer.ca/~/media/Bayer%20CropScience/Country-Canada-Internet/Products/Folicur%20EW/Folicur-250-EW-SDS.ashx;Raxil: https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/ppls/000264-00964-20050921.pdf
Approved Greenhouse Fungicides are listed below
Approved Greenhouse Fungicide AIs and Turkmenistan-registered Pesticides that contain each AI
Active Ingredients
EPA Status
Turkmenistan Registered Pesticide Products
SDS sources, if available, for "same or similar use" products(Cut and paste address into Browser)
cyproconazole Active Alto http://www.herbiguide.com.au/SDS/mcypr100_47527-0605.pdfdifenoconazole Active Score http://www.herbiguide.com.au/SDS/MDIFE250_45810-0605.PDF;https://drive.google.com/open?
id=1JxaCxVwjYJRX_q0LW4tbT_AqHhbsVhG3mancozeb Active Turkish Patamil 72
Active Fusilade http://www.falorfarmcenter.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/fusilade_SDS.pdf
glyphosate Active Roundup http://www.fmccrop.com.au/download/herbicides/SDS/glyder_450_SDS_0912.pdf
glyphosate, isopropyl amine salt
Active Roundup https://www.fumigationzone.com/files/53/Roundup+Original+-+EPA; https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1c7X6LQQmdvHWIu9zzl-azoWmxROHsgNb
The approved AIs can only be used in compliance with the safer use measures and restrictions specified in the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER). These can be summarized as follows:
i. Only pesticides containing the above active ingredients approved by this PERSUAP may be supported with USAID Turkmenistan funds, and in an IPM context. Pesticide “support” means use of USAID funds to: purchase pesticides; directly fund the application of pesticides; recommend pesticides for use during training or on demonstrations; facilitate or enable the application or purchase of pesticides via provision of application equipment, credit support, or other means by the IPs, their sub-grantees, partners or providers of finance;
ii. Appropriate project staff and beneficiaries should be trained in safer pesticide use and pesticide first aid;
iii. Appropriate project staff and beneficiaries should be trained in preventive IPM tools and pesticide integration for each crop-pest combination;
iv. To the greatest degree practicable, USAID Turkmenistan projects should require use and maintenance of appropriate Personal Protection Equipment (PPE), as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage, disposal and empty pesticide container (EPC) disposal practices;
v. USAID Turkmenistan programs, projects and activities should encourage their beneficiaries and clients to keep records on the types and amounts of pesticides applied to each crop.
vi. In addition to the COR, MEO shall clear in GLAAS (Global Acquisition and Assistance System) all requests for procurement and use of PERSUAP approved pesticides
The following matrix provides a timeline of expectations for putting risk mitigation measures into action.
PERSUAP Requirements and Recommendations for Mitigating Risks
Immediate 2019 Actions Recommended for SafetyTo improve chances for behavior modification and adoption of SPU practices, as part of this document’s required SUAP and all USAID project's required EMMP, perform GAP/IPM and SPU training (on a repeated—once or twice a year—basis) for all USAID Turkmenistan agriculture project AORs/CORs, OAA, implementers and beneficiaries that use or procure pesticides with project assistance (see Annex 8).
To reduce risks to beneficiaries, assist with recommended PPE for all USAID Turkmenistan project groups or cooperatives of implementers and beneficiaries that use or procure pesticides with project assistance (see PPE websites referred to herein).
To reduce risks of the use of a high-risk pesticide on a USAID Turkmenistan project activity, ensure that implementers and beneficiaries only procure or use approved pesticides in the above tables with USAID assistance.
To know and understand the approved unrestricted pesticides for same and similar use AIs contained in Turkmenistan’s list of registered pesticides, see Annex 11 and for analysis of these AIs, see Annex 5.
To ensure that each USAID Turkmenistan IP or subgrantee has a copy of the list of pesticides currently approved for unrestricted same and similar use and available for purchase in Turkmenistan, have them see Annexes 1 and 5 with pesticide AI names and Annex 11 matched with pesticide commercial product names.
To ensure that USAID Turkmenistan projects obtain, as available, copies of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS; now called just SDS) for each of the pesticide products used regularly by their
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beneficiaries, make it a requirement. Project technical staff of CTJ have the SDSs for each pesticide used by beneficiaries.
To reach local IPs and beneficiaries, translate into a local language the most critical PERSUAP sections and Annexes for a more efficient use of PERSUAP findings.
Action Recommended by October 2019So that project managers and farmers have a tool to better predict, prevent and manage pests throughout the season, USAID Turkmenistan projects make provisional PMPs for each crop (use Annexes 1, 2 and 3 as well as local farmer knowledge).
Continuous Actions Recommended for Safety and Best Management Practices (BMPs)Once GOT begins to register pesticides again or amend regulations, USAID Turkmenistan projects obtain new pesticide list of registered pesticides and any regulatory changes or amendments.
To learn and adopt GAPs, BMPs, and SPU practices, USAID Turkmenistan projects implementers, for all demonstration activities, introduce pesticide use record-keeping concepts and tools following GlobalGAP or other internationally-accepted procedures.
Program Management Actions on ComplianceImproving coordination between USAID Missions in CAR and South Asia on climate change, impacts on transbondary pests, IPM tools, registered pesticides, and CGIAR (Consultative Group for International Agriculture Research) center research findings.
USAID Turkmenistan ensures that A/COR and MEO clear procurement and use of approved untrestricted same and similar use pesticides using forms in Annex 15 and Global Acquisition and Assistance System (GLAAS).
The IPs for relevant projects projects monitor beneficiary farmers for their understanding and use of best practices found in the field form in Annex 9.
USAID Turkmenistan projects report on monitoring in Annual Reports to USAID COR and MEO, under a heading titled “Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring”.
USAID Turkmenistan projects implementers report on any changes in Turkmenistan pesticide regulations and registrations.
Annually participate in the amending of this PERSUAP to contain new IPM tactics and any new pesticides registered or available.
USAID Turkmenistan projects write the names of pesticides that cannot be used with USAID assistance into any future grant or sub-contract.
USAID Turkmenistan projects environmental staff include relevant actions drawn from this SUAP in EMMPs or draft an EMMP containing pesticide issues identified in the SUAP, and ways to mitigate the most common risks.
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PERSUAP REPORT UPDATES, AMENDMENTS AND IMPORTANT FOLLOW-THROUGH
It is important to note that the development of new pesticides, new EPA and international pesticide regulations and registrations, as well as new international market requirements for pesticide residues on food are all higly dymanic, changing every month. For that reason, and others, this PERSUAP should be updated—ideally every year—and amended after two years to remain current and accurate.
Annual review of the approved pesticides list in this 2019 PERSUAP
To ensure that this PERSUAP stays current & compliant with US EPA registration status, the list of chemicals should be reviewed annually, usually starting in January or 12 months after the current PERSUAP is approved.
Substantial update or amendment every 3-5 years of the PERSUAP
To distill lessons learned and ensure that all requirements are up-to-date, this document should be substantially updated Turkmenistan may produce a new list of registered pesticides, and EPA registrations will have changed significantly. The next major re-write will be due to begin in June 2020.
Regular training for USAID/CAR and USAID/Turkmenitstan, IPs, GOT officials
Do regular annual training on use of this PERSUAP for all stakeholders so that they understand how to interpret and use it. The next training will be due in October-November of 2019.
Translate this PERSUAP into local languages
Key parts of this document should be translated into local languages to make it accessible to a wider audience.
Transboundary Pests
To better coordinate responses to transboundary pests like tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta, Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Halyomorpha halys, locusts, wheat blast, sunn pest and others, see and reference other approved PERSUAPs from the region. These include PERSUAPs for Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Bangladesh and can be found at USAID’s database website: https://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/compliance/database. The impact of climate change and its impact on these transboundary pests are also discussed briefly on page 43, and management tools for each pest, disease and weed are contained in Annex 1.
(1) Project Assistance. Except as provided in §216.3 (b)(2), all proposed projects involving assistance for the procurement or use, or both, of pesticides shall be subject to the procedures prescribed in §216.3(b)(l)(i) through (v). These procedures shall also apply, to the extent permitted by agreements entered into by A.I.D. before the effective date of these pesticide procedures, to such projects that have been authorized but for which pesticides have not been procured as of the effective date of these pesticide procedures.
(i) When a project includes assistance for procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction, the Initial Environmental Examination for the project shall include a separate section evaluating the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits of the planned pesticide use to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental impact.
The separate section referred to above involves preparing a document routiney called Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP). This document focuses on the circumstances of the potential assistance programs, the risk management, choices available, and how a risk management plan would be implemented in the field. The preparation of a PERSUAP give a program manager the opportunity to consider practical action by which to reduce the risks of using pesticide products in a program, considering the context in which the product will be used, the particular element of the program, and the different capacities of the partners involved.
1.2 Differences Between USEPA, WHO and Russian Acute Toxicity Classification Systems, and why this is Important
Regulation 216 addresses USEPA registrations on same or similar use, including EPA’s acute toxicity classifications for individual pesticide products (not AIs). All of the EU as well as most of the developing world, which USAID serves, uses WHO’s acute toxicity classifications for individual pesticide AIs (not products). And, Russia, as well as countries in the former USSR, use yet another system for determining acute toxicity classification. Thus, IPs operating within this sphere will likely encounter all three systems (through Regulation 216, interpreted in this document; through WHO, interpreted on the labels of pesticide products imported from European companies like Syngenta, Bayer, BASF and others; as well as interpreted on labels of pesticides imported from Russia). However, IPs must follow as closely as possible USEPA’s interpretation found in this document. To assist IPs (and USAID) with this potential conundrum, Annex 4 lists the three systems to show the similarities and differences.
1.3 Integrated Pest Management—USAID Policy
In the early 1990s, USAID adopted the philosophy and practice of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
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(for livestock pests, most of which are disease vectors, this becomes Integrated Vector Management or IVM) as official policy. IPM is now a recognized system of BMPs and GAPs for modern agriculture and is also strongly promoted and required as part of Regulation 216.3. Since the early 2000s, IPM—which includes judicious use of ‘safer’ pesticides—has become an integral part of GAPs.
For most crops, soils need to provide adequate structure, nutrients and moisture and be well drained. The soil is where plant health begins and ends. A healthy soil will have a greater capacity to moderate the uptake of fertilizers and will allow a more balanced uptake of nutrients, creating a healthy plant that is less attractive to pests and more resistant to pest damage.
1.4 2019 Turkmenistan PERSUAP Methodology
From April to July 2019, the international consultant worked first by writing to CTJ staff in Turkmenistan to collect information for the PERSUAP, and to understand potential crops and products to be marketed by CTJ beneficiaries as well as any changes occurring in the pesticide sectors. The consultant then researched EPA websites to check the current registration status of the pesticides on the most recent registered list for Turkmenistan. Information was collected on seed treatments, field orchard and greenhouse crops. As well, this study addresses crops, pests, weeds, IPM tools, pesticide risks, and mitigation of those risks.
The strategy used for writing this 2019 PERSUAP is for it to contain as many links to websites with best practices as possible, both to make it easier to use (reduce the length and thickness) and more up-to-date or accurate (as websites are updated). So, instead of having numerous Annexes containing pesticide safety equipment recommendations or safe pesticide use practices, websites now take their place.
SECTION 2: BACKGROUND
2.1 Country and CTJ Activity Backgrounds
Turkmenistan Country
Turkmenistan is located in the south-western part of Central Asia. It covers an area of 491,200 sq. km stretching 1100 km from west to east and 650 km from north to south and shares borders with Uzbekistan to the northeast, Kazakhstan to the northwest, Afghanistan to the south-east and Iran to the south. On the western border lies the Caspian Sea. Turkmenistan contains significant oil and natural gas reserves. It is estimated to hold the world’s fourth largest reserve of natural gas and has proven oil reserves of approximately 600 million barrels.10 Between 2000 and 2011, the population of Turkmenistan grew 10 percent to 5.1 million people. As of late 2018, there were 5.4 million. Topographically, Turkmenistan consists of two parts – approximately 20 percent mountains and 80 percent covered by desert plains including tertiary plateaus, sandy deserts, and marsh salt flats. Approximately, 63 percent of land in the country is used as pasture, three percent of the land is used for agriculture, eight percent is forested, and 26 percent of the land is used for other purposes including towns and various industrial uses. Irrigated lands cover around two million hectares.
Three large floristic regions converge in Turkmenistan, the Kopetdago-Horasan (Kopetdag, Big and Small Balkhans); the Mountain Central Asian province; and the Turan desert region. This accounts for
10 International Energy Agency, Turkmenistan Country Analysis Brief, (2012).
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the unique characteristics of biological and landscape diversity. Due to Turkmenistan’s geographic location, climate, soil, and vegetation, several ecological regions can be distinguished in the country.These are desert lowlands: Sand deserts, desert plateaus, Tugai (desert riparian forest), highland mountains and pasture meadows.
CTJ Activity
USAID Competitiveness, Trade, and Jobs in Central Asia activity aims to facilitate exports and employment in horticulture, strengthen transport and logistics services, and tourism across the five Central Asian economies. By incentivizing firms to become more regionally competitive and by addressing cross-border impediments to trade, USAID helps to develop a more diverse and competitive private sector and generate export-driven growth. The activity is being implemented in Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan by interacting with businesses, trade authorities and governments in these aforementioned countries as well as in foreign markets specifically Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.
The activity will increase the competitiveness of Central Asian economies by working with firms in industries that have high growth potential for exports and have the potential to create a large number of jobs. The activity will also work with governments to address policy and regulatory constraints to moving goods, services and people across borders more efficiently. The activity will assist firms in those industries to understand the opportunities and requirements of markets; adopt technologies and techniques and develop the skills needed to meet international standards; and establish relationships with potential buyers and suppliers for long-term growth. The activity will work with industry and government, including export promotion agencies, to identify and address industry-specific constraints as well as facilitate trade.
Five-Year Project: October 2016 to September 2021Goals: Expand regional trade and employment in the horticulture, transport and logistics, and tourism sectors in Central AsiaApproach: Components: Market Systems Development – facilitating market actors to implement activities and achieve goals
The following are activities highlighted in a 2019/2020 Work Plan:
1. Assessment and project planning to implement the horticulture plan. A visit by a regional agronomist to make a detailed assessment and project plan of all activities. Comments: During the visit the agronomist may also deliver a 1-day seminar on the best agronomic practices in managing orchards (stone fruits)
2. Potato growing training. Workshops on potato growing and post-harvest management coupled with consultative assistance in the fields.
3. Fruit Tree and Vineyards Training. A series of workshops and practical consultations in the field of good agricultural practices for the cultivation of fruit trees and vineyards. Specific topics comprise:Advanced ways of studying and adapting highly productive fruit trees and vineyards. Protection of fruit trees and vineyards from plant diseases and pests. Methods of treatment for fruit trees and vineyards
4. Field advice on growing practices for pistachio and almonds, soy and/or sunflower, sugar cane.
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5. Irrigation training Workshops. One-day water management workshops / trainings and procurement of limited irrigation equipment for the areas supported under paragraph1.2 (fruit trees on open ground) and paragraph 2.2 (demonstration sites). Comments: Irrigation training will be conducted on demonstration sites.
6. Cold Chain development and Post-Harvest management Trainings. Advice, training and networking opportunities to logistics and cold chain stakeholders – growers, consolidators, cold storage and warehouse owners and operators: Workshop for CEOs and Investors investment in cold chain facilities, 2-days; Training on Warehouse Operations, 4-days; Postharvest handling Training of Trainers, 2-days
7. A series of training seminars on export promotion: Regulatory Requirements for Exports; 1-day workshop on regulatory, technical, labeling and sanitary (SPS) requirements in relation to export of selected Turkmen fruit and vegetables to international markets, including EU, South East Asia
8. Uzbek horticulture export promotion seminar. 1-day seminar highlighting Uzbek practices and strategies to enhance domestic sales and horticulture exports in Ashgabat
9. 1-day workshop on international horticulture / food processing standards: Global GAP certification. Global GAP is the main international certification for horticulture production accepted by retailers globally), HACCP or ISO22000, International Organic certification (example, ECOCERT – certification of organic agricultural products) and advice on implementation of those standards for 3 enterprises or support with diagnostic/certification audits.
10. Co-financing of innovative horticulture production and processing projects on a competitive basis through the CTJ Innovation Fund. The Innovation Fund co-finances projects demonstrating innovative processes or products in horticulture, transport and logistics. The Fund seeks to increase regional exports and employment. CTJ can fund equipment and technical advice/services.
11. Advice and Procurement of necessary inputs for demonstration sites (0.25 hectares each): procurement of highly productive seeds of soybeans, corn, sunflower, provision of necessary fertilizers/pesticides. Procurement of rootstock/ seedlings of highly productive fruits or vegetables (as advised by UoIE) suitable for the climatic conditions of Turkmenistan, procurement of irrigation equipment. Comments: all varieties of rootstock, irrigation equipment, fertilizers and pesticides will be selected/approved jointly with UoIE and are subject to USAID environmental requirements.
2.2 Pesticide Use Sectors in Turkmenistan (Seed, Greenhouse, Field)
2.2.1 Seed Treatment with Pesticides
Many USAID agriculture projects donate or assist with acquisition of quality hybrid crop seed for farmers they serve. Almost all of these seeds, as well as practically all modern vegetable seeds, are sold pre-treated with pesticides.
Most commercial seed treatment, by volume, is done by the company that produces and packages the seed, not by donors and not by farmers. And almost all treated seed is colored to show that it has been treated—this is so that it is not confused with food grain, cooked and eaten.
Many farmers in Central Asia, including Turkmenistan, save seed from season to season and treat it themselves. Generally, seed-treatment pesticides are formulated as one of the following: FS = Flowable
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concentrate for Seed treatment (most seed treatments); DS = Powders for Dry Seed treatment; SC = Suspension Concentrate; WP = Wettable Powder; MD = Micro Dispersion; WS = Water dispersible powder for Slurry treatment.
Advantages of Seed Treatments
Since they are used at very small amounts of active ingredient per seed and thus per unit of land, and take the chemical directly to the pest, seed treatments with pesticides fit nicely within an IPM program. They exert a much lighter impact on the environment than spraying an entire field. They protect the seed from numerous soil and seed-borne fungal, bacterial and insect pests, so that germination and seedling growth can proceed unimpeded. And, there are some biological seed treatments available and some new ones being developed.
Risks from Treating Seed with Pesticides On-Farm
Treating seed involves many of the same risks as for mixing concentrated pesticide products and applying them to field or greenhouse crops. First, it assumes that the farmer knows the principle soil diseases and pests present and what to use against them. And, it also assumes that farmers understand the risks associated with treating, packaging, labeling, storing and planting the seed.
Ideally, seed would be treated in a specialized “seed treater” composed of a mixing tank, treater head and coating chamber to apply precisely measured quantities of pesticide. Proper PPE must be used by the farmer applicator and unused pesticide and residues must be properly disposed of. Next, the treated seed must be properly labeled as “Treated” with the common (Active Ingredient) and trade (Product) names of the pesticide used, health hazards of the pesticide such as skin or eye irritant or if it is a carcinogen. For highly toxic chemicals, the statement “This seed is treated with a poison” and for toxic chemicals, the statement “Do not use for food, feed or oil purposes” should be used.
Seed treated for planting should be stored separately from grain to be used for food, animal feed or oil extraction. Storage should be in a dry, well ventilated space. Farmers should keep treated seed out of reach of small children.
USAID IPs are effectively limited to promoting or purchasing and donating only seed treatment pesticides or seed already treated with pesticides registered by EPA for same or similar uses. For this reason, this PERSUAP evaluates in Annex 5, all the AIs commonly found in seed treatment pesticides for EPA registration, human health and environmental risks, among other factors. Note again that the AIs commonly found in concentrated and formulated seed treatment pesticide products will present more application risks than seed already treated, due to a dilution effect.
2.2.2 Field Agriculture Pesticide Use
USAID projects focus on increasing agricultural production in countries where agriculture still consumes most of a country’s labor, natural resources and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) output. Inevitably, these projects work with providing farmers access to improved varieties and tools, best practices and inputs. These inputs include fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides include insecticides, miticides, nematocides, molluscicides, fungicides, herbicides, bactericides, avicides and rodenticides. Insecticides that are gaseous or produce toxic gas are called fumigants. Most fumigants are for soil treatment used for high value crops (like strawberries in the USA) that kills almost everything in the soil and are Class I toxins (the most toxic).
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Advantages of Field Agriculture Pesticide Treatments
Some pests significantly reduce yield and yield potential of certain crops. Pesticides, if used wisely and safely in an IPM program, can reduce pests to tolerable levels, leading to lower pest damage risks and higher yield.
Risks from Field Agriculture Pesticide Treatments
Risks from use of pesticides in the field are numerous, but the highest risk is encountered when the container of pesticide is opened because of the potential for contact with a high concentration of the AI. Once the AI becomes mixed with water and sprayed, risk decreases somewhat but not completely. Risk goes up with higher concentrations of AI and with higher AI acute toxicity classes.
As noted in the introduction, USAID IPs are effectively limited to discussing during training, promoting, purchasing or donating only pesticides registered by EPA for same or similar uses.
2.2.3 Greenhouses Treated with Pesticides
Greenhouses are used in Turkmenistan to grow vegetables, citrus and nursery crops. Greenhouse environments provide a variety of benefits for plant production; however, many greenhouses favor pest development as well. The warm, humid conditions and abundant food are ideal for pest build up. Natural enemies that serve to keep some pests under control in the field are absent in the greenhouse. For these reasons, pest problems often develop more rapidly and are more severe in enclosed systems. Greenhouses generally tend most likely to be infested with very small crop pests like spider mites, scales, mealy bugs, whiteflies, aphids, leaf miners, fungus gnats and thrips. Common greenhouse diseases include powdery and downy mildews.
Advantages for Greenhouse Production
The primary advantage of using pesticides in a greenhouse is that the pests are trapped and cannot leave, increasing the chance that they will be poisoned. The use of biological controls (predators, parasites or diseases that attack pests) can be effective for the same reason. The website11 maintained by the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service contains numerous biological control resources for greenhouse production. And, many small pests can be excluded (and biological controls kept in) by using screens on greenhouse openings.
Risks from Treating Greenhouses with Pesticides
The risk of phytotoxicity—the injury to plants by pesticides—is greater in greenhouses where plants grow rapidly and are exceptionally succulent. The greenhouse environment is in some ways more challenging than the field in that it is an enclosed space where pesticides can become concentrated in the air, with little room for error for applicator safety.
Concentrated liquid formulations are generally more hazardous to the applicator than dry formulations as they may be easily absorbed through the skin. Aerosols and fogs usually penetrate dense foliage better than conventional sprays so better pest control is achieved, but they pose greater risk to people of exposure through the eyes or by inhalation. Special metering or application equipment may be needed and some of the chemicals used may be toxic and they may kill established released biocontrols.
Many pesticides labeled for field use are prohibited for greenhouse use because of concerns about worker safety, phytotoxicity leading to crop injury, and/or pesticide resistance management. Regulation 216 applies to greenhouse production in the same way that it applies to seed and field uses.
2.3 Turkmenistan and International Treaties/Agreement Obligations Related to Pesticides as Prelim to PER Analysis
The following are international agreements concerning pesticides. First the common name of the treaty is provided in column one, with a description of the purpose of each treaty in column two, and then Turkmenistan’s status with each is provided in column three.
Treaty or Convention name
Purpose of Treaty or Convention Turkmenistan decision taken
Stockholm Convention
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) covers chemicals that are toxic, persistent in the environment, and liable to bio-accumulate. The Convention was established to eliminate or restrict the production and use of POPs.
Not party to this agreement.
Rotterdam Convention
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade promotes shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals, commonly referred to as PIC chemicals. Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply.
Not party to this agreement.
Basel Convention
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries.
Accession and entry into force 1996.
Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. Methyl bromide used for agricultural fumigation is one of the protocol chemicals being phased out worldwide.
Accession 1993.
Espoo Convention
The Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in a Transboundary Context sets out the obligations of Parties to assess the environmental impact of certain activities at an early stage of planning. It also lays down the general obligation of States to notify and consult each other on all major projects under consideration that are likely to have a significant adverse environmental impact across
Not party to this agreement.
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boundaries.
2.4 Evaluation of Turkmenistan Pesticide Risks as Prelim to PER Analysis
There is very little outside information on pesticides, use and risks in Turkmenistan. As noted above, the country is not party to the Stockholm Convention, and the information from the country is outdated. However, an amount of 1,671 metric tonnes of obsolete pesticides has previously been reported12. These are likely leftover from the Soviet Union era’s socialized farms and inputs, primarily from the cotton sector.
Some multinationals including DuPont, BASF, Bayer, Sumitomo, Monsanto (now part of Bayer) and Syngenta are reaslonably well represented, although the Chinese are copying most generic (off-patent) products, even with the same or very similar product names, but usually without the high-quality formulation skills available with real brand-name chemicals. Many of the remaining pesticides are imported from Russia and Turkey.
Other than artisanal preparations, no pesticides are manufactured, formulated into pesticide products, or officially repackaged in Turkmenistan. Limited PPE safety equipment is available, and any that is available is relatively expensive. On-farm sprayer and PPE maintenance is lacking.
In every country or region, there exist factors that increase or decrease the risk profile of the agrochemical inputs system; many of these are the same from country to country. These risks have been categorized into groups and enumerated below as “Factors that Increase Risks from Pesticides” and “Factors that Reduce Risks from pesticides.”
Biological pesticides have been produced in Turkmenistan by biolaboratories for decades. These laboratories from the Soviet Union era were previously state- or farm-owned. Now they are either farm/cooperatively owned, village/community owned or private and there are about 500. These labs can produce predators, parasites and pathogens of crop pest insects, mites and diseases.
Factors that indicate Increase risks from pesticides
Problems, constraints or risks in the Turkmenistan pesticide cycle of use
Recommendations for donors and USAID projects
USAID Priority
Pesticide regulations could be strengthened Multilateral donors like FAO work with MOA
High
Limited pesticide registrations Multilateral donors like FAO work with MOA
High
Lower quality & Chinese generic pesticides present
Do repeated training on pesticide quality choices
High
Certified analytical capaciy for analyzing and monitoring pesticides and residues is insufficient
Donors and produce exporters and authorities combine resources
High
Few resources for extension Donors do demonstration farms, trials HighLimited farmer knowledge of pest ID & IPM tools
Do repeated training on pesticide cautions and interpreting pesticide label pictograms
High
Proximity to major cotton production & chemicals like banned endosulfan
Diversify production, knowledge & input demand
High
Pesticide shops without sufficient safety equipment
Train shop-keepers on pesticide safety Low
Pesticides stored in the home Do repeated training on proper pesticide storage
High
Limited use of PPE by pesticide appliers Do training on proper PPE to use; OAA do IGCE to subsidize PPE for cooperatives to share; or contract spraying service providers
High
Over and under applications of pesticides Do repeated training on calibration & application; or contract spraying service providers
Med
Pesticides applied at wrong time of day Do repeated training on application times risks
Med
Wrong pesticide applied for pest/disease Do repeated training on pesticide choice; or contract spraying service providers
High
Back-pack sprayers leak onto spray personnel
Do repeated training on sprayer maintenance; or contract spraying service providers
High
Increased chronic health issues Do repeated training on pesticide toxicities & PPE
Low
Pesticides & container disposal Do repeated training on proper disposal High
Factors that reduce risks from pesticides Turkmenistan has pesticide regulations and registrations. There are some natural predators, parasites and insect pest pathogen products available from over
500 biolabs. Various USAID and other development project activities will involve demonstrations to farmers
by well-trained staff, so there is a possibility for the transfer of IPM and safe pesticide use practices. There should be a common/coherent donros’ approach to procurement and use of pesticides, at least internded to support national obligations under ratified conventions. FAO is currently studying and promoting such an approach in Turkmenistan.
Although there are a few positive factors, there still remain numerous issues that can and do increase the risk for pesticide errors to occur in Turkmenistan. This situation increases the risk of exposing small-scale farmers, laborers and farm family members to dangerous poisons, and polluting their environment. Thus, the pesticide risk profile is higher than might be encountered in more developed countries, so extra care is required.
2.5 Transboundary Pests
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Climate change that causes warmer temperatures and more powerful storms are beginning to impact pests that move on the winds of storms and invade areas that become warmer, with milder winters. These include economically important pests Tomato Leaf Miner, Tuta absoluta, American Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Halyomorpha halys, three invasive locust species, wheat blast, sunn pest, and others. Annex 1 contains information on managing and controlling each of these pests. USAID has produced PERSUAPs for surrounding countries that deal with the same pests. In order to better coordinate responses to transboundary pests, see and reference other approved PERSUAPs from the region. The PERSUAPs for Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Turkmenistan and can be found at USAID’s environmental compliance database website: https://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/compliance/database. Each of these should contain strategies as well as approved pesticides that can be used in each country for each pest.
2.6 Maximum Residue Levels
MRLs for each pesticide and each crop depend on each country into which produce, or processed products are to be sold and consumed. Each country has different MRLs. Find MRLs for USA, EU, Russia, Codex and other countries at: http://www.mrldatabase.com/ .
This part of the PERSUAP, the PER (Pesticide Evaluation Report), addresses pesticide choices based upon environmental and human health issues, uses, alternate options, IPM, biodiversity, conservation, training, PPE options, monitoring and mitigation recommendations according to the twelve Regulation 216.3(b)(1) Pesticide Procedures Factors, outlined and analyzed below.
Reg. 216.3(b)(1)(i) stipulates: “When a project includes assistance for procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction, the Initial Environmental Examination for the project shall include a separate section evaluating the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits of the planned pesticide use to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental impact. Factors to be considered in such an evaluation shall include, but not be limited to the following:” (see box, right)
Pesticides can be home-made (artesenal) or synthesized in a factory, and may contain either natural extracts from plants, microbes, spices, oils, minerals or synthesized chemicals, or occaisionally both. Pesticides generally contain more than just the AI; they also contain a carrier (water, oil, or emulsion), emulsifiers, synergists, safeners, adhesives and other components.
Pesticides generally contain just one AI, but can contain more than one AI, in a mixture. When produced commercially, each pesticide is made, marketed and sold with a product commercial name. This name, in addition to artesenal products, is the “pesticide” referred to by Regulation 216. These pesticide names can be ubiquitous (like Roundup for products containing the AI glyphosate) or can be given different names depending upon cultural and linguistic differences and clever marketing.
3.1 Factor A: USEPA registration status of the proposed pesticide
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THE 12 PESTICIDE FACTORSFactor A. USEPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides
Factor B. Basis for Selection of Pesticides
Factor C. Extent to which the proposed pesticide use is, or could be, part of an IPM program
Factor D. Proposed method or methods of application, including the availability of application and safety equipment
Factor E. Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use, and measures available to minimize such hazards
Factor F. Effectiveness of the requested pesticide for the proposed use
Factor G. Compatibility of the proposed pesticide use with target and non-target ecosystems
Factor H. Conditions under which the pesticide is to be used, including climate, geography, hydrology, and soils
Factor I. Availability of other pesticides or non-chemical control methods
Factor J. Host country’s ability to regulate or control the distribution, storage, use, and disposal of the requested pesticide
Factor K. Provision for training of users and applicators.
Factor L. Provision made for monitoring the use and effectiveness of each pesticide
USAID Turkmenistan projects activities are effectively limited to mentioning during training, promoting, recommending or permitting pesticides containing AIs in products registered in the host country and in the US by the EPA for the same or similar uses. Emphasis is placed on “similar use” because a few of the crops and their pest species found overseas are not present in the US, and therefore pesticides may not be registered for the exact same use, but often are registered for similar pests and pest situations. Annex 5 provides EPA registration status for each AI found in Turkmenistan.
EPA Registrations and Restrictions
The USEPA now categorizes pesticides as either “registered” or “not registered13.” Moreover, some specific pesticide products are labeled as Restricted Use Pesticides (RUPs), and these cannot be purchased or promoted on USAID projects, unless a full Environmental Assessment (EA) is produced, with detailed risk analyses. By default, pesticides not classified as RUP are considered to be General Use Pesticides (GUP). In the USA, the pesticides that are labeled RUPs can only be sold to and used by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision, and only for those purposes covered by the applicator's certification (such as for row crops, or tree crops, or structural pests and so on). Annex 5 provides EPA RUP designation status for the products containing each AI found in Turkmenistan. The primary finding is that other pesticide products containing the same AI, but not labeled as a RUP, can be promoted and used with USAID resources. The distinction is product-specific, based upon same or similar use.
EPA versus WHO versus Russian Acute Toxicity Classifications
Regulation 216 addresses USEPA registrations on same or similar use, including EPA’s acute toxicity classifications for individual pesticide products (not AIs). All of the EU as well as most of the developing world, which USAID serves, uses WHO’s acute toxicity classifications for individual pesticide AIs (not products). And, Russia, as well as countries in the former USSR, use yet another system for determining acute toxicity classification. Thus, IPs operating within this sphere will likely encounter all three systems (through Regulation 216, interpreted in this document; through WHO, interpreted on the labels of pesticide products imported from European companies like Syngenta, Bayer, BASF and others; as well as interpreted on labels of pesticides imported from Russia). However, IPs must follow as closely as possible USEPA’s interpretation found in this document. To assist IPs (and USAID) with this potential conundrum, Annex 4 lists the three systems to show the similarities and differences.
To make this PERSUAP useful to any and all USAID agriculture or food security projects now and in the near future that are or will be implemented in Turkmenistan, this document analyzes all of the pesticide AIs and products currently registered in 2019 by Turkmenistan. These are listed, as received, in Annex 11. Since the 2012 PERSUAP did not list all the pesticides registered at that time, it is not possible to see how much that list has changed since then. It is possible to infer that it has not changed much, due to the paucity of registered pesticide choices.
The pesticide AIs that passed this Factor A analysis, that is unrestricted for “same or similar uses”, are listed in the Executive Summary and further analyzed in Annex 5 for human and environmental health issues characteristic to each AI.
The matrices in Annex 6 provide the names of the pesticide AIs that failed this Factor A analysis, with the reason they failed, as well as Annex 7 lists of POPs and PIC chemicals. Thus, the pesticide AIs listed below are rejected for promotion by or on any USAID Turkmenistan Project.
Compliance Requirements USAID/Turkmenistan-funded projects/sub-grantees will not promote, finance or use on
demonstration farms, pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP (Annex 6) as well as any internationally banned or restricted pesticides listed in Annex 7.
CTJ and any USAID/Turkmenistan-funded agriculture or food security projects/sub-grantees shall obtain and retain copies of the SDS for each pesticide that their beneficiary farmers use frequently.
3.2 Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides
This procedure generally refers to the practical, economic and/or environmental, social and health rationales for choosing a particular pesticide. In general, USAID – which promotes IPM as policy – dictates that the least toxic pesticide that is effective is selected.
Agriculture (Crop Seeds, Field Crops and Greenhouse Crops) Pest and Disease Management
Up until recently, the bases for selection of pesticides have most often been availability, efficacy, and price; not environmental or human safety. Farmers have wanted a pesticide that has rapid knock-down action to satisfy the need to defeat the pest quickly and visibly – they want to see the pest immediately drop on its back with legs twitching and flailing in the air as it dies. They follow the advice of neighbors and retail pesticide and agriculture input stores.
Farmers who will use GAP or other systems for export crops or high-value local markets will focus more on factors such as human safety and low environmental impact, by necessity as much as by choice. Such lower toxicity pesticides may take longer to kill the pest – usually after the farmer has left the field – but they are effective, nevertheless. Another factor of importance is the abeyance of pesticide-specific PHIs (pre-harvest intervals) and MRLs (maximum residue levels), which can be influenced by choosing products with rapid post-application degradation. The three most common bases for traditional farmer pesticide selection for crops in Turkmenistan are currently price, availability and efficacy.
Individual pesticides are generally formulated specifically for each of the above uses and will be labeled for use on seed or for use in greenhouses. Some pesticides found in Turkmenistan are formulated and labeled specifically for seed treatment; however, the demand and market for specifically-labeled greenhouse pesticides are too small, so no specially formulated greenhouse pesticides are available. In any case, this PERSUAP reviews the most common greenhouse pesticides used world-wide in anticipation of markets expanding sufficiently that greenhouse production increases in Turkmenistan.
Issue: Most beneficiaries do not consider factors such as:
Reducing risks to human health by using products that contain active ingredients with low acute human toxicity and few to no chronic health risks;
Reducing risks to scarce and valuable water resources on the surface and underground; Reducing risks to biodiversity and environmental resources, ecosystems, habitats and honeybees,
and the services they provide.
Recommendations:
In conjunction with recommending pesticides, and providing training in pesticide use, USAID/Turkmenistan-supported projects/sub-grantees shall provide training to beneficiaries on how to choose the correct quality of pesticide products from reputable companies (generally not Chinese
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generics that enter the country informally/illegally), instead of relying solely upon the advice of retail shopes, agrodealers and neighbors.
In conjunction with recommending pesticides, and providing training in pesticide use, USAID/Turkmenistan-supported projects/sub-grantees shall provide training to encourage beneficiaries to use products with lower human and ecological toxicities (see Annex 5) if there is a choice among pesticide products and AIs.
3.3 Factor C: Extent to which the proposed pesticide use is, or could be, part of an IPM program
USAID promotes training in, and development and use of, integrated approaches to pest management tools and tactics whenever possible. This section emphasizes how the proposed pesticides used can be incorporated into an overall IPM strategy. The sub-sectors examined have IPM tactics, including numerous non-synthetic pesticide tactics and tools available.
The susceptibility of crop plants to pests and diseases is greatly influenced by the general health of the plant. Therefore, good crop management practices, especially focusing on soil fertility, can strongly affect IPM, and good agronomic or cultural practices are the most basic and often the most important prerequisites for an effective IPM program. A healthy crop optimizes both the capacity to prevent or tolerate pest/disease damage while maintaining or increasing yield potential.
Issue: Most Turkmenistan beneficiaries are not aware of all of the IPM tactics available
Agriculture (Seed, Field and Greenhouse)
Among the tactics used include resistant varieties, sanitation, raised-bed, proper water management, monitoring, hand-picking pests, trap crops, crop rotation, proper fertilization, pest exclusion, soil solarization, and taking advantage of some naturally-occurring parasites. The analysis shows that there are plenty of areas for improvement among USAID Turkmenistan projects field staff and demonstration farmers. In the USA, the USDA supports several programs aimed at investigating and developing IPM tools and tactics, including NIFA (the National Institute of Food and Agriculture) and the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service of the National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT)14.
Annex 1 shows a Crop-Pest/Disease/Weed-Preventive IPM-Pesticide matrix for each crop to potentially be assisted by USAID Turkmenistan projects, most major pests, diseases and weeds of each crop, a mix of IPM tactics used in Turkmenistan along with a list of IPM tools and tactics used for the same pests in other countries, and recommended to be tried and adopted. In conclusion, some of the beneficiary farmers, whether or not they understand the IPM philosophy fully, do know about, and use some GAP and IPM tools and tactics. However, there is room for improvement as many tools/tactics remain unused, if not unknown.
Recommendations:
Preventive IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest/disease/weed combination or situation (see Annex 1) should be recommended and used before, as well as combined with, the use of synthetic pesticides.
Agriculture projects should assist with the provision of new IPM tools/tactics/technologies, like hybrid seed, pheromone traps, drip irrigation, printed extension flyers, and pest prevention text messaging systems for pest/disease prediction, if desired.
Turkmenistan would benefit from a new national Pest Management Plan (PMP) containing preventive tools and tactics to help reduce pests/diseases of major crops (beyond just cotton), as well as curative pesticides if needed. Annex 1 provides a starting point for such PMPs. World Bank assists many countries to produce or expand on these PMPs, and a new one could be requested, if desired.
3.4 Factor D: Proposed method or methods of application, including the availability of application and safety equipment
This section examines how the pesticides are to be applied, to understand specific risks with different application equipment available and application methodologies, and the measures to be taken (repeated training especially of younger future farmers, use of PPE) to ensure safe use for each application type. Pesticides can and do enter the body through the nose and mouth as vapors, through the skin and eyes by leaky sprayers, mixing spillage/splashing and spray drift, and mouth by accidental splashing or ingestion on food or cigarettes.
Farmers in Turkmenistan often do not have access to adequate equipment or training on how to apply pesticides. This is due to lack of affordability; yet even if affordable, the equipment, may be unavailable in some locations. According to the 2012 PERSUAP, “the result is a common application by using straw brooms as an applicator, but this foliar application uses large droplets that are not ideal for pest prevention, the environment and people (farmers and consumers).” Farmers often fail to understand the risks to their health and the health of their family of using pesticides and the importance of using appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE). To effectively implement safe use of pesticides, comprehensive training and extension programs are needed that promote proper use and maintenance of application equipment and use of safety equipment in accordance with pesticide labels. USAID should be training farmer beneficiaries in appropriate and correct pesticide application methods and use of safety equipment, how to read and understand labels and to understand the importance of using PPE.
Backpack sprayers
The preferred method of pesticide application for farmers participating in the USAID projects is to use a motorized or manually-operated backpack sprayer. However, due to poor economic conditions, many farmers use a single sprayer made out of recycled bottles for all types of pesticides and foliar fertilizers.
In 2012, as part of AgTech’s on-going training program, farmers were being trained in basic spray equipment operation and maintenance. This included training on the mixing, cleaning, repair, and storage of the sprayer to avoid cross-contamination and potential problems. AgTech provided training in the proper functioning of the spray equipment for effective spray delivery. AgTech encouraged growers to keep spare parts on hand (e.g., adjustable nozzles, filters, hoses, etc.) or know where they can readily obtain spare parts to ensure optimum functioning of the equipment at all times and to avoid leaks or spills from faulty equipment. The proper use of PPE when spraying pesticides was also emphasized in AgTech training courses, now almost 5-7 years old.
Farmers usually prefer liquid formulations; emulsifiable concentrates are very common. Farmers were taught to calculate the proper spray volume per age of the crop to accurately cover target foliage or soil; to calibrate their equipment properly; to follow all label recommendations and warnings on the amount of chemical per unit area, spray intervals, re-entry intervals and pre-harvest cycle stoppage; to adjust water pH for more effective applications; to monitor pest populations to determine application intervals; and to maintain proper application records.
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For all spray applications, minimum PPE includes:
Long-sleeved shirt Long pants Shoes and socks Boots (waterproof, chemical-resistant) Gloves (waterproof or chemical-resistant)
Soil Incorporation-Soil Treatment
Granular formulations are systemic pesticides and are taken up by the plant or act on pests present in the soil. To date, such practices are rarely used among Turkmen greenhouse farmers. However, the advantage of dry granular pesticide formulations is that they can be spread manually to top-dress the soil at the base of plants or are incorporated into the soil pre-emergence, targeting the roots of the plants as they grow and minimizing the risk of spray drift or evaporation. Granular formulations break down and release the active ingredient over time, allowing for longer intervals between applications. If granular pesticides or dusts are spread on top of the soil, they usually are watered in immediately after application thereby minimizing potential contamination of persons entering the field after application.
For all granular applications, minimum PPE includes:
Long-sleeved shirt Long pants Shoes and socks Boots (waterproof, chemical-resistant) Gloves (waterproof or chemical-resistant)
Drip Irrigation (Chemigation)
Few greenhouse farmers use drip irrigation due to cost and reliability of water resources. For reasons of water conservation and as an alternative method to potentially harmful sprays, the project supports drip irrigation, though which it can inject nematicides or other pesticides (a process called chemigation). The installation of drip irrigation systems by lead farmers was an integral part of AgTech’s 2010-2016 technical assistance and demonstration project, although the adoption rate of this technology will rely on other economic factors.
The advantage of drip irrigation systems is that they target the water, fertilizers (fertigation), and chemicals to the roots, where they are easily taken up directly by the plants and eliminate spray drift and evaporation. Vitamins, salicylic acid, and pesticides are also applied through the irrigation systems. The biggest advantages of using the irrigation systems to apply pesticides are:
it minimizes exposure of the applicator to the pesticide, it minimizes exposure of other persons who might enter the fields it minimizes exposure of non-target birds and beneficial insects, and it minimizes run-off, spray drift or contamination of surface and ground waters.
For all chemigation applications, minimum PPE includes:
Long-sleeved shirt Long pants
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Shoes and socks Boots (waterproof, chemical-resistant) Gloves (waterproof or chemical-resistant)
2. Personal Protective Equipment
AgTech recommended that basic PPE, such as long-sleeved shirts, long pants, shoes, and socks, be worn at all times when working with pesticides. Shirts and pants can be similar to those used every day but must be worn only to apply pesticides. Depending on the toxicity and label directions for any given chemical, additional PPE may include gloves and boots, goggles, masks and chemical resistant aprons or suits.
AgTech advised farmer-clients that PPE should be kept in good, clean operating condition and, after use, should be washed thoroughly, avoiding contamination of wells and rivers. Clothes worn to apply pesticides should be washed separately from other clothes.
More sophisticated PPE (i.e. masks, respirators, etc.) may not be readily available. AgTech recommended to agricultural supply dealers that they carry a variety of PPE, and strongly recommended, in training courses and through extension activities, to farmer-clients to use PPE in accordance with labels.
The following up to date PPE information is provided by CTJ for 2019
According to the information of the Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs of Turkmenistan (UIET), the Department of Agriculture and Agro-industrial Complex (AIC), all farms are equipped with PPE for working with pesticides and agrochemicals, first-aid kits with a set of all necessary medicines (100%) for provision of first (pre-medical) aid. However, the level of PPE availability is varying amongst the farms.
The list of safety equipment available in the market in Ashgabat is given below.
Special clothing for torso protection: rubber raincoat: 30.0 - 65.0 manat15; apron made of film materials: 20.0 - 25.0 manat; rubberized apron: 35.0-45.0 manat; sleeves from film material:15.0-27.0 manat; cotton coveralls, suit: 120.0-150.0 manat; wadded jacket: 50.0- 80.0 manat; cotton trousers: 55.0- 75.0 manat; helmet: 45.0- 75.0 manat;
Hand protection: rubber glove - 25.0 - 45 manat; rubber glove with a knitted base: 25.0 - 37.0 manat; cotton mitten with a film coating: 10.0 - 22.0 manat;
15 While official exchange rate is $1 USD = 3.5 manat, for the purpose of calculating real cost of goods the unofficial real market rate exchange ($1 USD = around 18.4 manat as of June 2019) shall be applied in most cases.
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combined mitten with textin handhelds: 20.0-30.0 manat; cotton mitten:5,0 -12,0 manat;
Foot and leg protection: rubber boots: 30.0 - 80.0 manat;
It shall be noted that specialized shops selling chemicals for protection of plant against diseases and pests, and weed control are available in all velayat centers and the city of Ashgabat, however the same shall not be said in respect of personal protective equipment that should be employed when working with chemicals.
Also, it is impossible to purchase PPE in one particular store: one or two types of the above PPE can be purchased in Ashgabat city in various stores including such shops as construction material shop, the wholesale-frozen market, flea market or other places. The range and quantity of available PPE is very limited; often it is just the remnants of goods previously supplied by entrepreneurs; centralized supply of PPE is not provided.
Agriculture Seed Treatment
Very few Turkmen farmers treat seed themselves and if they do, the seed and pesticide are mixed in buckets, wheelbarrows or other large receptacles, which leads to uneven application and coverage of seed. Most purchased seed come already coated with a fungicide and sometimes an insecticide as well, to protect the young seedling. Gloves, eye protection, respirator and long-sleeve shirt and pants should be used for seed mixing and handling.
Field Crops
Most project pesticides will be applied by non-leaking hand-pumped backpack sprayers (liquids) or by gloved hand (powders and granules). Although most Turkmenistan farmers do not use PPE, USAID Turkmenistan projects-supported beneficiaries will be promoting their use as a best practice. Pesticide labels should provide guidance on appropriate PPE to use, and EPA has guidance on a website16.
Greenhouse crops
Most project pesticides used in greenhouses will be applied by hand-pumped backpack sprayers (liquids) or a few by hand (powders and granules). Although most Turkmenistan farmers do not use PPE, USAID Turkmenistan projects-supported beneficiaries will be promoting their use as a best practice, and coud set PPE use as a condition for co-financing. Pesticide labels should provide guidance on appropriate PPE to use, and EPA has guidance on a website17.
Issue: Leaky back-pack sprayers
Hand-pump backpack sprayers, used by the poorest farmers among others, can and do eventually develop leaks at almost every junction (filler cap, pump handle entry, exit hose attachment, lance attachment to 16 http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm17 http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm
the hose and at the lance handle) and these leaks soak into exposed skin. Clothing serves to wick and hold these pesticides in contact with skin, and to concentrate them use after use, until washed.
Recommendations for Mitigation
USAID Turkmenistan projects, as part of its provision of inputs, should include budget allocations for repair and maintenance of application equipment, and develop a management program that includes oversight of repair and maintenance by a selected member of a farmer cooperative or association.
Issue: Pesticide granules and powders applied by hand
Most farmers that use pesticides formulated as granules or powders apply these by hand, without benefit of gloves. Gloves should be used for these applications.
Recommendations for Mitigation
USAID Turkmenistan projects ensure that farmers that use powders or granules do so only with gloves, mask and goggles, as well as any additional PPE recommended by the label or SDS.
Issue: Turkmenistan farmers do not use PPE
Reasons that many Turkmenistan farmers do not use PPE to reduce pesticide exposure risks include:
1. Farmers and workers either discredit or do not completely understand the potential health risks associated with pesticides. Since they have not associated health problems with pesticide exposure, they continue to take risks;
2. Climatic conditions (particularly heat) make it uncomfortable to use the safety equipment (even though it is recommended that many pesticides should be applied very late in the afternoon or evening or early in the morning when it is cool, honeybees do not forage and there is a lack of wind and rain);
3. Appropriate PPE (especially carbon cartridge respirators necessary for filtering organic chemical vapors) equipment is generally not available at all and if it is available, it is too expensive;
4. Farmers may not understand either the warning labels or pictograms provided on the pesticide labels.
Most pesticide containers, on each pesticide label, either list or put pictograms showing PPE that is recommended for use of that certain product.
Recommendations for Mitigation
Training under USAID Turkmenistan projects should include descriptions of health risks to spray operators, their families, natural resources (especially fresh water) and their village (see risks for each pesticide AI in Annex 5).
Training should include advice on minimizing discomfort from wearing PPE, like spraying in early morning before it becomes hot, or late in the afternoon.
Ensure that (i.e., budget for) protective clothing (carbon-filter respirator mask, gloves, frequently-washed long-sleeved shirt and pants or Tyvec outfit, boots, and goggles if indicated on the label) recommended for the most commonly-used pesticides are available to farmers and farm workers
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involved with pesticide use. General examples of PPE to be used for different types of pesticide are found in the following website: http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm.
Provide training on the need for exclusion times and zones for areas that are being or have been sprayed. Include information about sensitive populations (pregnant women, children, elderly and sick).
Put into place sprayer equipment maintenance procedures, proper spray techniques that reduce sprayed area walk-through, as well as frequent washing of application clothing.
Considering illiteracy issues, training should explain and use pictogram representations. Some general mitigation measures to ensure safe pesticide use are contained in Chapter 13 of the following website: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf.
Set out a schedule for, and budget for, repeated training in safe handling and use of pesticides – including aspects such as types and classes of pesticides, human and environmental risk associated with pesticides, use and maintenance of PPE, understanding information on labels and proper disposal of packaging. Ensure that training has a higher chance for behavior modification and adoption by developing a system to certify trained farmers for safe use.
3.5 Factor E: Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use, and measures available to minimize such hazards
This section of the PERSUAP examines the acute and chronic toxicological risks associated with the proposed pesticides.
The pesticide matrix in Annex 5 contains information on acute and chronic human and environmental toxicological risks for every pesticide AIs found in Turkmenistan, or likely to be imported to or used in all nine of the sub-sectors that this PERSUAP covers. USAID-supported projects must be limited to EPA-registered pesticides, and decisions should be biased toward those pesticides with lower human and environmental risks. Nevertheless, pesticides are poisons, and nearly all of them present acute and/or long-term toxicological hazards, especially if they are used incorrectly. And, in the Benin cotton sector, farmers have been poisoned to death by cotton insecticide endosulfan diverted for use on vegetables18.
Issue: Pesticide Active Ingredients on POPs and PIC lists
The Stokholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Rotterdam Convention’s Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure which list banned and highly regulated toxic chemicals, respectively, were not known when Regulation 216 was written, so there is no language directly governing their use on USAID projects. Nevertheless, they present high risks to users and the environment, due to persistence and toxicity. It is thus prudent that they be discussed. The following websites contain current lists of all POPs and PIC chemicals: http://www.pic.int; http://www.pops.int. The latest versions of these lists are included in Annex 6, Pesticide Active Ingredients Not to be used on USAID-Supported Activities.
Recommendations for Mitigation
None of these POPs or PIC chemicals, listed on the POPs and PIC websites, including endosulfan, should be used on USAID Turkmenistan projects beneficiary demonstration farms.
USAID should facilitate GOT compliance with itw own obligations under relevant international conventions and this is stipulated in all BEO/ASIA-approved IEEs.
All pesticide products that have at least acute WHO and EPA toxicity ratings of II (see Annex 5) are considered to be too toxic for use without farmer training and proper use of PPE.
Recommendations for Mitigation
Products containing active ingredients with Class II acute toxicity ratings (see Annex 5) should not be recommended unless there are no safer effective alternatives (Class III or IV).
Moreover, recommendations should not be made to use such products unless it can be ascertained that appropriate training and PPE are available and will be used.
Issue: USAID Turkmenistan projects use of lower toxicity pesticides registered by EPA
Even EPA Class III and IV and WHO Class III and U pesticides, mostly classified by EPA as General Use Pesticides (GUPs), sold to the public in the USA, may present acute and chronic human health and environmental risks (see decision matrix in Annex 5). In sufficiently high doses, they may kill or harm humans or the environment. Thus, pesticide safe use and handling training and practice are required for their use as well as for more toxic products.
Recommendations for Mitigation of Human Toxicological Exposures
Most pesticide poisonings result from careless handling practices or from a lack of knowledge regarding the safer handling of pesticides. Pesticides can enter the body in four major ways: through the skin, the mouth, the nose, and the eyes. Chapter 13 in the resource http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf contains measures to reduce risks of exposure via oral, dermal, respiratory and eyes. The time spent learning about safer procedures and how to use them is an investment in the health and safety of oneself, one’s family, and others.
USAID Turkmenistan projects field staff should encourage the demonstration farmers and beneficiaries with whom they work as partners to not use POPs or PIC products or products containing very highly toxic active ingredients.
Train beneficiaries and provide posters/flyers on pesticide safe-use BMPs. For each group of farmers to be trained, identify the pesticides most likely to be used on their specific crops, and then identify the human health risks associated with each by using information on pesticide labels, in the attached Annex 5, and on SDSs.
Provide training on and follow basic first aid for pesticide overexposure. Train managers and farmers on basic pesticide overexposure first aid, as well as any special first aid information included on labels and SDSs for commonly-used pesticides.
Recommendations for Mitigation of Exposures to Environmental Resources
Ecotoxicological exposures can be mitigated by adhering to the following do’s and don’ts:
Do’s Emphasize and use IPM practices in crop production Read and follow pesticide label instructions Choose the pesticide least toxic to fish and wildlife (see Annex 5) Protect field borders, bodies of water and other non-crop habitats from pesticide Completely cover pesticide granules with soil, especially spilled granules at the ends of rows Minimize chemical spray drift by using low-pressure sprays and nozzles that produce large
droplets, properly calibrating and maintaining spray equipment, and use of a drift-control agent Properly dispose of chemical containers (provide training on what this means locally)
Maintain a 2.5 to 5 km buffer no-spray zone around national parks, water bodies or other protected areas
Warn beekeepers of upcoming spray events so that they may move or protect their hives
Don’ts Do not spray over ponds and drainage ditches Never wash equipment or containers in streams or where rinse water could enter ponds or streams Do not use pesticides with potential or known groundwater risks near drinking water sources, or
where the water table is less than 2 meters, and on sandy soils with high water tables Do not apply pesticides in protected parks Do not use aerial applications near sensitive habitats Do not spray when wind speeds are more than 13 to 16 kph Do not apply granular pesticides in fields known to be frequented by migratory waterfowl Do not apply insecticides from 10 am to 4 pm when honeybees are foraging; insecticides are best
applied early in the morning when it is cool with no wind or rain, and when honeybees do not forage
3.6 Factor F: Effectiveness of the requested pesticides for the proposed use
This section of the PERSUAP requires information similar to that provided previously, but more specific to the actual conditions of application and product quality. This section considers the potential for use of low-quality products (such as many of those imported from China and a few from India) as well as the development of pest resistance to proposed pesticides, both of which will decrease effectiveness (efficacy). The issues and mitigations will be the same for all of the sectors covered.
Agriculture Treated Seed, Field Crops and Greenhouse crops
Local knowledge is essential to choosing the correct pesticides. Local farmers know what has or has not worked for them in the past, and USAID Turkmenistan projects can increase local knowledge as to what is available, possibly effective, and presents the lowest risk shall only use pesticides approved in the PERSUAP for unrestricted, same and similar uses.
Resistance of pests to pesticides used on USAID Turkmenistan projects crops will likely occur with increased use. Many farmers over- and under-dose and use non-selective pesticides, all of which increases chances for resistance development. The primary tool in the battle against resistance is rotation among available chemicals, combined with the use of preventive IPM tools and tactics.
Issue: Pesticide classes with known global resistance by certain pests or diseases (use with care—do careful calculations of dose—and rotate with other classes of pesticides):
Most of the synthetic pyrethroid class of insecticides and miticides (rejected by this PERSUAP) Strobin fungicides Glyphosate herbicide Azine herbicides
Issue: Pests/Diseases/Weeds known to have developed significant resistance to pesticides (especially to older-generation classes of pesticides; see Annex 5 for classes (column 2) of each approved pesticide AI):
Issue: Lack of knowledge and information on reduced pesticide effectiveness and resistance. At some point, projects field staff and beneficiary beneficiaries may begin to note that some products no longer work well to control pests in their field and will likely begin to blame pesticide manufacturers for a weaker product. This could be due to the use of cheap generic products, improper dosing, or the development of resistance. Beneficiaries should be trained to understand the development of resistance, and projects implementers should be on the lookout for it during their field visits.
A resistance management strategy should also consider cross-resistance between pesticides with different modes/target sites of action. Pests may develop cross-resistance to pesticides based on mode/target site of action. The website http://www.pesticideresistance.com/ can be used to search for known resistance issues in countries with certain pest or disease resistance to specific pesticide AIs.
If pesticide use is warranted and a risk of pesticide resistance development is identified, a Resistance Risk Management approach should be followed. The following section details points of concern for both application equipment and pesticide applications.
Ways to address and manage or mitigate pest resistance:
Use IPM to minimize pesticide use: Minimizing pesticide use is fundamental to pesticide resistance management. IPM programs incorporating pest monitoring in USA states of California, New York, and Maryland, and in Canada have demonstrated 25 to 50% reduction in pesticide use with an increase in crop quality. IPM programs will help determine the best application timing for pesticides (when they will do the most good), thus helping to reduce the number of applications. The use of nonchemical strategies, such as pest exclusion (e.g., screening, micro tunnels, greenhouses), host-free periods, crop rotation, biological control, and weed control may reduce the need to use chemicals and consequently slow the development of pesticide resistance.
Avoid Knapsack Mixes: Never combine two pesticides with the same mode of action in a tank mix (e.g., two organophophate insecticides or two azine herbicides). Such a 'super dose' often increases the chances of selection for resistant individuals. In some cases, mixing pesticides from two different classes provides superior control. However, long-term use of these two-class pesticide mixes can also give rise to pesticide resistance, if resistance mechanisms to both pesticides arise together in some individuals. Continued use of the mixture will select for these multiple-pesticide-resistant pests.
Avoid Persistent Chemicals: Insects with resistant genes will be selected over susceptible ones whenever insecticide concentrations kill only the susceptible pests. An ideal pesticide quickly disappears from the environment so that persistence of a 'selecting dose' does not occur. When persistent chemicals must be used, consider where they can be used in a rotation scheme to provide the control needed and with a minimum length of exposure.
Use Long-term Pesticide Rotations: Resistance management strategies for insects, weeds, and fungal pathogens all include rotating classes of pesticides. Pesticides with the same modes of action have been assigned group numbers by their respective pesticide resistance action committees, Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC)19, Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC)20, and Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC)21. These group numbers have been included in the treatment tables of these committee’s guidelines (see foot-noted websites, below) to help clarify which pesticides can be rotated.
The strategies used for rotations differ by type of pesticide: For example, with fungicides, classes should be rotated every application. With insecticides, a single chemical class should be used for a single generation of the target pest followed by a rotation to a new class of insecticide that will affect the next generation and any survivors from the first generation. Longer use of a single chemical class will enhance the chance of resistance since the survivors of the first generation and the next will most likely be tolerant to that class. Rotating through many chemical classes in successive generations will help maintain efficacy.
Recommendations:
Train and encourage beneficiaries to value and buy higher quality products from name brand companies and rotate among pesticides from different chemical classes.
Support the development of certified government laboratories capable of testing registered pesticides for quantity and quality of AIs as well as manufacturing byproducts.
Train beneficiaries on the above methods to reduce the development of resistance.
3.7 Factor G: Compatibility of the proposed pesticide use with target and non-target ecosystems
This section examines the potential effect of the pesticides on organisms other than the target pest (herein called critical resources). Non-target species of concern include fish, honeybees, birds, earthworms, aquatic organisms, and beneficial insects. The potential for negative impact on non-target species should be assessed and appropriate steps identified to mitigate adverse impacts; and this would be included in the USAID Turkmenistan projects’s Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan (EMMP).
Annex 5 shows the relative known risks to the types of terrestrial and aquatic organisms referred to above for each pesticide active ingredient found in pesticide products discovered likely to be used in Turkmenistan in each of the three sub-sectors covered by this PERSUAP, so that informed product choices can be made if the pesticide is to be used in or near sensitive areas or resources. Maps below show natural resources.
Issue: Biodiversity conservation and protected or endangered species
In 2001, the US Forest Service assisted USAID in conducting a biodiversity assessment for Central Asia. The assessment was designed to identify the major threats to biodiversity conservation in the five Central Asian countries, examine the impact of global climate change on biodiversity in the region, and identify concrete recommendations on incorporating natural resource management and conservation into USAID programs and activities.
Biodiversity Concerns in the Caspian Sea Region. Turkmenistan, along with the other Caspian littoral states, faces serious biodiversity threats along the Caspian coast. Turkmenistan’s Krasnovodsk Nature Reserve is under pressure from oil development along the coast. The Reserve is an important wetland and holds significance for the Ramsar Convention. It is home to hundreds of thousands of birds, over 40 mammal species (including the Caspian seal), reptiles, amphibians and fish, as well as over four hundred plant species. Beluga, Stellate, and Russian sturgeon are endangered as a result of the Caspian’s polluted water; over-fishing; and invasive species such as Mnemiopsis leidyi, which have upset the food chain. The Caspian seal, the only mammal endemic to the Caspian Sea, is listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red Book List and has suffered serious losses during the past decade in an increasingly severe series of die-offs throughout the Sea. In total, 273 species of fauna and 110 species of flora are “rare and vanishing” as listed in the Red Books of the littoral states of the Caspian Sea.
Protected Areas. There are several protected areas including biosphere reserves, nature preserves and sanctuaries in Turkmenistan22. Protected areas have been established in the following categories: nature 22 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Turkmenistan
preserves, game reserves, and national, historic, natural and memorial parks, monuments of nature, botanical and zoological gardens and natural areas used for recreational purposes. Local authorities are permitted to create other protected areas. There are eight state reserves (Amuderya, Badhyz, Kopetdag, Kaplankyr, Kugitan, Repetek biosferic, Syunt-Hasardag, Hazar) and 13 game reserves, which are administered by the Ministry of Nature Protection of Turkmenistan. The total area of reserves is 1,975,000 hectares and game reserves 1,156,000 hectares, or more than 4 % and 2.6 % of the territory of the country respectively. There are also reserves of historic-cultural monuments, some 1,299 archeological sites throughout the whole country are known and 245 of them have been granted the status of “Monuments of state importance." Seventeen of these have state status: six Garlyk (Karlyuk) caves; five geological sites; two paleontological, and three botanical sites; and one underground lake.
Management of flora and fauna is under the Ministry of Nature Protection of Turkmenistan and authorities at the provincial and local levels. Eleven mammal species, 12 bird species, and 13 plant species are threatened. Threatened species include the cheetah, tiger, Aral salmon, slender-billed curlew, and whiteheaded duck. No project activities are anticipated to be in close proximity to any protected areas or nature reserves.
Issue: Pesticide Persistence
The effect of each pesticide on non-target ecosystems will depend on how long it stays in the environment, or rather its rate of break-down, or half-life. Half-life is defined as the time (in days, weeks or years) required for half of the pesticide present after an application to break down into degradation products. The rate of pesticide breakdown depends on a variety of factors including temperature, soil pH, soil microbe content and whether or not the pesticide is exposed to light, water, and oxygen.
Many pesticide breakdown products are themselves toxic, and each may also have a significant half-life. Since pesticides break down with exposure to soil microbes and natural chemicals, sunlight and water, there are half-lives for exposure to each of these factors.
In the soil, the numbers and different types of microbes present, water, oxygen, temperature, pH, and soil type (sand, clay, loam) all affect the rate of breakdown. Most pesticides also break down, or photo-degrade, with exposure to light, especially ultraviolet rays. Lastly, pesticides can be broken down, or hydrolyzed, with exposure to water. Pesticides with a long residual period (that are labeled persistent and last for years) include atrazine herbicide and organochlorine pesticides. Many of the newer carbamate, organophosphate and synthetic pyrethroid pesticides break down much quicker, generally within weeks, in the environment.
Recommendations
Train beneficiaries about ecotoxicity and on how to read ecotoxicity precautions or pictograms on pesticide labels.
Train beneficiaries on applying pesticides the proper distance (30 meters) from open bodies of fresh water, and not to wash their sprayers out in ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, or wetlands, or where rinse water may run off into these aquatic resources.
Minimize chemical spray drift by using low-pressure sprays and nozzles that produce large droplets, properly calibrating and maintaining spray equipment, and use of a drift-control agent.
Warn beekeepers of upcoming spray events so that they may move or protect their hives. Train beneficiaries not to spray when honeybees are active and foraging.
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3.8 Factor H: Conditions under which the pesticide is to be used, including climate, geography, hydrology, and soils
In general, in addition to element G above, this requirement attempts to protect natural resources from the dangers of pesticide misuse and contamination, especially of groundwater resources. The following conditions apply, regardless of pesticide use sector, and thus the information here covers the three sub-sectors.
General information:Turkmenistan is one of the driest countries in the world and much of its area is desert. Irrigation has made it possible to produce a major cotton crop, although its importance as an export has been overshadowed by the value of the country’s natural gas reserves.
According to a report on seed production published by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Turkmenistan has a total agricultural area of 40.2 million hectares of the country’s overall area of 49.1 million hectares. About 1.8 million hectares are irrigated, with pasture taking up a further 38.4 million hectares, many of which are in the Karakum Desert, which occupies about 80% of the area of Turkmenistan. Harvesting of the 2018 crops finalized by the end September 2018 under favourable weather conditions. The 2018 aggregate cereal production is estimated at 1.1 million tonnes, about 30 percent below the five-year average and below the previous year’s level. The reduction is mainly due to a well below-average wheat output, which accounts for the majority of the total cereal production and is set at 900 000 tonnes. During the growing period, below average precipitations affected yields in Mary Province and, to a lesser extent, in Lebap Province, where the majority of the crops is irrigated.
Most of the remaining irrigated hectares are used for cotton production, leaving limited land ownership among small holder farmers for greenhouse horticulture production, as the GOT mandates the use of pastures for cotton and wheat production.
The most significant environmental problems in Turkmenistan include salinization of the soil and water pollution. The nation's water supply is threatened by chemical contaminants from farming activities, and it is these surplus supplies of pesticides for wheat and cotton that are predominantly available for greenhouse horticulture activities. The problem is complicated by a lack of adequate sewage treatment facilities. A large share of the Amu Darya River's flow is diverted for irrigation, decreasing its contribution to the water supply to the Aral Sea.
Geography:At 488,100 km2 (188,500 sq. mi), Turkmenistan is the world's 52nd-largest country. About 80% of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert. The center of the country is dominated by the Turan Depression and the Karakum Desert. The Kopet Dag Range, along the southwestern border, reaches 2,912 meters (9,553 ft.) at Kuh-e Rizeh (Mount Rizeh). The Great Balkan Range in the west of the country (Balkan Province) and the Köýtendag Range on the southeastern border with Uzbekistan (Lebap Province) are the only other significant elevations. The Great Balkan Range rises to 1,880 meters (6,170 ft.) at Mount Arlan and the highest summit in Turkmenistan is Ayrybaba in the Kugitangtau Range – 3,137 meters (10,292 ft.). Rivers include the Amu Darya, the Murghab, and the Tejen. The Turkmen shore along the Caspian Sea is 1,768 kilometers (1,099 mi) long. The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked, with no access to the ocean.
Climate:The climate is mostly arid subtropical desert with little rainfall. Some places in the Karakum Desert have an average annual precipitation of only 12 mm (0.47 in). The highest temperature recorded in Ashgabat
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(Akhal Velayat) is 48.0 °C (118.4 °F) and Kerki, an extreme inland city located on the banks of the Amu Darya river, recorded 51.7 °C (125.1 °F) in July 1983, although this value is unofficial. 50.1C is the highest temperature recorded at Repetek Reserve, recognized as the highest temperature ever recorded in the whole former Soviet Union. Winters are mild and dry, with most precipitation falling between January and May. The area of the country with the heaviest precipitation is the Kopet Dag Range in the South.
Land resources Desertification and land degradation is taking place and is characterized by (i) reduction or loss of the vegetative cover; (ii) soil deflation in dry and desert lowlands; (iii) water erosion of hillsides; (iv) salinization of irrigated lands; (v) salinization of soils caused by lowering of the Aral Sea level; (vi) technogenic desertification; and (vii) waterlogging or salinization of pastures around the points of discharge of collector and drainage water. Flooding processes and salinization of lands opened for irrigated agriculture, together with pollution caused by oil and gas production, also have caused severe environmental degradation along the entire Caspian Sea coastal region of the country.
Pastureland degradation is also a problem in Turkmenistan, where animal husbandry faces the challenges of desert and semi-desert conditions, small reserves of fodder, the seasonal nature of their utilization over a considerable territory, large fluctuations in the fodder reserves over years and seasons, and inadequate water supply in a number of regions. However, most of the farmers that are working with the CTJ activity will have reliable sources of water as needed as a basic building block for dairy production.
Water resources Among the surface water resources in Turkmenistan, the most important are the Amu Darya, Murgab, Tedjen, and Atrek rivers. The Amu Darya plays a key role in the water supply of Turkmenistan. The largest man-made waterway, the Karakum River takes annually 10-12 km3 of water from the Amu Darya and delivers it to water-short or waterless regions of Turkmenistan. The Amu Darya is the main, vital water source covering nearly 90% of the water demand in the country. Other relatively large rivers in Turkmenistan (Murgab, Tedjen, and Atrek) have a total average annual flow of 2.7 km3, and a flow of 90% probability - 1.4 km3. Thus, the total water resources of the average annual river flow of big rivers, small rivers, and springs are 27.1 km3/year.
An extensive network of irrigation canals has been built on the plains, especially in the oases. The largest of these is the Karakum Canal, which is more than 1,100 km long. Its average annual water intake can reach 340-380 m3/s, which is 3-4 times more than the total flow of the Murgab, Tedjen, Atrek rivers and rivers on the northeastern slope of the Kopetdag. In comparison to other Central Asian states, Turkmenistan has the lowest operational resources of groundwater, 60% of which are formed from the runoff lost through infiltration. The approved groundwater resources for the entire country are about 3.36 million m3 a day. The largest reserves of drinking water are concentrated in the piedmont areas of the Kopetdag and territorially they belong to the Akhal province; Mary and Dashoguz provinces, drinking water reserves are very insignificant. Uneven distribution of operational resources of the groundwater creates great difficulties in water supply for the population and economies in the western provinces of Turkmenistan. Only recently have eastern regions of the Balkan at the end of the Karakum Canal built infrastructure to support distribution of fresh water reserves, and it is for this reason along with soil quality that the Balkan has not been involved with greenhouse horticulture production. The project will pilot some activities to see whether greenhouse horticulture production is a viable option for this region to supplement the local food supply, which is overpriced and seasonally scarce at times.
Total water consumption in Turkmenistan has been increasing, partly due to population growth but also because of the deteriorating irrigation system and opening of new land for grain production.
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AgTech activities were focused in Dashoguz, Lebap, and Mary provinces of Turkmenistan. CTJ will likely cover the same regions. These are rural areas with concentrations of agriculture-oriented businesses. Part of the Amu Darya Watershed covers the eastern part of Turkmenistan, including the major agricultural areas of the Lebap and Dashoguz provinces. The Karakum Canal provides water westward to the Mary and Ahal provinces. The Kopetag Mountains provide a natural border barrier with Iran to the Southwest, and along the northern side of these mountains in Turkmenistan there is arable land available for agricultural production, especially in the areas near Ashgabat in the Ahal province.
In the Balkan province, the Sombar River has seen reduced flows in Turkmenistan from its origin in Iran over the past several years. It is mainly believed that global climate change is the main factor for less precipitation in this region of the country, but Iranian water policies could potentially be impacting natural water resources to Turkmenistan as well. This has particularly affected the pomegranate crops and along the Southwestern border region with Iran.
ForestryCurrently the total forested area is 9.9 million hectares, about 20.5% of the country’s territory. About 6.5 million hectares of the total are held by farmers associations under long-term tenure and are used for livestock, which can be a competing use if accompanied by cutting. Since the early 1990s, there has been a significant reduction in forested area because of mass cutting, particularly of juniper trees, Turkmen maple trees, and others. This has more than halved the land area under juniper and reduced the area under tugai by 5,500 hectares. Fires on mountain slopes have resulted in degradation of land, vegetation, and water sources. Uncontrolled cutting of firewood has been a particularly serious problem over almost all of the forestlands used for livestock. Saxaul trees have been cut over 6 million hectares, greatly increasing susceptibility to wind erosion. Government has addressed this problem by banning the cutting of wood since 1991 and has introduced a policy of providing free gas accompanied by a significant investment in gas reticulation to make this possible. Issue: Pesticide Soil Adsorption, Leaching and Water Contamination Potentials
Each pesticide has physical characteristics, such as solubility in water, ability to bind to soil particles and be held (adsorbed) by soil so they do not enter the soil water layers and the ground water table, and their natural breakdown rate in nature. This data can be found for the pesticides discovered in Turkmenistan by checking each pesticide on the following website: http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/footprint/en/index.htm. The water solubility, soil adsorption and natural breakdown rates, if available, are included throughout the webpage, for each parent chemical.
In general, pesticides with water solubility greater than 3 mg/liter have the potential to contaminate groundwater; and pesticides with a soil adsorption coefficient of less than 1,900 have the potential to contaminate groundwater. In addition, pesticides with an aerobic soil half-life greater than 690 days or an anaerobic soil half-life greater than 9 days have the potential to contaminate groundwater. Moreover, pesticides with a hydrolysis half-life greater than 14 days have potential to contaminate groundwater.
The potential for pesticides to enter groundwater resources depends, as indicated above, on the electrical charge contained on a pesticide molecule and its ability and propensity to adhere to soil particles, but this also depends on the nature and charge of the soil particles dominant in the agriculture production area. Sand, clay and organic matter, and different combinations of all of these, have different charges and adhesion potential for organic and inorganic molecules. Sandy soil often has less charge capacity than clay or organic matter and will thus not interact significantly with and hold charged pesticide molecules. So, in areas with sandy soil, the leaching potential for pesticides is increased.
A pesticide’s ability to enter groundwater resources also depends on how quickly and by what means it is broken down and the distance (and thus time) it has to travel to the groundwater. If the groundwater table is high, the risk that the pesticide will enter it before being broken down is increased. Thus, a sandy soil with a high-water table is the riskiest situation for groundwater contamination by pesticides. Groundwater contamination potential for each pesticide active ingredient available in Turkmenistan is provided in Annex 5.
Recommendations
Hydrology: Do not spray or rinse pesticide equipment in or within 30 meters of rivers, ponds, irrigation and drainage ditches, and other surface waters, including wetlands.
Hydrology: Do not spray pesticides with high toxicities to aquatic organisms before an impending rainstorm, as they can be washed into waterways before breaking down.
Soils: Do not use or recommend for use herbicides or other pesticides with high leaching and groundwater pollution potential (see Annex 5) near drinking water sources, on highly sandy soils or soils with water tables close (2-3 meters) to the surface.
Soils: Since transport of soil particles with pesticides adsorbed to them is a likely transportation route to waterways, employ techniques to reduce farm soil erosion whenever erosion is likely. Such techniques include vegetated buffer strips, green manure, mulching, terracing, employing wind breaks, employing ground covers between rows, planting rows perpendicular to the slope, and using drip irrigation.
3.9 Factor I: Availability of other pesticides or non-chemical control methods
This section identifies less toxic synthetic, as well as non-synthetic or ‘natural’ (extracts of naturally-occurring plants, spices, oils, fatty acids, induced resistance elicitors, minerals, microbes or microbial extracts) pesticide options for control of pests, and their relative advantages and disadvantages. Many of these ‘natural’ pesticides can be toxic to humans, and several are even classified as RUP due to environmental risks; thus, SPU practices extend to these natural as well as synthetic (produced in laboratories or factories) pesticides.
Commercial Biological Pest Controls
For commercial operations, especially greenhouses, biological controls and beneficial organisms are available commercially from two large international companies, Koppert of Holland and Biobest of
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Belgium. Koppert provides many biological controls against spider mites, beetles, leaf miners, mealy bugs, thrips, aphids, whiteflies, and moth and butterfly larvae. Koppert also provides the Koppert Side Effects List, a list of the side effects of pesticides on biological organisms, at http://www.koppert.com. Biobest of Belgium provides many of the same or similar biological controls as Koppert and includes a control against leaf hoppers. Their website is: http://www.biobest.be. These are especially useful for greenhouse and seedling production systems. Both companies also sell live bumblebees for greenhouse pollination assistance.
Central Asian Republics Agricultural Biolab Pest/Disease Controls
All CAR countries have agricultural biolabs that produce predators, parasites and pathogens of common agricultural pest and disease species for release in farmer’s greenhouses, orchards and fields. Although a visit to Turkmenistan was not possible for this assignment, information collected from other sources note that there are likely more than 500 biolabs existing. In most countries, these labs produce lacewing (golden-eyes) larvae and adults, ladybeetles, Braconid and other parasitoids, species of Trichogramma egg parasitoids, Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) microbes and endotoxin useful against caterpillars, Beuveria bassiana, and others. For control of plant pathogens, some biolabs produce Trichoderma species, which when released to the environment, outcompete plant pathogens for nutrients, Bacillus subtilis and others. The products from these labs can be important additions to the arsenal of tools useful for IPM packages. Some of these are highlighted in Annex 1.
Agriculture Seed Treatment, Field Crops, Greenhouse crops and Food Security/Warehouses, Construction
Annex 1—the heart of this PERSUAP—contains numerous non-chemical control methods for every major pest of every major crop of Turkmenistan. It is the intent of this PERSUAP that USAID projects dealing with agriculture and food security use this valuable resource, which compiles many of the best IPM tools and tactics to test and use against each pest.
Recommendation
Preventive IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination in Annex 1 should be tried and used before the choice is made to purchase and use synthetic pesticides.
Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM. For most pests, diseases and weeds, Annex 1 provides several choices of natural and synthetic pesticides to choose from.
3.10 Factor J: Host country’s ability to regulate or control the distribution, storage, use, and disposal of the requested pesticides
This section examines the host country’s existing infrastructure and human resources for managing the use of the proposed pesticides. If the host country’s ability to regulate pesticides is inadequate, the proposed action – use of pesticides – could result in greater risk to human health and the environment.
Turkmenistan’s Pesticide Law and Regulations: Importation, Registration, Handling, & UseBased on the Decree of the President of Turkmenistan on "Licensing of Importing, Production, Selling Chemical Preparations" No. 795, dated February, 27 2009, the regulations on "Licensing of Importing, Production and Selling Chemical Preparations" approved by the Decree of the President of Turkmenistan dated March 12, 2010 No. 10981, Chapter -II, Article 3, and the Permit of the STATE CONCERN TURKMENHIMIYA (Turkmenchemistry) pesticides can be imported into Turkmenistan by private companies (Article 8) and individual entrepreneurs (Article 9, Clause 2) as defined in Classification No.
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51554.
According to the regulations, pesticides must be registered by the STATE SERVICE "TURKMENSTANDARTLARY," which tests the quality of the importing pesticides and other chemical preparations and issues a Certificate of Conformity, which is required in order to clear Customs. Importing entities are required to present the Certificate of Origin and MSDS and PDS (Product Data Sheet) along with other shipping documents to the SS Turkmenstandards as soon as pesticides arrive in Turkmenistan. If these regulations are not followed, the pesticides will be rejected. Pesticides must be tested over a three-year period before importation is allowed into Turkmenistan.
Entities intending to import chemicals into the country are offered a ten-day official State Organized Training Course, for which importing entities must pay. Entities intending to import chemicals must have a rented warehouse, which must be owned by Government.
Another State Service is TURKMENSTATISTICS, which registers imported chemicals/pesticides and gives prices for which that specific product can be sold in Turkmenistan.
If the importing entity is a State Company or an international company or even a private local company (but not an individual entrepreneur), then they are required to register their Purchase Contract between Exporting and Importing Companies at the State Commodity Exchange Board of Turkmenistan (SCEBT, also called "Birja"). Without registration with the Birja, pesticides cannot be imported.
For individual entrepreneurs who import and sell pesticides in Turkmenistan, they may bypass the import regulations and requirements. Insecticides and fungicides are mostly brought in by individuals from Turkey from Agrobestgrup Firm, with information in the Turkish language. Distributors are provided with a book produced by this firm where pictures of diseases are shown, and pesticide application instructions are delineated. Most distributors are able to understand the language; however, there is still a need to have booklets in Turkmen where uses and instructions for all insecticides are explained for distribution to farmers.
Private businessmen/shuttle traders also take orders from crop producers for pesticides and bring pesticides into the country along with their other goods and sell to the retailers, who in turn sell the pesticides from their houses. This trade is difficult to control and, in some cases, may contain contraband goods (i.e., pesticides not registered in Turkmenistan).
The State Plant Protection Service (PPS) supervises the importing, handling, and use of pesticides in Turkmenistan. The PPS was established in 2001 and has seven people working in the Head Office in Ashgabat, three people in Velayat (Regional) Centers and one to two people in every Etrap (District). Currently, the Service has a total of 100 employees.
The Service supervises licensing for importing and handling pesticides mainly used in the Government sector and semi-private sector. The Service organizes bids among pesticide producers and/or international marketing companies for the supply of pesticides mainly for cotton, wheat, sugar beet, grasshoppers, and vegetables. The Service announces a bid for pesticide purchase in national newspapers and collects Bidders’ Offers. Usually the Turkish Company Agrobest, Russian Company Shelkovo (www.betaren.ru ), and Agrohim win the bids and supply the pesticides. Pesticides are typically purchased in this manner once a year, which is sufficient for annual use.
The private sector supply chain for pesticides is not well-established. Because of safety issues, the Service prefers not to give permits to the private sector to allow import of pesticides. Rather, the Service
sells pesticides in their own shops established in almost every large city in Turkmenistan. Other than these shops, sale of pesticides to private producers is through small private illegal supplies. At one of the State-owned shops visited by the PERSUAP team, approximately 12 types of pesticides are sold. The proprietor promised to find and sell other pesticides upon customer request; he will get them from his “warehouse.”
The Service provides courses to staff. Once a year all staff in each Region receive training on new pesticides and IPM. The central office also provides oversight by visiting the Etraps (Districts) to meet district-level representatives almost every month. The Service produces manuals on pesticides and pests and on IPM measures jointly with the State Agriculture University and the State Institute of Soil Science and distributes these to students and to experts in the Service. As yet, there is no computer database/network established to provide educational informational to the staff. The Service recognizes the need to strengthen capacity and is looking for partners to support this area. In the year 2000 they worked jointly with the USAID Farmer-to-Farmer Program and conducted seminars in many Etraps and published manuals on IPM jointly with USAID and Turkmen State Agriculture University and distributed to experts and farmers. In terms of pesticide application, the end users of pesticides, such as Turkmencotton Association, Wheat Association or Food Association, contract with Turkmen-Village-Techno-Service (Obahyzmat) to spray pesticides with their specialized machines and also contact with aviation to spray by airplanes.
While on paper the regulations governing pesticide importation, registration, and use appear to be stringent, in practice this is not the case. Typically in Turkmenistan there are about 25 chemicals being used that are not officially imported for horticulture use. This breaks down into the following categories:
1. Chemicals imported by businessmen/farmers returning to Turkmenistan carrying chemicals that are declared for the personal use of the businessman.
2. These chemicals are then resold illegally in the thriving gray/black market. 3. Some of these chemicals are identical to those on the list of officially-permitted to import. 4. Chemicals may have different brand names, but are the same chemical as those being imported
legally. These chemicals come in from Iran, Ukraine, Russia, Germany, Holland, Turkey, and others, and quite often are labeled only in a foreign language so that Turkmen farmers are unable to read the labels about safe usage.
5. Other chemicals are imported or smuggled into the country and are not the same chemicals that are on the approved-for-import list. Again, these chemicals most likely are not labeled in Turkmen, leaving farmers without guidance on proper usage.
6. Some chemicals are imported legally into the country for application on wheat or cotton and are diverted for use in greenhouses. The cotton chemicals particularly are highly toxic and long lasting and are reported to be used on food crops.
There is widespread non-compliance with regulations governing the application and disposal of pesticides, especially as these activities are more difficult to control than import and registration.
Regarding general environmental law in Turkmenistan, according to the Criminal Code of Turkmenistan, Article 317 on Environmental Damage states the following:
(1) Poisoning, pollution or other damage of the earth by harmful products of economic or other activity owing to infringement of rules of the reference with chemical preparations, fertilizers, growth regulators of plants and other dangerous chemical or biological substances at their storage, use and the transportation, entailed a trespass to a surrounding environment or agriculture, are punished by the penalty at the rate from ten till thirty monthly average sizes of a
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payment or corrective works for the term up to two years.
(2) Same acts which have entailed on imprudence a trespass to health of the person, and equally made in a zone of ecological disaster or in a zone of an extreme ecological situation, are punished by the penalty at the rate from twenty five till seventy five monthly average sizes of a payment with right deprivation to occupy certain posts or to be engaged in certain activity for the term up to three years or imprisonment for the term up to three years.
(3) Acts provided by parts of first or second present article, entailed on imprudence death of the person, are punished by imprisonment for the term from two till five years.
Agriculture Seed Treatment, Field Crops, Greenhouse crops, Food Security/Warehouses and Veterinary
The Ministry of Agriculture in Turkmenistan has limited research and extension services. In Section 2.4, above, numerous agriculture system deficiencies are listed, as a preliminary risk analysis to introduce this PER section, and in the interest of brevity, will not be repeated here. Please see and read Section 2.4, above.
USAID should assist with extension-like materials and training to fill gaps in Turkmen extension services and encourage the government to register more pesticides and AIs. USAID can provide border control training, but it cannot replace the GOT as a body that registers pesticides.
Issue: Limited resources to control pesticides
Even though GOT’s ability to cover the country and eliminate banned or highly toxic chemicals is limited due to limited resources; the fact of the matter is that many banned and highly restricted pesticides no longer enter Turkmenstan because they are becoming more and more difficult to find internationally. The list of pesticides that this PERSUAP has rejected (Annex 6) as well as those banned or restricted through international agreements (Annex 7) should not be handled by illiterate, untrained, unprotected and often unaware small-holder farmers. Most farmers do not have access to and cannot afford PPE in order to follow GAPs. PPE use could be made into a condition for receipt of assistance; however, USAID has in general always shied away from this approach.
Issue: Illegal Products from Neighboring Countries
Border crossings can be sources of pesticides that are not officially registered in CAR countries. Some PIC chemicals have been found in formal and informal markets in the region, as have few POPs chemicals like endosulfan that was used extensively in the cotton sector of the past.
Issue: Disposal of Pesticide Containers
Some Turkmen farmers, like most farmers, likely retain empty and partially-full plastic pesticide containers. Some likely use them to store water and other liquids. Before disposal, the standard practice has been to triple-rinse the containers, puncture them to discourage re-use, and bury or burn them. Burning plastic bottles and single-use pesticide sachets can lead to the formation of toxic (and POPs) furans and dioxins and is not recommended. GlobalGAP and other Standards and Certification (S&C) systems require that empty pesticide containers are triple rinsed over a pesticide soak pit with layered soil, lime and carbon, or a bio-active pit, and then properly stored in plastic drums in the field or storage shed, to await disposal or recycling. There are no pesticide container recycling activities occurring anywhere in
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Asia. The website http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/labeling/lrm/chap-13.htm provides pesticide disposal options.
Recommendations
Absolutely no POP or PIC chemicals will be used or supported on the USAID/Turkmenistan projects. Where alternatives (Classes III and IV/U) exist, do not recommend or use EPA and WHO Acute
Toxicity Class II pesticide products on USAID/Turkmenistan projects, unless it can verify that producers and laborers (pesticide applicators) properly and consistently utilize PPE as recommended by the pesticide label and SDS.
If a regional empty pesticide container recycling facility is implemented, USAID should encourage its use.
Train beneficiaries to purchase inputs from suppliers that provide quality technical backup support, and to purchase and use PPE, or contract private pesticide spray services.
Train beneficiaries to properly dispose of containers and strongly discourage burning them. Train beneficiaries about proper storage and handling of unused pesticides.
3.11 Factor K: Provision for training of users and applicators
USAID recognizes that, in addition to the use of PPE, safety training is an essential component in programs involving the use of pesticides. The need for thorough training is particularly acute in developing countries, where the level of education of applicators may typically be lower than in developed countries.
Agriculture Seed Treatment, Field Crops, Greenhouse crops
Issue: Farmers need intensive and repeated training
It has been several years since AgTech did training for beneficiaries, as noted above. An exhaustive list of training topics is provided in Annex 8 (please see and read what is below and what is in Annex 8). This annex also provides links to active websites that have plenty of training materials, that, if repeated here, would make this document 40 pages longer. In the interest of brevity on an already-long document, links to websites shall suffice. Even better, websites are updated routinely with state-of-the-art information; whereas if the information were cut and pasted into here, it would remain, until this document is updated again, as static.
Training in Safe Pesticide Use and GAP/IPM are of paramount importance for USAID Turkmenistan projects farmers and farm laborers using pesticides. USAID Turkmenistan projects -supported agriculture activities should focus strongly on providing GlobalGAP, IPM and safe pesticide use training. Additional and refresher training are superb means for affecting beneficiary farmer behavior, now, as they continue to expand their agricultural opportunities, and before risky behaviors become further set.
Recommendation
Beneficiaries require training and refresher training on proper pest identification and IPM as well as how to choose the correct pesticide, do knapsack sprayer calibration and record keeping.
Annex 8 on Training Topics provides significant discussion of SPU and IPM training topics.
3.12 Factor L: Provision made for monitoring the use and effectiveness of each pesticide
Evaluating the risks, impacts and benefits of pesticide use should be an ongoing, dynamic process. Pest resistance is one of the risks for which this element is intended, as well as human health and safety and environmental effects.
Agriculture Treated Seed, Field Crops, Greenhouse crops
Record keeping should track quantities and types of pesticides used. Making notes on effectiveness of individual pesticides and pest numbers will help develop a more sustainable pesticide use plan for each Productive Agriculture Project beneficiary producer. Records of farmers, as well as USAID Turkmenistan projects agronomists, will need to make note of any reductions in pesticide efficacy experienced, which is the first indication that resistance may be developing, and then a strategy needs to be in place to determine a shift to a different pesticide class, and rotation among classes, to overcome resistance development.
Issue: USAID Turkmenistan projects and Farm Record-Keeping
On USAID Turkmenistan projects proposed demonstration farms, pesticide use documentation is either non-existent or not retained from year to year. Developing a more systemized approach to record keeping will allow seasonal and annual comparison of pesticide effectiveness, pest numbers, crop production, maintenance of safety equipment, and so on. The following aspects should be included in the record keeping system, for a USAID-funded program:
Local, EPA, EU, Russian or Codex regulatory compliance: A list of country, EPA, EU, Russian or Codex laws or best practices related to the use of agrochemicals for plant protection, short notes on the relevance of the law, dates the laws come into or exit force and MRLs23 for each crop-pesticide combination.
A pesticide checklist: This list allows agronomists to ensure that the pesticides they are using are not banned by international treaties (POPs, PIC) and registered through the USEPA. It should also provide notes on special safety requirements.
GAPs/IPM measures tried/used (see Annex 1): USAID Turkmenistan projects agronomists should try to incorporate a minimum of at least three new IPM measures per annum and document their success or failure.
PPE: Lists of the types of equipment made available to applicators, number of pieces, prices and contact details of suppliers, dates when equipment needs to be washed, maintained or replaced. PPE should be numbered or personally assigned to applicators to ensure that it is not taken home where (as a contaminated material) it could pose a risk to family members.
Monitoring/recording pests: Agronomists should incorporate into their records regular field pest monitoring and identification. This could be done by the agronomists themselves, or if properly trained, by farmers.
Environmental conditions: Field conditions should be incorporated into the record keeping system (for example; precipitation, soil analyses and moisture, soil pH, temperatures and so on).
Information should be transmitted at least annually, and USAID Turkmenistan projects should report to USAID on this progress in pesticide safety and GAP/IPM use in annual reports.
Issue: Monitoring by USAID Turkmenistan projects Field Staff and Farmers Should Detect:
23 Find MRLs for USA, EU, Russia, Codex and other countries at: http://www.mrldatabase.com/
Resistance: Pesticide resistance development among pests has likely occurred and could eventually occur more and will be noted by farmers complaining that the spray no longer works as it once did.
Human poisonings and any incidences of chronic health issues. Farm animal and livestock deaths. Any incidences of water pollution. Fish, bird, wildlife or honeybee kills.
Any of the above items should be reported immediately to USAID. Other information should be transmitted at least annually to USAID, and USAID Turkmenistan projects should report on this progress in pesticide environmental and human health safety in annual reports.
Issue: USAID Turkmenistan projects Planning and Reporting
Several issues could receive more attention in USAID Turkmenistan projects annual work plans and annual reports. These include a section on Environmental Impact Mitigation and Best Practices, with subsections (and issues) on:
Country and EPA regulation compliance (documents and enforcement status, risk, pollution, mitigation)
GAPs/IPM measures tried/used and on what percent of USAID Turkmenistan projects farms Biodiversity and conservation (soil, water, energy, protected habitats, biodiversity and protected
species) measures used on what percent of farms Inputs and PPE use and issues (types, amounts and issues with products, sprayers, MRLs, REIs,
SDSs) Training/capacity building in IPM and Safe Use (hands-on, demos, sessions, meetings, extension,
flyers, brochures, pamphlets, posters, crop technical GAP information sheets, and radio and TV outreach/safety message enforcement)
Recommendations for Mitigation
USAID Turkmenistan projects to follow all of the above best practices in monitoring, record-keeping, evaluation/analyses and reporting.
Site managers/agronomists should develop a record-keeping system, which is also a requirement for GlobalGAP and other international market-driven produce certification systems. It is highly recommended that records are kept in an electronic format for easy editing, updating and modification.
Using Annex 9, USAID Turkmenistan projects staff should put plans for monitoring the environmental and human health impact of production activities, following recommendations found in this PERSUAP into the Annual Action Plans.
USAID Turkmenistan projects staff keeps records on the implementation of the recommendations found in this PERSUAP, and report on them in Quarterly and Annual Reports, under a heading titled “Environmental Impact Mitigation and Best Practices”.
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SECTION 4: PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP)
This Safe Use Action Plan is the definitive, stand-alone statement of pesticide compliance requirements and is synthesized from the PER analysis. It sets out mandatory safe use conditions for IPs attendant to procurement/use/support of these pesticides. It also sets out mandatory conditions that apply to USAID/CA/Turkmenistan technical offices and AORs/CORS.
4.1 Approved Pesticides
Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the below-listed allowed pesticides (as AIs) are permitted for procurement/use/support in USAID/CA/Turkmenistan activities, SUBJECT to compliance with:
1. Any conditions specified for the subject AI in Table 1 of the Executive Summary
2. Conditions specified in sections 4.2 for implementing partners; and
3. Conditions specified in section 4.3 for USAID.
Human health and ecological toxicological summaries for each AI are presented in Annex 5. All are EPA-registered.
4.2 Mandatory Safer Use Conditions for Implementing Partners
1. Only pesticides with approved active ingredients can be procured, used or recommended for use with USAID funds. These pesticides are listed in Table 1 in the Executive Summary. Support must be in compliance with (1) the listed use(s) and (2) any specific conditions enumerated in Table 1. NOTEs: Where a pesticide product contains more than one AI, the product can only be used when all its AIs are approved by this PERSUAP. Products procured with USAID funds must be of a formulation, standard and quality comparable to those approved for use in the US by US EPA.
2. Pesticide products procured, used or recommended for use must be labeled in a national language (Uzbek or Russian) and include the following essential information: name and concentration of active ingredient; type of formulation; instructions for use; user safety information; safety periods for re-entry and harvest; manufacturer and country of origin.
3. Basic training. All project staff and individuals/organizations handling, using, selling, financing or providing extension services involving pesticides with USAID funding must successfully complete a safer use training appropriate to the activity that: (1) is delivered by appropriately qualified trainers, and (2) addresses all mandatory training elements specified in Annex 8. Successful completion must be determined by a satisfactory score on an individual assessment instrument.
4. Pesticides for plant protection must be part of an IPM scheme. USAID-funded pesticide use and extension for plant must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans. Such plans specify which pesticides are to be used and under what circumstances. It is the responsibility of implementing partners to develop such plans.
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5. Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Projects must provide and assure the correct use of appropriate PPE (per label) for all pesticide use under their direct control. Otherwise, projects must assure access to, proper use and maintenance of appropriate PPE to the greatest degree practicable. Normally this will consist of: • hat • overalls • respirator or disposable mask • rubber gloves (solvent resistant) • rubber boots (solvent resistant).
7. Observance of label instructions and safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices. Similarly, for pesticide use under their direct control, projects must assure use per label (including re-entry intervals) as well as safer pesticide transport, handling and disposal practices as per for example, the 2009-2014 Afghan IDEA-NEW Project Pesticide Retailer Handbook available at the following website: www.usaidgems.org/Documents/complianceTopics/IDEA-NEW_PesticideRetailerHandbook.docx.
8. Existing pesticide inventory reporting. Within 45 days of approval of this PERSUAP, agricultural projects must report existing pesticide inventories to their AOR/COR using Form 1 (Annex 15). If products in inventory are compliant with the 2013 PERSUAP or this 2019 PERSUAP, they may be used subject to other conditions in this section. All other products in inventory must be appropriately disposed of (consultation with MEO required). No new procurement can be made that is not compliant with this 2019 PERSUAP.
9. Pre-procurement planning requirement. Prior to requesting authorization to procure pesticides (see condition 10, below), projects must conduct pesticide planning with reference to their work plan and project activities that require pesticides. Specifically:
• Agricultural projects will identify crops involved and develop pest management plans.
• All projects, including agricultural, will identify anticipated pesticide AIs required; categories of personnel who will apply the pesticides; anticipated locations of use; PPE required and training needs by category
10. Pesticide procurement authorization. Prior to procuring pesticides, projects must submit Form 2 (Annex 15) to the AOR/COR and receive his/her clearance for the subject procurement. Form 2 provides the following information.
• The active ingredient, which must be approved by this PERSUAP.
• The name of the product to be procured.
• The label of the product to be procured, ensuring that the requirements of condition #2, above, are met.
• The mode by which it is to be procured. No pesticide purchases are authorized without AOR/COR clearance via Form 2: Note this requirement is additional to and not in lieu of any other pesticide procurement clearance/approval requirements.
11. Record-keeping & resistance monitoring. Projects procuring and using pesticides must:• maintain records (see forms in Annexes 10 and 15) of their stocks (type and quantity) and record and monitor their use (including date of use, application method, and location.) • monitor pesticide effectiveness for development of resistance. See Annexes 9 and 10 for suggested forms for monitoring and record keeping. Projects providing pesticide related training and certification must maintain records of their trainings, certifications and trainees.
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12. Regular implementation reporting. The status of implementation of the above-listed conditions must be addressed in regular project implementation reporting. (E.g. quarterly or 6-month reports.) This reporting must include stocks and use reporting, and summary reporting of pesticide trainings, including purpose, dates and type of training, number and type of trainees, and number successfully completing the training.
13. Pass-down to subcontractors and grantees. All above-listed conditions must be passed down to subcontractors and (sub)grantees. Prime contractors and grantees must assure that sub-contractors/sub-grantees have capacity to implement these conditions.
In addition to the record on implementing the above conditions, the following action plan should be filled out and signed by the Activity (project) chief.
4.3 Mandatory Conditions for USAID/CA/Turkmenistan Technical Offices
Mandatory safer use conditions and responsibilities applying to USAID/CA/Turkmenistan technical offices and AORs/CORs are as follows. They follow directly from the PER analysis:
1.USAID/CA/Turkmenistan must put in place effective internal procedures to review pesticide procurement requests submitted by IPs. The MEO must review and approve all procurement requests before the AOR/COR can clear.
2. Per ADS 204.3.4, AORs/CORs must assure that the requirements established by section 6.3 are funded, implemented, and monitored.
3. Technical Offices, working with OAA, must ensure that contract and award language requires compliance with the conditions established by this PERSUAP for each relevant project. Note: this requirement is satisfied by general contract language requiring compliance with applicable Reg. 216 documentation.
4. USAID/CA/Turkmenistan must assure that all relevant staff receive an internal short-format (~1–2 hour) training on the requirements established by this PERSUAP.
5. At such time that new pesticides are registered by Turkmenistan, USAID/CA/Turkmenistan will update this PERSUAP.
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Annex 1: Matrix of Crops, Pests, Pest Prevention, and Control Tools Including Approved Pesticides IPM Tools for Turkmenistan crops in PERSUAP SOW
The following target crops are covered: Stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries (sweet and sour); Pome fruits (apples, pears, quince); Subtropical fruits (pomegranates, persimmons); Tree Nuts (walnuts, pistachio); Grapes (table and wine); Mulberry; Solanaceous (tomato, potato); Cucurbits (melons, watermelons, cucumbers); Soybeans; Corn; Sunflower; Sugar cane.
First, each crop or crop grouping is preceded by basic agronomic information. Then each crop section lists important pests, diseases and weeds (with species names if known) that limit or constrain production and productivity, followed in the second column with descriptions of each and the damage they cause. Next, columns three and four list non-chemical and chemical IPM tools, respectively, found on agronomic websites from US university research extension services, regional and international IPM websites, for Turkmen researchers and extension agents to assess, adapt and adopt.
Stone Fruits (almond, apricot, cherry, loquat, nectarine, peach, plum) Detailed Horticulture Information, GAPs, and Synthesized IPM Tools
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; UC Master Gardener Orchards, http://homeorchard.ucanr.edu/Fruits_&_Nuts/ CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Origins: The cultivation of the domesticated Prunus species began 4,000 to 8,000 years ago from northwest China. Loquats are from southeastern China.
Best Soils and pH: Thrive in a light sandy-loamy soil, with a pH of 6.0 to 6.5. They also do well on limestone soils. They do not do well on heavy compacted soils.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Depends on cultivar. In general, stone fruit trees require a chilling period of between 600 and 900 hours at a temperature of 7.2°C or less each winter in order to fruit the next season. They do not grow well where the temperature falls below minus 17°C for extended periods.
Best Altitudes: Depends on varieties, generally up to 2,200 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: On average, stone fruits need around 900 mm of water distributed throughout the growing season, some of which may be provided by irrigation.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: Stone fruit trees need full sun to produce the most fruit. Space trees 3 to 6 meters apart. Plant two different, compatible varieties to ensure some harvest. Prune annually to maintain tree shape and a healthy, open canopy. Expect to get fruit 2 to 5 years after planting if you plant a 1 or 2-year-old tree. All stone fruits bloom very early in the spring. Some years flowers are damaged by freezing temperatures, meaning no fruit that year. Planting depth to cover roots, mounding (berming) soil up on the tree trunk.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. During spring bloom season, fertilize peach, cherry, plums and apricot trees before 1st irrigation with 0.5 to 1 kg of urea (nectarines 0.25 kg). Water in. Cherries can also receive 30 kg of manure, fertilize just before irrigation; after harvest, fertilize mature trees with 2 lb. urea and water in immediately. During summer, fertilize young apricot trees monthly at ¼ spring rates to encourage vigorous growth. Plums receive 0.23 kg during the summer.
Maturity: Depends on variety and growing conditions. Apricots bloom in February and early Marchand ripen in late June to July (100–120 days from full bloom). For cherries, it can be anywhere from 55 days to 90 days depending on the variety. Almonds take 180-240 days to mature.
Stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries) Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Mites are tiny (0.5-.08mm) 8-legged acarids seen with a hand-lens that feed with piercing mouthparts, in groups on leaf undersides.
Mite feeding stunts and malforms the leaves and buds, causes leaf drop and arrests plant growth, resulting in twiggy, stubby branches. Young trees are more heavily attacked. Yield can be greatly reduced.
Use resistant varieties, if available.Predatory mites control large numbers of these pests.Do weed control in orchard.Control dust near orchard by watering or oiling dirt roads.Prevent water stress by irrigating or watering orchard during dry times.Broad-spectrum insecticide treatments for other pests frequently cause mite outbreaks, so avoid these when possible.Control dust near orchard by watering or oiling dirt roads and maintaining some green cover (do not mow the green cover crop too short or let it dry out or the mites may move up into the trees).
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:dimethoate
Natural oils and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.
Aphids are small (2-3mm) green, brown, yellow and black colored insects with two pegs sticking up on the top of the abdomen. Many aphid species attack stone fruit crops. Aphids are mainly found on young shoots and on the underside of leaves. Aphids use piercing-sucking mouthparts to remove plant sap and are most important as vectors of viruses.
Use resistant varieties.Natural enemies that control aphids include green and brown lacewings, lady beetles, Syrphid fly larvae. Use yellow or blue sticky traps for monitoring.Prune the tree crown to open it to sun, wind, parasites and predators.Control weeds in and around the orchard.Sanitation: prune, remove and destroy heavily-infested branches and plant parts.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Contact insecticides have limited impact as plant leaves enter the cupping stage.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:acetamiprid dimethoate
74
Stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries) Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
imidaclopridindoxacarb thiamethoxam
Biolab biocontrols:lacewingsBeauveria bassianapredatory lady beetles
Scales:European fruit lecanium, Parthenolecanium corniPlum scale, Sphaerolecanium prunastriSan Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus = Diaspidiotus perniciosusApple mussel scale, Lepidosaphes ulmi
Scales appear as small (2-5mm) round to oblong gray to brown waxy shells, under which the insect lives. They attack leaves which turn yellow and drop; sticky sweet defecate covers leaves and fruit, leading to black mold growth which limits photosynthesis and fruit looks unappealing.
Heavy adult scale and mealybug feeding can reduce plant vigor and cause fruit drop and twig dieback.
A number of parasites and predators like lady beetles feed on scales. For monitoring flying adult male scales, use pheromone traps.For monitoring crawlers, use sticky traps.Common predators include lady beetles, green lacewings and predatory seed bugs. Parasites include Aphytis species, Coccophagus species, Encarsia species and Metaphycus species Control honeydew-eating ants, which protect scales.Prune off large infestations.Rub off with a glove.Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilization.
Treat during dormant or delayed dormant period.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Defoliating caterpillars:Gypsy moth, Lymantria = Porthethria disparLackey moth, Malacosoma neustriaApple ermine moth, Yponomeuta malinellusOriental fruit moth, Grapholita molestaApple ermine moth, Yponomeuta malinellusCarpenter moth, Cossus cossus on Pome fruit
Moths fly at night and are generally between 0.5 to 1 cm in length, brown, lay eggs on bark or leaves and brown to green larvae feed on edges of leaves, often defoliating large portions of trees, reducing photosynthesis and fruit-set.
Natural enemies include parasitic and predatory insects such as wasps, flies, ground beetles, and ants; many species of spider; several species of birds and small mammals.Maintain tree vigor by watering and fertilizing properly.Use sticky bands or burlap bands around tree trunks to trap and destroy migrating larvae.Use mating disruptant pheromones if available.Prune off heavily-infested materials, remove and
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Adult moths are small, brown with a pointed nose, and larvae are green. Larvae roll up leaves and tie them together with silk and enter inside to protect themselves from predators and parasites. Larvae emerge at night to feed on leaf edges, defoliating branches and trees.
A number of parasites and predators like green lacewing and lady beetle feed on moth larvae.Do monitoring and sampling (from the green tip) to determine when eggs are present, and then control with dormant mineral oil (which smothers them).
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Plum moth / Red plum maggot,Laspeyresia = Grapholita funebrana
Adult moths are small, brown, and larvae are bright red/pink. Larvae tunnel into fruit and feed inside, causing damage that ruins the fruit. There can be up to 3 generations per year. In the fall, larvae form a cocoon on the tree or soil nearby; they pupate in the spring.
Many natural parasites and predators control this pest.Pheromone traps can help determine when moths are flying.Sanitation: remove infested & dropped apples.
No insecticide treatment is recommended because this pest is difficult to control.
The apricot weevils are small (7-9mm) golden-green snout beetles. They feed on flowers and lay eggs in fruit, larvae tunnel fruit, ruining quality and causing fruit drop. Cherry weevil is a small (3-5mm)
Apply a 3- to 4-inch band of sticky material (Stickem or Tanglefoot) on the trunk of young trees to trap crawling adults in May when the first adult feeding is observed. Reapply the sticky material
Treatment threshold is 3 weevil adults/10 cherry branches.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extract
76
Stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries) Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
brown-cream banded snout beetle. Adults gnaw irregular-shaped holes in leaves, leaf stalks, and apical sprouts. They also lay eggs in fruit, causing the same damage as the apricot weevil.
when it becomes dirty or is no longer sticky. Cultivate under plants to destroy overwintering weevils.Sanitation: Clean cultivation and destruction of trash on surrounding land helps reduce the number overwintering.
A small (2-3mm) bug that looks like a tiny cicada colored orange-red to black, with white longitudinal stripes on its upper surface. Later instar nymphs are reddish-purplish-brown, with white longitudinal stripes and black patches with red-purple eyes. They feed by piercing sucking plant sap and defecating honeydew on which grows black mold, reducing photosynthesis and decreasing fruit size.
Natural parasites and predators usually control psyllids without need for chemical controls.Monitor frequently and hand-clean psyllids from branches and leaves or use a forceful water stream.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Mealybugs, 3-5mm long, are covered with pale white to green waxy secretions and is transported on seedlings and fruit.
Mealybugs use piercing-sucking mouthparts to suck sap from roots, tender leaves, petioles and fruit. Severely infested leaves turn yellow and dry. Severe attack can result in leaf and flower drop, reduced fruit setting and young fruit drop. The foliage and fruit
Flood orchard in October.In December rake soil around tree.Destroy affected parts at the beginning of the infestation. Heavily infested branches may be pruned to control the pest, especially on the tender branches before flowering begins.Conserve natural enemies like lady beetles, lacewings and other predators of mealybug.Control ants tending
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries) Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
become covered with honeydew and sooty molds, which reduces its market value. The honeydew also attracts ants, which protect mealybugs from parasites and predators.
mealybugs. Undesirable ants can be kept out of the trees by banding the stems with sticky stripes. Remove tall weeds from orchard.Prune and open the canopy to air movement and sunlight.
Biolab biocontrols:Beauveria bassianalacewings
Whiteflies, Bemesia tabaci Whiteflies are tiny, 2 mm, white, insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They occur in groups on the undersides of leaves, laying eggs, which develop into nymphs that also suck plant sap from the leaves. Outbreaks, leading to leaf-wilting and death under drought stress, often occurs when the natural biological control is disrupted by over-use of pesticides.
Do intercropping and interplanting cropsControlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia species) lady beetles and minute pirate bugs.Yellow sticky traps may be used for monitoring to reduce populations but cannot prevent the spread.Frequent monitoring of traps and plants.Avoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Fungus appears as white powdery substance on leaf undersides with yellow blotches on top and fruit, causing direct losses. The fungus overwinters as spore-containing structures in bark of buds and branches. Spores produced in spring spread the fungus to new plant growth. Leaf infection may also occur post-harvest, damaging the plant. Infections can be severe during years of low rainfall, high humidity, and warm temperatures (21° to 27°C).
Avoid growing almonds near apple varieties that are highly susceptible to powdery mildew, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, and Rome Beauty. If nearby apples are expected to cause mildew problems on almonds, control the disease on apples.Jacket-split (late petal fall) and mid-spring applications of powdery mildew fungicides are highly effective in managing the disease.
Begin applications at full bloom and treat through fruit development as needed.
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; UC Master Gardener Orchards, http://homeorchard.ucanr.edu/Fruits_&_Nuts/ Other USA state extension and technical websites; CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Origins: The cultivation of the domesticated apples began 4,000 to 10,000 years ago from Central Asia. Pears are from China and quince was domesticated in Persia.
Best Soils and pH: Apple and pear trees will grow well in a wide range of soil types, but prefer a deep soil ranging in texture from a sandy loam to a sandy clay loam. Apple trees will not thrive in soil that is poorly drained. Quince prefers moist stream-side alluvial soils. Best pH is 5.5 to 6.5 for apples, 6.0 to 7.5 for pears and quince.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Depends on cultivar. In general, apples grow best where there is cold in winter, moderate summer temperatures, and medium to high humidity. In general, pears thrive in cold and wet climates, where there is winter cold along with a cool summer. It is estimated that the popular pear varieties need about 400-800 hours of cold (exposure to temperatures below 7 °C) in order to have a regular development and fruition. Quince trees grow well in a wide range of climates and soils, but the plant’s shallow root system make it susceptible to drought or a low availability of water and additional irrigation may be required. Quince should be planted in full sun and will grow optimally at temperatures averaging 15°C.
Best Altitudes: Depends on varieties, generally up to 2,600 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: On average, pome fruits need around 500-1000 mm of water distributed evenly throughout the growing season, some of which may be provided by irrigation.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: A cool climate is needed for coloration in most red apple varieties. Winter chilling requirements for most varieties are 1200–1500 hours below 7.2°C. Apples require cross-pollination from other varieties that bloom at the same time and produce abundant, viable pollen. Many varieties are self-unfruitful and have sterile pollen; others are partially self-fruitful (not all of their pollen is viable); a few are self-fruitful. It is best to plant apple trees during January, February, or March.
The best exposure for apples and pears is a north- or east-facing slope. Tree spacing is influenced by soil fertility, the rootstock and pruning. Seedlings or full-size trees should be planted about 4.5 to 5.5 meters apart in a row. A dwarfing rootstock might be 1.2 to 2.4 meters apart in a row. Prune annually to maintain tree shape and a healthy, open canopy.
Pome fruits bloom in early, mid and late spring, depending on variety and climate. Some years flowers are damaged by freezing temperatures, meaning no fruit that year. Planting depth to cover roots, mounding (berming) soil up on the tree trunk.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. During spring bloom season, fertilize prior to first irrigation. Mature apple trees: use 0.7 to 1 kg urea or 18 kg manure spread on the surface. During summer growth, fertilize young irrigated trees monthly (April–July). Use 0.23 kg urea or 9 kg manure/tree. Water in. Do not exceed 0.03 kg urea/emitter/appl.
Coddling moths have a 1.2 to 1.6 cm wingspan. The tip of each forewing has a dark brown copper-colored band. Female moths lay small disc-shaped eggs on leaves fruit later in the season. Larvae bore into fruits, leaving indentations and brown tunnels. They are 1.2 to 1.6 cm long, pinkish white, with mottled brown heads. There are generally two to four generations per year.
Mass trapping and mating disruption using pheromone traps.Prune tree for optimal height and spraying efficiency.Remove host trees in nearby abandoned orchards (apple, pear, and walnut) to destroy reservoirs of codling moth.Sanitation: Remove and destroy infested and dropped fruit.Remove props, picking bins, and fruit piles from the orchard.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Aphids are small (2-3mm) green, brown, yellow and black colored insects with two pegs sticking up on the top of the abdomen. Many aphid species attack stone fruit crops. Aphids are mainly found on young shoots and on the underside of leaves. Aphids use piercing-sucking mouthparts to remove plant sap and are most important as vectors of viruses.
Use resistant varieties.Natural enemies that control aphids include green and brown lacewings, lady beetles, Syrphid fly larvae. Use yellow or blue sticky traps for monitoring.Prune the tree crown to open it to sun, wind, parasites and predators.Control weeds in and around the orchard.Sanitation: prune, remove and destroy heavily-infested branches and plant parts.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Contact insecticides have limited impact as plant leaves enter the cupping stage.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Mites are tiny (0.5-.08mm) 8-legged acarids seen with a hand-lens that feed with piercing mouthparts, in groups on leaf undersides.
Mite feeding stunts and malforms the leaves and buds, causes leaf drop and arrests plant growth, resulting in twiggy, stubby branches. Young trees are more heavily attacked. Yield can be greatly reduced.
Use resistant varieties, if available.Predatory mites control large numbers of these pests.Do weed control in orchard.Control dust near orchard by watering or oiling dirt roads.Prevent water stress by irrigating or watering orchard during dry times.Broad-spectrum insecticide treatments for other pests frequently cause mite outbreaks, so avoid these when possible.Control dust near orchard by watering or oiling dirt roads and maintaining some green cover (do not mow the green cover crop too short or let it dry out or the mites may move up into the trees).
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:dimethoate
Natural oils, neem oil and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.
Biolab biocontrols:predatory miteslacewings
Scales:European fruit lecanium, Parthenolecanium corniPlum scale, Sphaerolecanium prunastriSan Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus = Diaspidiotus perniciosusApple mussel scale, Lepidosaphes ulmi
Scales appear as small (2-5mm) round to oblong gray to brown waxy shells, under which the insect lives. They attack leaves which turn yellow and drop; sticky sweet defecate covers leaves and fruit, leading to black mold growth which limits photosynthesis and fruit looks unappealing
Heavy adult scale and mealybug feeding can reduce plant vigor and cause fruit drop and twig dieback.
A number of parasites and predators like lady beetles feed on scales. For monitoring flying adult male scales, use pheromone traps.For monitoring crawlers, use sticky traps.Common predators include lady beetles, green lacewings and predatory seed bugs. Parasites include Aphytis species, Coccophagus species, Encarsia species and Metaphycus species Control honeydew-eating ants, which protect scales.Prune off large infestations.Rub off with a glove.
Use dormant sprays.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Pome fruits (apples, pears, quince)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilization.
predatory mitespredatory lady beetles
Defoliating caterpillars:Gypsy moth, Lymantria = Porthethria disparLackey moth, Malacosoma neustriaApple ermine moth, Yponomeuta malinellusOriental fruit moth, Grapholita molestaApple ermine moth, Yponomeuta malinellusCarpenter moth, Cossus cossus on Pome fruit
Moths fly at night and are generally between 0.5 to 1 cm in length, brown, lay eggs on bark or leaves and brown to green larvae feed on edges of leaves.
Natural enemies include parasitic and predatory insects such as wasps, flies, ground beetles, and ants; many species of spider; several species of birds and small mammals.Maintain tree vigor by watering and fertilizing properly.Use sticky bands or burlap bands around tree trunks to trap and destroy migrating larvae.Use mating disruptant pheromones if available.Prune off heavily-infested materials, remove and destroy.For monitoring, use pheromone traps.Sanitation: Pick up, remove and destroy all fallen and infested fruits.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Adult moths are small, brown with a pointed nose, and larvae are green. Larvae roll up leaves and tie them together with silk and enter inside to protect themselves from predators and parasites. Larvae emerge at night to feed on leaf edges, defoliating branches and trees.
A number of parasites and predators like green lacewing and lady beetle feed on moth larvae.Do monitoring and sampling (from the green tip) to determine when eggs are present, and then control with dormant mineral oil (which smothers them).
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Pome fruits (apples, pears, quince)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Plum moth / Red plum maggot,Laspeyresia = Grapholita funebrana
Adult moths are small, brown, and larvae are bright red/pink. Larvae tunnel into fruit and feed inside, causing damage that ruins the fruit. There can be up to 3 generations per year. In the fall, larvae form a cocoon on the tree or soil nearby; they pupate in the spring.
Many natural parasites and predators control this pest.Pheromone traps can help determine when moths are flying.Sanitation: remove infested & dropped apples.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
No insecticide treatment is recommended because this pest is difficult to control.
The apricot weevils are small (7-9mm) golden-green snout beetles. They feed on flowers and lay eggs in fruit, larvae tunnel fruit, ruining quality and causing fruit drop. Cherry weevil is a small (3-5mm) brown-cream banded snout beetle. Adults gnaw irregular-shaped holes in leaves, leaf stalks, and apical sprouts. They also lay eggs in fruit, causing the same damage as the apricot weevil.
Apply a 3- to 4-inch band of sticky material (Stickem or Tanglefoot) on the trunk of young trees to trap crawling adults in May when the first adult feeding is observed. Reapply the sticky material when it becomes dirty or is no longer sticky. Cultivate under plants to destroy overwintering weevils.Sanitation: Clean cultivation and destruction of trash on surrounding land helps reduce the number overwintering.
Treatment threshold is 3 weevil adults/10 cherry branches.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
A small (2-3mm) bug that looks like a tiny cicada colored orange-red to black, with white longitudinal stripes on its upper surface. Later instar nymphs are reddish-purplish-brown, with white longitudinal stripes and black patches with red-purple eyes. They feed by piercing sucking plant sap and defecating honeydew on which grows black mold, reducing photosynthesis and decreasing fruit size.
Natural parasites and predators usually control psyllids without need for chemical controls.Monitor frequently and hand-clean psyllids from branches and leaves or use a forceful water stream.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Pome fruits (apples, pears, quince)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
lacewingsBraconid waspsBeauveria bassiana
Apple mealybugs, Phenococcus aceris
Mealybugs, 3-5mm long, are covered with pale white to green waxy secretions and is transported on seedlings and fruit.
Mealybugs use piercing-sucking mouthparts to suck sap from roots, tender leaves, petioles and fruit. Severely infested leaves turn yellow and dry. Severe attack can result in leaf and flower drop, reduced fruit setting and young fruit drop. The foliage and fruit become covered with honeydew and sooty molds, which reduces its market value. The honeydew also attracts ants, which protect mealybugs from parasites and predators.
Flood orchard in October.In December rake soil around tree.Destroy affected parts at the beginning of the infestation. Heavily infested branches may be pruned to control the pest, especially on the tender branches before flowering begins.Conserve natural enemies like lady beetles, lacewings and other predators of mealybug.Control ants tending mealybugs. Undesirable ants can be kept out of the trees by banding the stems with sticky stripes. Remove tall weeds from orchard.Prune and open the canopy to air movement and sunlight.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Whiteflies, Bemesia tabaci Whiteflies are tiny, 2 mm, white, insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They occur in groups on the undersides of leaves, laying eggs, which develop into nymphs that also suck plant sap from the leaves. Outbreaks, leading to leaf-wilting and death under drought stress, often occurs when the natural biological control is disrupted by over-use of pesticides.
Do intercropping and interplanting cropsControlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia species) lady beetles and minute pirate bugs.Yellow sticky traps may be used for monitoring to reduce populations but cannot prevent the spread.Frequent monitoring of traps and plants.Avoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Fungus appears as white powdery substance on leaf undersides with yellow blotches on top and fruit, causing direct losses. The fungus overwinters as spore-containing structures in bark of buds and branches. Spores produced in spring spread the fungus to new plant growth. Leaf infection may also occur post-harvest, damaging the plant. Infections can be severe during years of low rainfall, high humidity, and warm temperatures (21° to 27°C).
Avoid growing almonds near apple varieties that are highly susceptible to powdery mildew, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, and Rome Beauty. If nearby apples are expected to cause mildew problems on almonds, control the disease on apples.Jacket-split (late petal fall) and mid-spring applications of powdery mildew fungicides are highly effective in managing the disease.
The treatment threshold best spray timing is at pink bud stage.
Origins: The pomegranate is native from Persia to the Himalayas in northern India. Persimmon is native to China.
Best Soils and pH: Persimmon trees will grow well in a wide range of soil types, including well-drained soil with a good mixture of sand, loam and clay, but also thrives on calcareous or acidic loam as well as rock strewn gravel. Neutral to slightly acidic soil is best, but pomegranate will also survive under considerably more acidic or alkaline conditions, but a pH range of 5.5 to 7.0 is best.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Depends on cultivar. In general, pomegranates and pomegranates prefer a semi-arid mild-temperate to subtropical climate and are naturally adapted to regions with cool winters and hot summers. A humid climate adversely affects the formation of fruit. The tree can be severely injured by temperatures below -11° C.
Best Altitudes: Depends on varieties, generally up to 1,300 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: Persimmons and pomegranates grow best in semiarid, mild climates with winter or summer rainfall; 200 to 600 mm of precipitation is optimal. When grown in the right conditions, the plant is extremely hardy and very long-lived. Once established, pomegranates can tolerate considerable drought, but for good fruit
production they must be irrigated. To establish newly planted trees, they should be watered every 2 to 4 weeks during the dry season. Trees are tolerant of moderately saline water and soil conditions.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: The pomegranate and persimmon can be propagated from seed and cuttings which root easily. Plants from them bear fruit after about 3 years. Take 30 to 50 cm long cuttings in winter from mature, one-year old wood. The leaves should be removed, and the cuttings treated with rooting hormone. Insert cuttings about two-thirds their length into the soil. Plants can also be air-layered but grafting is seldom successful.
Fertilizer and Pruning: Give trees 59 to 120 ml applications of a nitrogen fertilizer like ammonium sulfate or other the first two springs. After that very little fertilizer is needed, although the plants will respond well to an annual mulch of composted manure or other compost.
Plants should be pruned back when they are about 60 cm high. Allow 4 or 5 evenly distributed shoots to develop so the plant well balanced. These shoots should start about 30 cm from the ground, giving a short but well-defined trunk. Remove any suckers and any shoots which appear above or below. Fruits are borne only at the tips of new growth; thus, it is recommended that for the first 3 years the branches be prudently shortened annually to encourage the maximum number of new shoots on all sides, to achieve a strong well-framed plant. After the 3rd year, only suckers and dead branches should be removed.
Maturity: Depends on variety and growing conditions. Under suitable conditions the fruit should mature between 5 to 7 months after bloom.
Subtropical fruits (pomegranates, persimmons)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
These small (1-2mm) aphids are light green, produce nymphs in large numbers. Feeding reduces plant vigor, and release of honeydew, a sticky sweet defecate covers leaves and fruit, leading to black mold growth which limits photosynthesis and fruit looks unappealing.
Use resistant varieties.Many natural enemies that control aphids include green and brown lacewings, lady beetles, Syrphid fly larvae. Use yellow or blue sticky traps for monitoring.Prune the tree crown to open it to sun, wind, parasites and predators.Control weeds in and around the orchard.To reduce stress, which increases aphids, apply proper nutrients and irrigation to help trees withstand pest populations.Sanitation: prune, remove and destroy heavily-infested branches and plant parts.
Treatment should occur with systemic neonicotinoids in October to reduce egg-laying.
Contact insecticides have limited impact as plant leaves enter the cupping stage.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Small (1-1.3cm) brown snout moth that lays eggs on fruit, larvae enter and tunnel, making the fruit unpalatable.
It hibernates overwinter as caterpillars and pupae.
Mass trapping and mating disruption using baits and pheromone traps.Many natural parasites and predators control these pests.Prune tree for optimal height and spraying efficiency.Use sticky bands or burlap bands around tree trunks to trap and destroy migrating larvae.Remove host trees in nearby abandoned orchards (apple, pear, and walnut) to destroy reservoirs of codling moth.Sanitation: Remove and destroy infested and dropped fruit.oil spray on apples when females fly, Remove props, picking bins, and fruit piles from the orchard.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
These are difficult to control once inside the fruits.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Both of these are small (1cm) brown with silver and black marking snout moths. They lay eggs on wounds on fruit, larvae enter and tunnel, making the fruit unpalatable.
Natural parasitic wasps provide some control.Effective removal and destruction of mummy nuts in fall or winter. Use composted manures and fertilizers in nurseries.Apply fertilizers and foliar micronutrients in the field to enhance tree vigor.Build bunds around trees encompassing the drip zone and irrigate trees to reduce drought stress.Remove weeds from within the bund. Use mulch within the bund to suppress weeds and conserve soil moisture.Prune trees to open the crown to light and air
If other infested trees such as fig or pistachio are nearby, spring sprays may be needed.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Subtropical fruits (pomegranates, persimmons)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
movement, which will decrease pest levels.Do rapid, early harvest (harvest as soon as good removal can be achieved).
Bacillus thuringiensis (BT)Beauveria bassiana
Pomegranate fruit borer, Virachola isocrates
Adult is a butterfly with brown colorings on the outside of the wings and blue or violet colorings and orange spots on the inside opened wings. Eggs are laid on fruit and larvae bore in, making the fruit unpalatable.
Sanitation: Collect and destroy all infested fruits.Cover immature fruits with a bag or cloth.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
These are difficult to control once inside the fruits.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Mealybugs, 3-5mm long, are covered with pale white to green waxy secretions and is transported on seedlings and fruit.
Mealybugs use piercing-sucking mouthparts to suck sap from roots, tender leaves, petioles and fruit. Severely infested leaves turn yellow and dry. Severe attack can result in leaf and flower drop, reduced fruit setting and young fruit drop. The foliage and fruit become covered with honeydew and sooty
Flood orchard in October.In December rake soil around tree.Destroy affected parts at the beginning of the infestation. Heavily infested branches may be pruned to control the pest, especially on the tender branches before flowering begins.Conserve natural enemies like lady beetles, lacewings and other predators of mealybug.Control ants tending mealybugs. Undesirable
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Subtropical fruits (pomegranates, persimmons)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
molds, which reduces its market value. The honeydew also attracts ants, which protect mealybugs from parasites and predators.
ants can be kept out of the trees by banding the stems with sticky stripes. Remove tall weeds from orchard.Prune and open the canopy to air movement and sunlight.
Beauveria bassianalacewings
Black spot / black rot / fruit flecking, Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus foetidus, Coniella granatiCercospora fruit spot, Cercospora spp
Black rot infections commonly begin in the orchard following rain during flowering and early fruit development. Fungi can grow inside the fruit without any external symptoms, ruing fruit quality.
Sanitation: Collect and destroy heavily infected fruits.
Causes brown-black spots on leaves and scabs on fruit.
Use disease-free planting material.Plant trees in places with good air movement and circulation; avoid lowlands or bottom lands.Control weeds in and around the orchard.Maintain a vigorous tree by properly watering and fertilizing following soil test results.Sanitation: Where feasible, gather and compost or burn fallen leaves and fruit.
Tree Nuts: Eurasian Walnut Detailed Horticulture Information, GAPs, and Synthesized IPM Tools
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; UC Master Gardener Orchards, http://homeorchard.ucanr.edu/Fruits_&_Nuts/ UC Davis Fertilizer: https://apps1.cdfa.ca.gov/FertilizerResearch/docs/Walnut.html CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Origins: The cultivation of the domesticated walnut began about 5,000 years ago from Eurasia.
Best Soils and pH: Walnut trees prefer full sun and well-drained soils, like most fruit trees. It thrives in deep, sandy loam soils rich in organic matter. Walnut trees tolerate slightly acidic or alkaline soils, like those found throughout Central Asia. The best soil pH is 6.8 to 7.2.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Depends on variety. Walnuts require a temperate climate, with about 600–800 hours of chilling below7°C. Most varieties are sensitive to extremely low winter temperatures. When in dormancy, they can tolerate on average temperatures of -10°C without suffering serious damage. Upper end temperatures should not exceed 38°C and with relatively low humidity.
Best Altitudes: Depends on varieties, pistachio trees can grow well in altitudes from sea level up to 1,200 meters.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: The average commercially grown walnut tree needs 1270 mm of precipitation every year, spread evenly over the growing season. Excessive rain during late spring and after leaf growth has begun may favor the spread of the bacterium Xanthomonas juglandis, which may cause serious damage to trees.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: Walnut trees are propagated by grafting or budding scions on rootstocks that have already been planted in the orchard. Rootstock is planted to the depth of the roots, and at an optimum tree spacing in a standard square or offset square spacing design at 5,2 by 5,2 meters, which result in 373 trees per hectare.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil and leaf test results and calculated nitrogen budget. See specific details on website: https://apps1.cdfa.ca.gov/FertilizerResearch/docs/Walnut.html.
Maturity: Depends on variety and growing conditions. Growing walnuts require 140 to 150 days from spring blossom.
Tree Nuts: Pistachio Detailed Horticulture Information, GAPs, and Synthesized IPM Tools
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about ; UC Davis IPM,
Origins: The cultivation of the domesticated pistachio began about 8,000 years ago from South Central Asia.
Best Soils and pH: Although it can be adapted to a variety of soils, pistachio tree prefers relatively deep, light, dry and sandy loam soils, with high calcium carbonate concentration. It does not tolerate wet, heavy soils and especially not well drained soils. However, it tolerates slightly acidic, alkaline or soils with salinity. The best soil pH is 7.1 to 7.8.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Depends on cultivar. Pistachio trees thrive in areas with a long hot summer and a cold winter, as the tree must experience certain hours of cold that will break the buds’ dormancy. In general, pistachio can tolerate very low air humidity and low soil moisture levels (high humidity levels negatively affect tree’s development). The pistachio tree thrives best in areas where the summer temperatures are 25 to 35,5 °C for the fruit can mature. Pistachio trees perform well in hot and dry climates (often found in areas close to the sea). In general, during the winter dormancy period of trees, low temperatures up to -10 °C do not harm the trees.
Best Altitudes: Depends on varieties, pistachio trees can grow well in altitudes up to 670 meters, but in some cases, they are grown even in altitudes up to 1000 meters.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: Pistachios are drought tolerant but have high water requirements during nut filling. Farmers should provide at least 4-6 drip irrigation sessions during the productive period in light and well drained soils. When the trees become older, farmers may shift to sprinklers that are located in the equal distance between two trees, so that the root system can be developed in width without restrictions.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: Pistachios are propagated by budding and grafting. The rootstock’s resistance to soil borne diseases (Verticillium wilt) is extremely important. The scion produces the upper part of the tree and determines the fruit/nut’s characteristics. Pollination is by wind. Ideally, one would place 1 male tree in the center of every 7-9 female trees in small orchards. Trees should be 6 meters apart. Dig holes 45 X 45 cm wide with a depth of 60 cm with the nursery’s soil ball attached to their sensitive root system. Place supporting stakes. The seedlings must be planted at roughly the same depth as they were planted in the nursery, and then put plenty of surface soil to the base of the root system. When adding the soil, press it gently, until the complete filling of the pits, so as to avoid causing damage to the young and sensitive root system. Planting is followed by the watering of seedlings. Many pistachio farmers then add a small amount of manure around the seedling base to reduce weeds and hold moisture. Generally, male trees bloom first, and the female trees bloom later, wasting pollen; lack of cold weather exacerbates this. In this case, one can collect and store pollen in a fridge and if the weather conditions are suitable (light wind and definitely no rain) and female trees are blooming, mix pollen with a special powder and spray it onto the trees at 4-day intervals.
Maturity: Depends on variety and growing conditions. First pistachio nuts will come at about year five after planting. It will take about 7 – 8 years before receiving a good yield of pistachios and 15 -20 years to reach peak production. Pistachios develop in early summer and ripen in late August or September.
Tree Nuts (walnuts, pistachio)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Coddling moths have a 1.2 to 1.6 cm wingspan. The tip of each forewing has a dark brown copper-colored band. Female moths lay small disc-shaped eggs on leaves fruit later in the season. Larvae bore into fruits, leaving indentations and brown tunnels. They are 1.2 to 1.6 cm long, pinkish white, with mottled brown heads. There are generally two to four generations per year.
Mass trapping and mating disruption using pheromone traps.Prune tree for optimal height and spraying efficiency.Remove host trees in nearby abandoned orchards (apple, pear, and walnut) to destroy reservoirs of codling moth.Sanitation: Remove and destroy infested and dropped fruit.Remove props, picking bins, and fruit piles from the orchard.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Tree Nuts (walnuts, pistachio)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
walnut, Callipterus juglandis Small walnut aphid, Chromaphis juglandicola Green apple aphid, Aphis pomiGreen peach aphid, Myzus persicaeWooly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum
black colored insects with two pegs sticking up on the top of the abdomen. Many aphid species attack stone fruit crops. Aphids are mainly found on young shoots and on the underside of leaves. Aphids use piercing-sucking mouthparts to remove plant sap and are most important as vectors of viruses.
control aphids include green and brown lacewings, lady beetles, Syrphid fly larvae. Use yellow or blue sticky traps for monitoring.Prune the tree crown to open it to sun, wind, parasites and predators.Control weeds in and around the orchard.Sanitation: prune, remove and destroy heavily-infested branches and plant parts.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Biolab biocontrols:Beauveria bassianalacewingspredatory lady beetles
Walnut Anthracnosis, Gnomonia leptostyla
Causes brown-black spots on leaves and scabs on nut husks/shells.
Use disease-free planting material.Plant trees in places with good air movement and circulation; avoid lowlands or bottom lands.Control weeds in and around the orchard.Maintain a vigorous tree by properly watering and fertilizing following soil test results.Sanitation: Where feasible, gather and compost or burn fallen leaves and fruit.
Blight causes black lesions on catkins. Infected nuts develop sunken black spots. Leaves show irregular black lesions.
Plant in well-drained soil.Delay pruning until after cool, wet weather has subsided.Do not plant in low areas with sandy soil.Manage ring nematode.Manage weeds in the orchard to reduce overall humidity.Use good management practices, which include proper irrigation and fertilization to keep the trees strong and healthy.
Bactericides are not generally recommended for control.
Biolab biocontrols:Bacillus subtilis
92
Tree Nuts (walnuts, pistachio)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; Other USA state extension and technical websites; CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific name: Vitis vinifera
Origins: The cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East.
Best Soils and pH: Most expert sources show loose, well-drained sandy loam as the best soil type for grapes. It drains well but contains a moderate amount of nutritious organic matter and generally lies within the preferred pH range of 5.5 to 7.0. Add the required amendments about one year before planting grapevines. They require adequate amounts of magnesium for healthy foliage. Adding ground limestone (which contains magnesium) to raise pH often corrects the problem. Zinc deficiency reduces pollination rates and can lead to fewer, smaller grapes.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Depends on cultivar. In general, grapes need about 150 to 170 days with best temperatures 15-21˚C in order to grow, flower and set fruit. The climate should experience mild winters, little humidity and limited annual rainfall.
Best Altitudes: 100-2000 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: On average, a grapevine needs around 710 mm of water distributed throughout the growing season, some of which may be provided by irrigation.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: The best time to plant dormant bare-root grapevines from cuttings is in early spring. Before planting grapevines, soak their roots in water for two or three hours.Space vines 2 to 3 meters apart. For each vine, dig a planting hole 30cm deep and 30cm wide. Fill with 10cm of topsoil. Trim off broken roots and set the vine into the hole slightly deeper than it grew in the nursery. Cover the roots with 15cm of soil and tamp down. Fill with the remaining soil, but don’t tamp this down. Prune the top back to two or three buds at planting time. Water at time of planting.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. In general, Nitrogen should be applied during the growing season, preferably after bud break through fruit set, or postharvest. The amount of N fertilizer required varies with yield, soil type, and irrigation efficiency. In the first and second year, a liquid NPK fertilizer (3-18-18) is applied once in June, twice in July and once in August for a total of 43kg (30 liters) of material. In the third year, 14 kg of a highly soluble NPK fertilizer (12- 26-26) is applied through the drip irrigation system once in April. In the third year, boron and zinc foliar micronutrients are tank mixed in an application that occurs just prior to bloom.
Maturity: Depends on variety and growing conditions.
Mites are tiny (0.5-.08mm) 8-legged acarids seen with a hand-lens that feed with piercing mouthparts, in groups on leaf undersides.
Mite feeding stunts and malforms the leaves and buds, causes leaf drop and arrests plant growth, resulting in twiggy, stubby vines. Young vines are more heavily attacked. Yield can be greatly reduced.
Natural predators and parasites control large proportions of spider mite populations. The western predatory mite, Galendromus (= Metaseiulus) occidentalis, can be purchased and released onto field.Apply water to reduce dust on roads near the crop. Maintain resident vegetation or other cover near the crop to further reduce dust.Irrigate in a manner that will avoid stressing vines. Overhead watering has been shown to reduce mite problems, but it can increase some diseases.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:dimethoate
Natural oils, neem oil and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.
Adult moths are small (.5-1.2mm) brown-gray moths with grayish-blue colorations on the wings. The females lay eggs on or near grape blossoms or fruit clusters. Larvae produce protective webbing and feed on blossoms and grapes, leading to loss of fruit set as well as entry of fungi and bacteria, leading to fruit rot. Some larvae spin pieces of leaves together to form a pupal casing or cover. Most of these species go through 2-3 generations per year. In the fall, larvae fall from the plant and overwinter as pupae in leaf litter.
Many natural predators and parasites control these.Monitor for webbing on flower bunches (first generation) and on grape bunches including holes in grapes and hollow grapes (second generation). Can use pheromone traps to monitor.Can use mating disruption with pheromone inundation releases, before bud-break but only on large-scale orchards of more than 10ha.Sanitation: Control weeds in and around orchard. Disc under infested grape mummy clusters and weeds.Cultural methods include pruning the vine canopy, leaf stripping, irrigation, earthing-up, weeding and
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Powdery mildew appears on leaves as yellowish spots on the upper leaf surface followed by white, webbed mycelium on the lower leaf surface. The white powdery mycelia may invade and cover the entire grape surface as well as leaf surfaces. This leads to brow scarring on the fruit. Dormant grape canes will show red blotches indicative of mildew infection. Free moisture from rain, dew or even fog will trigger release of ascospores which will grow when temperatures reach 10 degrees C.
The pathogen is dispersed by splashing rain and wind, so use organic mulches to reduce splashing.Plant in well-drained soils or do things to encourage drainage.If sprinkler irrigation is used, extend the intervals between sprays.Prune trees to open the canopy to light and wind to reduce humidity.Sanitation: remove and destroy fallen leaves which are an important source of inoculum.Monitor in spring to decide when to treat with protectant fungicides.Use sanitation: Clean up and destroy crop and pruning residues.
Spores are splashed onto the plant by spring rains.
Common symptoms include necrosis of the stem or shoot, discoloration including brown spots and lesions and yellowish-green leaf tips. Grapes may exhibit sporangia and sporangiophores, appearing as white to gray coat on the outer surface.
The pathogen is dispersed by splashing rain and wind, so use organic mulches to reduce splashing.Plant in well-drained soils or do things to encourage drainage.If sprinkler irrigation is used, extend the intervals between sprays.Sanitation: remove and destroy fallen leaves which are an important source of inoculum.
Many mulberry fruit tree Mora species are native to Asia and grow wild across Central Asia, where they are wild-collected as edible fruit.
MulberryPrimary Pest, Disease, Pest, Damage Recommended Recommended Chemical
95
Weed species descriptions Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Controls, when needed
Fruit tree leaf roller, Archips argyrospila
Moths are small (5-6mm) nondescript cream to copper colored moths.
The green larvae of these moths roll leaves and tie them together to form a casing in which to hide from predators. They feed at night, defoliating trees.
Several species of parasitic Tachinid flies and Ichneumonid and Braconid wasps attack leaf rollers. Green lacewings, assassin bugs and some beetles also provide control.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Medium-sized (2-3cm) white butterflies with black spots near the tip of the wings. Larvae feed on leaves, defoliating the tree.
Natural enemies can assist significantly in the control of white butterfly larvae. Viruses and bacterial diseases are also sometimes important control factors in the field.On larger hectarages, use pheromone misters and emitters to disrupt mating, if available and feasible.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; UC Davis GAPs, http://cagardenweb.ucanr.edu/Vegetables/ Other USA state extension and technical websites; CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
Origins: Tomato varieties originate from the highlands of western South America from where they moved north and were likely domesticated by the Aztecs 700 years ago in Mexico.
Best Soils and pH: Loam and sandy loam soils are best for tomato production, but these plants will grow in almost all soil types except heavy clay. Best pH is 6.0 to 6.8.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Tomato is a warm season crop and grows best when the daytime temperature is between 18- and 30-degrees Celsius. They stop growing above 35 degrees Celsius. If nighttime temperatures are above 30 degrees Celsius, the fruit will not turn red. Tomatoes need full sun and warm, well-drained soil.
Best Altitudes: From sea level up to 2100 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: Tomatoes need at least 2.5 cm of rain or irrigation water per week for steady growth. In the hotter, drier places, their needs go up to 5 cm of water per week during the summer months.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: Tomatoes are propagated from seed as nursery seedlings or from stem cuttings before spring and then transplanted once the weather warms up. Seedlings started from seed require 6 to 8 weeks before they reach transplanting size. If tomato cuttings are used and kept warm, the transplanting time frame is cut down to 10 to 14 days. The correct tomato plant spacing is dependent upon which variety of tomato is being grown. The ideal spacing for tomato plants is between 60 to 90 cm apart. Spacing tomato plants closer than 60 cm will reduce air circulation around the plants and may result in higher disease incidence.
Fertilizers: A standard 10-10-10 or 5-10-10 commercial fertilizer can be used, or organic alternatives include bone meal, dried manure or cottonseed meal. The fertilizer should be added to the top 2.5 cm of soil and applied 10 to 15 cm from the tomato plant stem to prevent fertilizer burn.
Maturity: Given warm weather and abundant rainfall, tomatoes ripen in 60-85 days from the time seedlings are set out, depending on variety and growing conditions.
Irish Potato Agronomic Information
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; UC Davis GAPs, http://cagardenweb.ucanr.edu/Vegetables/ Other USA state extension and technical websites; CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific name: Solanum tuberosum
Origins: Potatoes, also called Irish Potato, varieties originate from the Andes Mountain region of Peru and Bolivia in South America, where they were domesticated and hybridized over the past 7-10,000 years by native tribes.
Best Soils and pH: tolerant of a wide variety of soils, except heavy, waterlogged clays. Good drainage is of essential. Impermeable layers in the soil limit rooting depth and the amount of available water, thus greatly reducing yields. Deep
soils with good water retention and aeration give best growth and yields. The most suitable soil pH is between 4.8 and 6. At higher pH, tubers are more likely to suffer from scab disease.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Optimum day temperatures are within the range of 20 to 25 degrees C with nighttime temperatures below 20 degrees C found in highlands.
Best Altitudes: 1200-3000 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: 500-750 mm of rainfall well distributed throughout the growing season.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: Potatoes for consumption are planted in rows 75-100 cm apart with a spacing of 30 to 40 cm within the row (25 to 44,000 plants per ha). On fertile soils with good rainfall, closer spacing may be used to avoid the production of very large tubers. Seed potatoes are planted at a spacing of 15 to 20 cm within the row (about 80,000 plants per ha). Potatoes are propagated vegetatively by use of small (40 to 100 g) tubers, called seed potatoes, by cut pieces of tuber with growing points on them, and by micro-tubers and mini-tubers. The seed rate for tubers ranges from 1.5 to 4.0 tons per hectare. The number of mini-tubers to sow per hectare depends on seed weight, germination percentage, and plant spacing (shown on the seed bag or recommended by extension agent).
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. A typical soil analysis for potatoes should include pH, organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, boron, zinc and magnesium. On irrigated sandy soils, nitrate can move rapidly and fluctuate widely, so soil nitrate tests are not reliable. In general, for optimum yield, potatoes require approximately 250 kg nitrogen, 34 kg phosphorus and 336 kg potassium per hectare. Broadcast and disc in all fertilizer, including nitrogen, before planting. On harder or sandy soils, add organic matter in the forms of compost and well-composted manure.
Maturity: 3-4.5 months, depending on variety and growing conditions.
Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta
This newly-introduced larva of a small, 4-5mm, silver-brown moth disperses on the wind and people carrying infested fruits when they travel. Damage is characterized by many small mines in leaves, stems and fruit. The moth reproduces rapidly, with a life cycle ranging from 24-38 days, depending on temperature. One female may deposit up to 250-260 eggs during her life on aboveground plant parts. There are 4 instars that take 8 days to develop before pupation. Young larvae have white or cream-colored bodies with a black head, turning pink
Nursery Management and Clean Propagation Material: Use only nursery-produced seedlings that are completely free from Tuta leaf infestation.Allow a minimum of 6 weeks from crop destruction to planting the next crop, to prevent carry-over of the pest. Between successive cycles, cultivate the soil and cover with plastic mulch or perform solarization.Monitor using pheromone/water traps and yellow sticky traps.Mass trapping using light traps or pheromones mixed with small quantities of insecticide.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
or green. Larvae mine in leaf tissues, in stems, and on fruit, often destroying it, before pupating in the soil. They are most active during night.
Rotation: Rotate to non-Solanaceae crops for more than one season.Sanitation: Remove and destroy (tillage, deep burial) infested tomatoes and plant residues, especially in greenhouse production, immediately following last harvest.
Bollworms are large caterpillars, 12-20 cm long, brown-green, with stripes on each side. They have stiff hairs on each abdominal segment that differentiate them from cutworms and armyworms. Adults are brown moths, 1.5-2 cm long. White eggs are laid individually or in small groups on leaves. High populations inflict significant damage, particularly during droughts, if larvae consume flowers and pegs during podding. Vigorously growing plants with adequate available moisture are better able to replace damaged leaves and compensate for flower and pod damage.
Removal of weeds in and around field or greenhouse.Use of window and ventilation screens to exclude adult moths from greenhouse.Trichogramma wasps provide some control of tomato fruit worm eggs.Make and use pheromone (with Helilure) or light traps to capture adult moths and determine when females are flying, mating, and egg-laying.Check for and conserve natural predators and parasites that can control large numbers of Helicoverpa larvae.Use insect pheromone traps near the field to monitor for presence, to know when to monitor for eggs.Two weeks before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy larvae and adults harboring in those weeds and grasses.Plow, disc and harrow fields at least two times before sowing seeds to expose pupae to predators.Sow seeds thinly and remove competing weeds to produce vigorous plants, which are more likely to withstand pests and diseases.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts, like corn, cotton, sorghum, tobacco and soybean.
Armyworms, Spodoptera exempta, S. frugiperda
The larvae of brown migratory moths, that occur in outbreaks, these long hairless brown-green caterpillars, move and feed in groups. Larvae feed at night and hide under debris during the day. Damage first appears as skeletonized leaves, followed by irregular holes, shallow, dry wounds on pods, and finally completely defoliated plants. Eggs are laid in clusters of 50-150 and are covered in adult moth abdominal body hairs.
Pheromone traps placed along the edges of fields may be used to monitor adult moths. Plow and harrow field thoroughly. Practice proper field sanitation: Remove weeds regularly to reduce breeding sites and shelter for armyworm. Destroy weeds from bordering fields and on field borders Remove all plant debris after harvesting
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Medium, 3 cm, gray-brown larvae of 2 cm brown moths. Eggs are cream-white colored with ribs, laid in massed rows on weed leaves. Larvae hide under debris and in the soil during the day, feeding voraciously at night, often cutting the plant off, to felling the plant and feeding on it at the soil level.
Check for and conserve natural predators and parasites that can control large numbers of cutworm larvae. Natural enemies include larvae of parasitic Braconid wasps and Tachinid flies. Predators include ground beetles, lacewings, praying mantis, and weaver ants.Use crop rotation--plant alfalfa or beans after tomato.Removal of weeds in and around field or greenhouse two weeks before planting.Use of window and ventilation screens to exclude adult moths from greenhouse.Use insect pheromone traps
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
near the field to monitor for presence, to know when to monitor for eggs.Sunflowers and cosmos can also be planted as a trap crop in or around fields. Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts, like corn, cotton, sorghum, tobacco and soybean.
Whiteflies, Bemesia tabaci that transmit Tomato Leaf Curl Virus (LCV)
Whiteflies are tiny, 2 mm, white, insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They occur in groups on the undersides of leaves, laying eggs, which develop into nymphs that also suck plant sap from the leaves. Outbreaks, leading to leaf-wilting and death under drought stress, often occurs when the natural biological control is disrupted by over-use of pesticides.
The nursery should be covered with the simple mesh net to avoid the infestation by white fly during seedling stage.Do intercropping and interplanting crops.
Controlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia species) lady beetles and minute pirate bugs.Yellow sticky traps may be used for monitoring presence. Do frequent monitoring of traps and plants.Avoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers.Prevention of LCV Use seed that has been
treated to eliminate seed borne inoculum.
Extreme sanitation is needed.
Practice crop rotation. Destroy infected plants
especially before flowering and fruit set.
Control Solanaceae weeds.
Remove possible source of primary inoculums (infected seeds, weeds, tobacco products).
Monitor field margins, the first place likely to be invaded. No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Many species of aphid attack Solanaceae crops. Aphids are mainly found on young shoots and on the underside of leaves. Aphids use piercing-sucking mouthparts to remove plant sap and are most important as vectors of viruses.
Use resistant varieties.Many types of natural enemies and pathogens may control these aphids under low insecticide input situations. However, these aphids reproduce quickly and move into protected areas of the plants, thereby greatly reducing the potential impact of their predators and parasitoids in older stage plants.Use regular monitoring with yellow sticky traps + visual observation on plants.Field disking and destruction of crop resides are important for control of aphid pests of leafy vegetables to reduce their migration into nearby crops.
If control is needed, treat when aphids are found to be reproducing, particularly when second and later generation wingless females have started reproduction.
Contact insecticides have limited impact as plant leaves enter the cupping stage.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Thrips are tiny, 1-2mm, dark slender insects with fringed wings. They are seasonally transported northwards on rain/wind storms. They feed by puncturing plant tissue and sucking out the cell contents. Nymphs and adults may damage the terminal buds and flowers, causing flower drop, leading to no seed development, which, under heavy infestation, can lead to yield losses of up to 100%.
Natural enemies such as minute pirate bugs, lacewing or predatory thrips control thrips in the crop.Eliminate other host plants on or near the crop. Use blue sticky traps for monitoring.Provide good irrigation, drainage, and fertilization.In the field, disc under weeds before they flower; do not disk after flowering as thrips will quickly move to crop.Provide good irrigation, drainage and fertilization.Rotate Solanaceous crops
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
with beans, corn or another non-Solanaceous crop.In greenhouses, use netting on windows and other openings to exclude thrips.Sanitation: Remove and quickly destroy infested crop residues.
Leaf miner, Lyriomyza spp Leaf miners attack a wide variety of vegetable crops, particularly in the seedling stage, often grown in proximity to Cole crops. Adults are tiny black flies with a bright yellow spot on their thorax. Females puncture leaves to feed on plant sap and lay eggs within the leaf tissues. After 2 to 4 days, the eggs hatch and larvae feed between the upper and lower surface of leaves, as they move in their tunnels. Larvae emerge from the leaf mines and pupate on the leaf surface or, more commonly, drop from the plants to land in cracks in the soil. Many generations may occur each year, and the entire life cycle can be completed in less than 3 weeks when the weather is warm. Leaf miners can reduce the plant's photosynthetic capacity, render edible leaf portions unmarketable, and provide an entrance for pathogenic organisms.
Use resistant varieties.Biological control is often adequate to control leaf miners, so evaluate levels of parasitism before making treatment decisions and use pesticides with care. Use regular monitoring and sufficient irrigation. Simple cultural practice- removal and destruction of heavily infested leaves during season. Use sanitation – destroy crop residues at end of season. Use yellow and green sticky traps to monitor and reduce populations. Use macro and micro tunnels to exclude leaf miners.Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps normally control leaf miners. However, the widespread indiscriminate use of persistent broad-spectrum insecticides, to control this and other pests, disrupt the natural control, leading to leaf miner outbreaks.Rotate with non-host crops and plan the arrangement of fields so that old infested fields do not provide a reservoir of infestation for subsequent crops.Destroy leaf miner pupae
Monitor crop and apply selective insecticide if the average is 0.7 larvae per plant (0-2 true leaves) or 0.7 larvae per 3 terminal leaflets (>2 leaves per plant).
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
in the soil by plowing and tilling, by solarization, and, on heavy soils, by flood irrigation.Monitor the crop by checking foliage for the presence of stipples caused by the adults while feeding and laying eggs, and for mines and larvae. Trap adult flies with yellow sticky or water traps.
Mites, Red spider mite, Tetranychus urticaeBroad mite or chili mite, Polyphagotarsonemus = Hemitarsonemu latus
Mites are tiny 8-legged acarids that feed with piercing mouthparts, in groups on leaf undersides. Spider mites usually produce webbing to protect themselves. Extensive feeding causes leaf wilt and death and is exacerbated by warm dry weather and drought.
Broad mites are oval-shaped, seen by hand lens. A generation takes about 1 week under optimal conditions and females deposit 40 eggs. Dispersal is by winds and on the bodies of other insects especially whiteflies. Broad mite toxic saliva causes twisted, hardened and distorted growth at the terminal of the plant. Mites are usually seen on the newest leaves and small fruit. Severely infected fruits fall, and yield is significantly reduced.
Leave a distance (10m) between the crop and the field borders.Conserve natural enemies (like predatory mites and anthocorid bugs) by avoiding use of broad-spectrum pesticides.Provide good growing conditions for plants as healthy plants are more likely to withstand mite attack.Weed control in and around field.Adequate irrigation since water-stressed plants are most likely to be damaged. Apply mulch and incorporate organic matter into the soil to improve the water holding capacity and reduce evaporation.Remove crop residues after harvest several times at 10-day intervals.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:dimethoate
Natural oils, neem oil and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.
Colorado potato beetle (CPB) adults (10 mm long) have rounded bodies and yellow wings with 10 black stripes running lengthwise down the elytra. Larvae
Plant an early-maturing (less than 80 days) but generally lower-yielding variety.Remove alternate Solanaceous weeds
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oils
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Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
have a humpbacked appearance with 2 rows of black spots running down both sides of the body. Eggs are yellow to orange and are found in clusters of 20-35 on the undersides of leaves.
Larvae and adults feed on the edges of potato leaves, often defoliating plants.
nightshade and ground cherry from near and in crop.Grow potatoes every other year.In smaller plots, hand-pick larvae and adults from plants.Do mulching with wheat or rye straw.Use floating row covers to exclude CPB.
Microscopic nematodes feed within plant root zones on newly developed roots. Root-knot nematodes enter and cause galls of up to 3 cm in diameter to appear on roots as quickly as a month after planting. Nematode feeding interferes with the flow of water and nutrients to the plant. Infected plants are prone to wilt in hot weather and respond poorly to fertilizer; young plants may experience reduced vigor, slow growth, and stunting.
Sting nematodes live entirely outside the roots, feeding on root hairs, tips and edges. Nematode feeding interferes with the flow of water and nutrients to the plant and makes wounds that act as entry points for pathogens. Infected plants are prone to wilt in hot weather and respond poorly to fertilizer; young plants may experience reduced vigor, slow growth, and stunting.
Use of resistant cultivars and grow healthy plants (use appropriate seed, spacing, watering, weeding and fertilizer).Field solarization (a transparent polyethylene film is laid over moist soil for a 6-to-12-week period to heat).Flood the plot.Avoid growing on a known infected plot.Use crop rotation, deep plowing, fallowing and avoid mono cropping. Rotate with broccoli, cauliflower, sorghum, Sudan grass, rape, and mustard seed which are resistant to nematodes. Sanitation: Remove and compost crop debris. Use of organic fertilizer particularly chicken manure and composts to add organic matter and soil structure to sandy soilsGrowing flax, a tropical herb, is good for controlling root knot nematodes. African and French marigold plowed under the soil also suppress and reduce nematodes. Plant and plow into soil 2
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Not economical or safe for smallholder farmers to control with synthetic nematicides.
Instead, do biofumigation of the soil by growing, shredding and plowing under crucifers, and covering the soil with mulch or plastic, if available, until just before planting crop. Rotting crucifers produce toxic gasses that kill nematodes and covering with plastic increases efficacy.
105
Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
months later.
Late blight / Downy mildew, Phytophthora infestans
This fungal disease is favored by cool, cloudy, wet conditions. Symptoms of late blight are irregular, greenish-black, water-soaked patches, which appear on the leaves. The spots soon turn brown and many of the affected leaves wither, yet frequently remain attached to the stem. On fruits, tissues darken, become lumpy and hard to the touch. These diseases are spread by movement of infested soil from nursery to field, including on workers’ boots and equipment, and by cultivation practices, so restrict the movement in field.It is favored by moist, crowded conditions in seedbeds and boxes. In field-raised seedlings, wet conditions favor disease, avoid these favored conditions.
Use tolerant varieties.Allow plants to drain properly.Follow proper planting date; do not plant late.Use lines to raise tomato plants and fruit into the air to aerate the plant and raise the leaves and fruit away from the soil.Sterilize seedbed soil. Time planting to allow plants to emerge rapidly.Uproot all residue plants and destroy by burning.Restrict movement in field. Avoid rotating to Solanaceae plants. Use tolerant varieties and raised-bed productionDrain the growing field adequately before plantingFollow proper planting date, do not plant lateFarmers use sticks and lines to raise tomato plants and fruit into the air to aerate the plant and raise the leaves and fruit away from the soil
Grass weed leaves are long and thin. Broadleaf weed leaves are broad, round or ovate. Weeds outcompete the crop for soil nutrients, water and light. They can be controlled prior to planting and plant emergence, and after plant emergence.
Herbicide expenses make farmers use hand weeding, hoeing or cultivation. At end of the harvest, manual removal of weeds. Clean weeds along irrigation canals that can transmit weeds to the field.Use crop rotation.Use transplants which can out-compete weeds quicker. Use soil solarization.Use soil mulches and pruning.Continue hoe and hand weeding.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
TomatoIn fall beds, before weeds emerge, use synthetic herbicides containing: metribuzinoxyfluorfen
After weeds emerge, use: glyphosate
Pre-plant use: pendimethalinPost-plant after weeds emerge, use:
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Solanaceous crops (tomato, potato)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Can use drip irrigation to regulate water in the crop and avoid weed emergence.
metribuzin
PotatoPre- and Post-plant use: glyphosatependimethalin
Cucurbits (Cucumber, Melons, Squash, Pumpkins, Gourds, Watermelons) Agronomic Data
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; UC Davis GAPs, http://cagardenweb.ucanr.edu/Vegetables/ Other USA state extension and technical websites; CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific names: Cucumber, Cucumis sativusMelons, Cucumis meloSquashes and Gourds, Cucurbita maxima, C. mixta, C. moschata, Lagenaria siceraria, L. abyssinica, L. breviflora, L. rufa, L. sphaericaPumpkins, Cucurbita pepoWatermelons, Citrullus lanatus, C. colocynthis and others
Origins: Plants in the Cucurbitaceae family originated from four different continents, with Cucurbita in the Americas at least 10,000 years ago; watermelons from northeastern Africa 4,000 years ago; melons and cucumbers are native to Asia.
Best Soils and pH: Well-drained, loose clay-loam and sandy-loam soils rich in organic matter are best for Cucurbit production. Best pH is 6.0 to 6.5.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Cucurbits are warm season crops and are very sensitive to cold temperatures. Do not plant until soil reaches 18 C. Best germination temperatures are: 16 C to 32 C. Days to emergence are 3 (at 27 to 32 C) to 10 days or longer at cooler temperatures. Peppers are most easily grown from transplants.
Best Altitudes: Cucurbits are lowland crops from sea level up to about 2000 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: Cucurbits prefer a mean annual rainfall in the range 600 - 1,500 mm, but tolerate 300 - 2,800 mm, distributed evenly.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: Cucurbits can be propagated from seed or vine cuttings. Plants take a lot of space to grow, typically spacing the plantings 45 to 90 cm apart (Bush varieties will tolerate a closer spacing). Plant 2 or 3 seeds 2.5 cm deep. Mix compost and other organic matter into the soil at planting time along with a slow-release fertilizer. Cover the soil with an organic mulch to retain soil moisture.
Fertilizers: Use a add a timed-released, low-nitrogen, high-potassium pelleted fertilizer with a N-P-K ratio similar to 2-3-6. Apply 1 tablespoon per pot at planting, and again when the first true leaves show.
Use well-rotted manure or compost, which release slowly into the soil.
Maturity: Given warm weather and abundant rainfall, most melon varieties require 90 days to produce fruit. Cucumbers take 50-70 days. Watermelons take 80 to 120 days with 60 days for squashes and gourds.
Cucurbit crops (melons, watermelons, cucumbers)Primary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Melon aphid, Aphis gossypii
The melon aphid, also called cotton aphid, is a small aphid that ranges in color from yellowish green to greenish black. Both winged and wingless forms are produced. The winged individuals are slender and are not as robust as the wingless form. Mature aphids are 1.5 mm in length. The melon aphid can be distinguished from other aphids by the color of its cornicles at the tip of the abdomen, which are always black. Unlike other aphids, melon aphid populations do not diminish with high temperatures. The melon aphid develops in colonies and prefers the underside of leaves. Initially they are present on tender parts of the plant, young shoots and leaves, but as their number increases, they can cover the entire plant. As the colony grows, winged aphids are produced which fly away looking for new plants to start a new colony.
Use resistant varieties.Use regular monitoring with yellow sticky traps. Start checking traps after transplanting or when seedlings emerge. When aphids are observed on traps, begin monitoring crop foliage.
Many types of natural enemies and pathogens may control these aphids under low insecticide input situations.Sanitation: Field disking and destruction of crop residues are important for control of aphid pests or leafy vegetables to reduce their migration into nearby crops. Aphid populations are easier to control before the plants begin to cup.
If control is needed, treat when aphids are found to be reproducing, particularly when second and later generation wingless females have started reproduction.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Mites are tiny 8-legged arthropods that feed with piercing mouthparts, in groups on leaf undersides. Spider mites usually produce webbing to protect themselves. Extensive feeding causes leaf wilt and death and is exacerbated by warm dry weather and
Natural predators and parasites control large proportions of spider mite populations. Apply water to reduce dust on roads near the field. Maintain resident vegetation or other mowed cover around the field or greenhouse to further
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:
108
drought.
First symptoms of spider mite feeding are usually clusters of yellow spots on the upper surface of leaves, which may also appear chlorotic and get a speckled or mottled appearance. Attacked leaves turn bronze, or rusty, purple or yellow brown color, and stems turn brown. Fruits can crack.
reduce dust.Irrigate in a manner that will avoid plant stress. Overhead watering has been shown to reduce mite problems, but it can increase some diseases.Install living windbreaks around the field.Leave a distance between the crop and the field borders.Remove and destroy heavily-infested plants during the season.Avoid water and nutrient stress by applying mulch and incorporate organic matter into the soil. Keep the field free of weeds.Remove and destroy crop residues after harvest.
dimethoate
Natural oils, neem oil and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.
Biolab biocontrols:predatory miteslacewings
Baluchistan melon fly, Myiopardalis pardalina
A small black fly with a yellow spot on the top of the front of the abdomen and black smoky striped wings. Flies lay eggs on fruit; larvae bore in and ruin fruit quality.
Remove weeds in and around the field.Collect damaged and fallen fruits with holes and burry at least 75cm deep, apply pesticide to the soil surface.Use baits containing hydrolysate with a pesticide to trap and kill adults.Ants are natural enemies of melon fly.Use recommended plant spacings, do not plant seeds too close.Winter suppression: Till area under infested melons to kill pupae.Sanitation: Destroy infested melons before larvae emerge.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Leaf miners attack a wide variety of vegetable crops, particularly in the seedling stage, often grown in proximity to Cole crops. Adults are tiny black flies with a bright yellow spot
Use yellow and green sticky traps to monitor and reduce populations. Use microtunnel covers to exclude leaf miners.Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps normally
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extract
109
on their thorax. Females puncture leaves to feed on plant sap and lay eggs within the leaf tissues. After 2 to 4 days, the eggs hatch and larvae feed between the upper and lower surface of leaves, as they move in their tunnels. Larvae emerge from the leaf mines and pupate on the leaf surface or, more commonly, drop from the plants to land in cracks in the soil. Many generations may occur each year, and the entire life cycle can be completed in less than 3 weeks when the weather is warm. Leaf miners can reduce the plant's photosynthetic capacity, render edible leaf portions unmarketable, and provide an entrance for pathogenic organisms.
control leaf miners, if not killed by pesticide overuse. Rotate with non-host crops and plan the arrangement of fields so that old infested fields do not provide a reservoir of infestation for subsequent crops.Destroy leaf miner pupae in the soil by plowing and tilling, by solarization, and, on heavy soils, by flood irrigation.
Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Whiteflies are tiny, 2 mm, white, insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They occur in groups on the undersides of leaves, laying eggs, which develop into nymphs that also suck plant sap from the leaves. Outbreaks, leading to leaf-wilting and death under drought stress,
Controlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids, Encarsia species, lady beetles, and minute pirate bugs.Yellow sticky traps may be used for monitoring when whiteflies enter the field but cannot prevent the spread.Do intercropping and
Apply an insecticide before whitefly numbers reach more than 2 adults per leaf.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
110
often occurs when the natural biological control is disrupted by over-use of pesticides.
interplanting crops.Ensure good growing conditions for the crop. Avoid application of high doses of nitrogen fertilizer. After the last harvest, destroy all crop residues.
Biolab biocontrols:Beauveria bassianalacewingspredatory lady beetles
Fruit flies, Dacus bivittatus, D. ciliatus, Bactrocera cucurbitae
Fruit flies cause direct damage by puncturing the fruit skin to lay eggs. During egg laying, bacteria from the intestinal flora of the fly are introduced into the fruit, which cause rotting of the tissues surrounding the egg. When the eggs hatch, the maggots feed on the fruit flesh making galleries. These wounds provide entry for pathogens and increase the fruit decay, making fruits unsuitable for human consumption. Fruits can fall to the ground as, or just before the maggots pupate. Fruit flies pose quarantine restrictions for export of the fruit.
A major constraint that limits production in the Sahel.
Use shallow plowing.Use yellow sticky or pheromone traps for monitoring.Twice a week, for the entire season remove fruits with dimples oozing clear sap.Bury infested fruits at least 50 cm deep. Practice early harvesting. Bagging works well with watermelon. Set out fruit fly traps baited with Curelure product, if available.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Small (3-4mm) grayish-brown bugs that feed by piercing/sucking, causing seedlings to wilt.
Use of row covers screens to exclude chinch bugs from the field or greenhouse.Monitor adjacent grasslands and pastures, burn, cultivate and/or treat migrating populations before they enter into the crop.Removal of weeds in and around field or greenhouse.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Weeds of Cucurbits Grass weed leaves are long and thin. Broadleaf weed leaves are broad, round or ovate. Weeds outcompete the crop for soil nutrients, water and light. They can be controlled prior to planting and plant emergence, and after plant emergence.
Cultivate weeds under before they set seed in rotation crops.Pre-irrigate before planting crop and cultivate or spray weeds that emerge.Plant or transplant cucurbits into uniform beds and use a precision planting system that puts crop in straight line that will allow cultivation close to the seed line.Use mulches to smother weeds near plants.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Before planting, use: glyphosateoxyfluorfen
Soybean Detailed Agronomic Information
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; Other USA state extension and technical websites CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific name: Glycine max
Origins: Soybean varieties originate from China where native tribes domesticated and hybridized them 13,000-19,000 years ago. These are now grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of the world. This crop was transported by Europeans to Europe during the 1700s.
Best Soils and pH: Soybeans generally perform well at soil pH levels between 6.0 and 7.0 in well-drained, loamy soil. However, the optimal range is between 6.3 and 6.5 as this range maximizes nutrient availability and biological nitrogen fixation. Avoid soils with crusts which will impede emergence. Use healthy, fertile, workable soil for growing soybeans. Soybeans are sensitive to low pH. In acid soils, liming is essential to raise the pH to 6.0 or 6.5 and to obtain optimum yield. Manganese, iron and aluminum toxicity is common with low pH, and deficiencies are common with high pH.
Best Growth Temperature Range: The optimum temperature for soybean germination is 30 degrees C. It stops growth at 10-15 degrees C.
Best Altitudes: 0-2000 meters above sea level.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: 400-500 mm of rainfall well distributed throughout the growing season.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: Sow the seeds at the depth of 2.5 to 4 cm. Soybeans are sown in rows 40-50 cm apart and within rows the seeds are either drilled or planted 10 cm apart. Seed rate is 60-70 kg/ha. Seed is
often broadcast after the rice harvest. The amount of seed to sow per hectare depends on seed weight, germination percentage, and plant spacing (shown on the seed bag). Time to emergence varies with seed quality, and soil temperature, moisture, and texture.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. Use 53 kg per hectare of P2O5 or 100 kg per hectare of monoammonium phosphate (MAP) or 110 kg per hectare of diammonium phosphate (DAP). On harder soils, add organic matter in the forms of compost and well-composted manure.
Maturity: 2.5 to 6 months, depending on variety and growing conditions.
SoybeansPrimary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Bollworms are large caterpillars, 12-20 cm long, brown-green, with stripes on each side. They have stiff hairs on each abdominal segment that differentiate them from cutworms and armyworms. Adults are brown moths, 1.5-2 cm long. White eggs are laid individually or in small groups on leaves. High populations inflict significant damage, particularly during droughts, if larvae consume flowers and pegs during podding. Vigorously growing plants with adequate available moisture are better able to replace damaged leaves and compensate for flower and pod damage.
Removal of weeds in and around field or greenhouse.Use of window and ventilation screens to exclude adult moths from greenhouse.Trichogramma wasps provide some control of tomato fruit worm eggs.Make and use pheromone (with Helilure) or light traps to capture adult moths and determine when females are flying, mating, and egg-laying.Check for and conserve natural predators and parasites that can control large numbers of Helicoverpa larvae.Use insect pheromone traps near the field to monitor for presence, to know when to monitor for eggs.Two weeks before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy larvae and adults harboring in those weeds and grasses. Plow, disc and harrow fields at least two times before sowing seeds to expose pupae to predators. Sow seeds thinly and remove competing weeds to produce vigorous plants, which are more likely to withstand pests and diseases. Avoid planting crops
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Use proper timing and thorough coverage (once larvae enter the tomato, control with insecticides is difficult).
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
successively that are hosts, like corn, cotton, sorghum, tobacco and soybean.
Soybean Aphid,Aphis glycines
Aphids are small (2-3mm) green, brown, yellow and black colored insects with two pegs sticking up on the top of the abdomen. Many aphid species attack stone fruit crops. Aphids are mainly found on young shoots and on the underside of leaves. Aphids use piercing-sucking mouthparts to remove plant sap and are most important as vectors of viruses.
Monitor and sample for aphid populations.Many natural enemies include damsel bugs, big-eyed bugs, green lacewings, minute pirate bugs and numerous parasitic wasps.Use resistant varieties.Early planting avoids many severe aphid problems.
Treatment threshold for late vegetative through R5 stage soybeans is 250 aphids per plant with 80% of the plants infested and populations increasing.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Biolab biocontrols:Beauveria bassianalacewingspredatory lady beetles
Leaf beetles, Ceratoma spp Ceratoma beetles are red, green, golden or brown with black checkered elytra. They eat holes in leaves.
Monitor and sample for beetle populations.
Use synthetic insecticides containing imidacloprid or permethrin.
Biolab biocontrols:Beauveria bassiana
Spider mites, Tetranychus urticae
Mites are tiny 8-legged arthropods that feed with piercing mouthparts, in groups on leaf undersides. Spider mites usually produce webbing to protect themselves. Extensive feeding causes leaf wilt and death and is exacerbated by warm dry weather and drought.
First symptoms of spider
Preserve natural enemies of mites by avoiding early season, broad-spectrum insecticide applications. The most important predator early in the season is the western flower thrips. Later, big-eyed bugs, minute pirate bugs, predaceous mites, and other predators are important. Use continuous scouting
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:dimethoate
Natural oils, neem oil and
114
SoybeansPrimary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
mite feeding are usually clusters of yellow spots on the upper surface of leaves, which may also appear chlorotic and get a speckled or mottled appearance. Attacked leaves turn bronze, or rusty, purple or yellow brown color, and stems turn brown. Fruits can crack.
and monitoring to locate “hot spots” where mite infestations are heavy; treat hot spots.Keep crop properly irrigated.Sprinkler irrigation suppresses mites.
soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.
Biolab biocontrols:predatory miteslacewings
Nematodes,Meloidogyne spp
Microscopic nematodes feed within plant root zones on newly developed roots. Root-knot nematodes enter and cause galls of up to 3 cm in diameter to appear on roots as quickly as a month after planting. Nematode feeding interferes with the flow of water and nutrients to the plant. Infected plants are prone to wilt in hot weather and respond poorly to fertilizer; young plants may experience reduced vigor, slow growth, and stunting.
Use of resistant cultivars and grow healthy plants (use appropriate seed, spacing, watering, weeding and fertilizer).Use Soil solarization using plastic. Use crop rotation, deep plowing, fallowing and avoid mono cropping. Rotate with broccoli, cauliflower, sorghum, Sudan grass, rape, and mustard seed which are resistant to nematodes. Sanitation: Remove and compost crop debris (do not compost weeds that have flowered and set seed). Use of organic fertilizer particularly chicken manure and composts to add organic matter and soil structure to sandy soils.Growing flax, a tropical herb, is good for controlling root knot nematodes. African and French marigold (Tagetes minuta and T. patula, respectively) plowed under the soil also suppress and reduce nematodes. Plant and plow under 2 months later.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Not economical or safe for smallholder farmers to control with synthetic nematicides.
Instead, do biofumigation of the soil by growing, shredding and plowing under crucifers, and covering the soil with mulch or plastic, if available, until just before planting crop. Rotting crucifers produce toxic gasses that kill nematodes and covering with plastic increases efficacy.
115
SoybeansPrimary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Weeds of Soybeans Grass weed leaves are long and thin. Broadleaf weed leaves are broad, round or ovate. Weeds outcompete the crop for soil nutrients, water and light. They can be controlled prior to planting and plant emergence, and after plant emergence.
Cultivate weeds under before they set seed in rotation crops.Pre-irrigate before planting crop and cultivate or spray weeds that emerge.Plant or transplant cucurbits into uniform beds and use a precision planting system that puts crop in straight line that will allow cultivation close to the seed line.Use mulches to smother weeds near plants.
Before planting, use:
glyphosateoxyfluorfen
Maize / Corn Detailed Agronomic Information
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; Other USA state extension and technical websites CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific name: Maize, Zea mays
Origins: Maize, also called corn, varieties originate from Mexico, where they were domesticated and hybridized over the past 10,000 years by native tribes and grown in association with beans and squash. Sorghum originated from northeastern Africa 10,000 years ago and spread from there to other parts of Africa and on to Asia.
Best Soils and pH: Well-drained deep, rich soils where soil pH is in the range of 5.5 to 7.0. Soils should be cultivated deeply to break up hardpan so that the taproot can penetrate. Maize and sorghum can be adversely affected by soil crusting.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Maize is a warm-season crop well adapted from the tropics and temperate zones. Germination is best at temperatures above 10 degrees C. It grows best at 21 to 30 degrees C.
Best Altitudes: 0-2200 meters above sea level for maize, depending on variety.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: 600-900 mm of rainfall, well distributed throughout the growing season.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: By seed 5 cm deep at 36,000 to 60,000 plants per hectare. The amount of seed to sow per hectare depends on seed weight, germination percentage, and plant spacing (shown on the seed bag). Prepare spacing of 75 cm between rows and 25 cm between seeds. Good spacing helps better crop growth, makes it easier to weed and reduces the spread of pests and diseases.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. Maize has a high demand for nitrogen. Use farmyard manure and green manures to increase fertility. Nitrogen uptake increases to a maximum during ear formation and tasseling. High nitrogen levels should be applied in three doses, the first at planting, the second when the crop is about 50 cm tall, and the third at silking. In general, for high yields, use 120 kg nitrogen, 40 kg of phosphorous and 80 kg of potassium per hectare. Lower amounts will result in lower yields. On harder soils, add organic matter in the forms of compost and well-composted manure.
Maturity: 3-8 months, depending on variety and growing conditions (primarily altitude, higher is cooler and requires more time).
Corn / MaizePrimary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Armyworms: Fall Armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda; African Armyworm, Spodoptera exempta
Please see USAID’s FAW PERSUAP for more details.
Armyworms are highly polyphagous, feeding on many plants. The adults are large, 1.5-2cm, brown migratory moths with silver markings on the wings occur in outbreaks.
Damage first appears as skeletonized leaves, followed by irregular holes, shallow, dry wounds on pods, and finally completely defoliated plants. By the second or third instar, larvae begin to make holes in leaves, and eat from the edge of the leaves inward. Fully‐grown larvae are 3.1 – 3.8 cm long and vary in color from pale green to almost black, with three yellowish stripes running down the back. There is a wider dark stripe and a wavy yellow‐red blotched stripe on each side. The FAW’s head has a predominant white, inverted Y‐shaped suture between the eyes. They move and feed in groups at night and hide under debris during the day. Feeding in the whorl of corn often produces a characteristic row of large round perforations in the leaves and may destroy the
Choose tolerant and resistant cultivars. Plow and harrow field thoroughly.Biological control: Promote the protection, production and use of egg parasitoids Telenomus spp. Remove weeds in and around field regularly to reduce breeding sites and shelter for armyworm. Pheromone traps placed along the edges of fields may be used to monitor presence and relative abundance of adult moths.Intercrop with beans, squash.Start monitoring before seedlings emerge by checking for egg masses and young larvae in surrounding weeds. Remove all plant debris after harvesting. Rotate to sweet potato, soybean
Treat if an average of 8 or more worms are found per 3 meter-row sample.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
growing tip. Heavy infestations of caterpillars may feed on ears as well.
Maize Earworm (also called Tomato Fruitworm, Pulse Pod Borer and Cotton Bollworm), Helicoverpa (Heliothis) armigera
Earworms are ubiquitous large, 12-20 mm long, brown-green caterpillars, with stripes on each side. They have stiff hairs on each abdominal segment that differentiate them from cutworms and armyworms. Adults fly at night and lay eggs on maize silks, as well as the fruits of several vegetable crops. Larvae hatch, feed on the silks and try to enter the distal end of the cob to feed on developing grain. Once inside they chew grains and leave masses of brown frass, ruining much of the tip of the ear and allowing for infection by ear rots that produce aflatoxins.
Two weeks before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy resident earworm larvae and adults Plow, disc and harrow fields before sowing seeds to expose pupae to chickens, birds, ants and other predatorsSow seeds thinly and remove competing weeds to produce vigorous plants, which are more likely to withstand damage.Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts to earworm like cotton, sorghum, tobacco and soybean. Use pheromone traps to monitor for adult moths.Remove discarded ears.
Threshold of 10 moths per trap per night for sweet corn.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Grass weed leaves are long and thin. Broadleaf weed leaves are broad, round or ovate. Weeds outcompete the crop for soil nutrients, water and light. They can be controlled prior to planting and plant emergence, and after plant emergence.
Monitor and identify weed species present.Use fallow practices.Sanitation: To reduce seed production, disc or mow harvested fields before weeds flower and produce seeds. Cultivation equipment and irrigation water must also be kept free of weed seeds and vegetative propagules to avoid spreading weed populations. Cultivate areas around the field such as field edges, fence lines, roadsides, and irrigation ditches regularly to prevent weed seed production. To reduce seed production, disc or mow harvested
If needed, use glyphosate
If farm size served increases or is considered commercial, the project could promote or use the following
Prior to planting:
glyphosates-metolachlor
At planting:
glyphosates-metolachlorpendimethalin
After planting:
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Corn / MaizePrimary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
fields before weeds flower and produce seeds. Pre-plant plowing, followed by irrigation and one or two diskings before bed formation, will destroy many weeds.Regularly clean farm tools.Use green manure that chokes out weeds.Use intercropping.Hand weeding during their earlier growing period. Do not let the weeds flower (do not compost weeds that have flowered and set seed). Hoeing, mowing, and cutting.
dicambaglyphosatemetribuzinpendimethalin
Sunflower Detailed Agronomic Information
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; Other USA state extension and technical websites CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific name: Helianthus annuus
Origins: Sunflower is native to North America, where it was domesticated and hybridized over the past 3,000 years by native tribes. It was commercialized in Russia.
Best Soils and pH: Sunflowers grow best in full sun and in any kind of soil as long as it is not waterlogged. They do fine in soils pH 6.0 to 7.5.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Sunflowers grow best at 21 to 26 degrees C, with soil temperatures of at least 12 to 15 degrees when the seeds are sown.
Best Altitudes: 0-2200 meters above sea level, depending on variety.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: 1300-1400 mm of rainfall, well distributed throughout the growing season.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: By seed or cuttings. Rate depends on variety, seed weight, germination percentage, and plant spacing (shown on the seed bag). Good spacing helps better crop growth, makes it easier to weed and reduces the spread of pests and diseases.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. In general, sunflowers do not require fertilizing unless they are grown on very poor soil. In that case, use slow-release granular fertilizers. On harder soils, add organic matter in the forms of compost and well-composted manure.
Maturity: 2.5-4 months, depending on variety and growing conditions (primarily altitude, higher is cooler and requires more time).
SunflowerPrimary Pest, Disease, Weed species
Pest, Damage descriptions
Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate
Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed
Aphids (several species) Aphids are small (2-3mm) green, brown, yellow and black colored insects with two pegs sticking up on the top of the abdomen. Many aphid species attack stone fruit crops. Aphids are mainly found on young shoots and on the underside of leaves. Aphids use piercing-sucking mouthparts to remove plant sap and are most important as vectors of viruses.
Many natural enemies and parasites control aphids. Eliminate ant colonies near field.Do not over-apply nitrogen fertilizers.Aluminum foil or gray mulches deter aphids.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
These are large (4-5cm) brown or striped orange and black caterpillars that feed on sunflower leaves, often defoliating plants. Adult moths are orange or white with black spots.
Use resistant cultivars.Eliminate nearby weeds.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Thrips are tiny, 1-2mm, dark slender insects with fringed wings. They are seasonally transported northwards on rain/wind storms. They feed by puncturing plant tissue and sucking out the cell contents. Nymphs and adults may damage the terminal buds and flowers, causing flower drop, leading to no seed development, which, under heavy infestation, can lead to yield losses of up to 100%.
Use resistant cultivars.Use reflective mulches.Maintain good plant vigor with irrigation and fertilization.Floating row covers can exclude thrips and other pests.Sanitation: Remove and dispose of old, spent flowers.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
No pesticide provides complete control of thrips.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extractnarrow range oils
Weeds of Sunflower Grass weed leaves are long and thin. Broadleaf weed leaves are broad, round or ovate. Weeds outcompete the crop for soil nutrients, water and light. They can be controlled prior to planting and plant emergence, and after plant emergence.
Monitor and identify weed species present.Use fallow practices.Sanitation: To reduce seed production, disc or mow harvested fields before weeds flower and produce seeds. Cultivation equipment and irrigation water must also be kept free of weed seeds and vegetative propagules to avoid spreading weed populations. Cultivate areas around the field such as field edges, fence lines, roadsides, and irrigation ditches regularly to prevent weed seed production. To reduce seed production, disc or mow harvested fields before weeds flower and produce seeds. Pre-plant plowing, followed by irrigation and one or two diskings before bed formation, will destroy many weeds.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
If needed, use glyphosate
If farm size served increases or is considered commercial, the project could promote or use the following:
Regularly clean farm tools.Use green manure that chokes out weeds.Use intercropping.Hand weeding during their earlier growing period. Do not let the weeds flower (do not compost weeds that have flowered and set seed). Hoeing, mowing, and cutting.
Sugar Cane Detailed Agronomic Information
Agronomic Data Sources: Former Soviet Union AgroAtlas, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about UC Davis IPM, http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; Other USA state extension and technical websites CABI Plantwise Guides, http://www.plantwise.org
Scientific name: Saccharum spp
Origins: Sugarcane, was domesticated and hybridized over the past 6,000 years by native tribes in Southeast Asia.
Best Soils and pH: Sugarcane grows on almost all classes of soil, but it needs fertile, well-drained 100 to 150 cm deep with good drainage and sandy loam soil textures with a pH range from 6.0 to 6.5.
Best Growth Temperature Range: Sugarcane are grown for 10 months at 27°, considered the optimal temperature, and at low temperature (15°) and high temperature (45°).
Best Altitudes: 0-1000 meters above sea level, depending on variety.
Best Rainfall Amounts and Distribution: 100 cm to 175 cm rainfall is ideal for sugarcane production, well distributed throughout the growing season.
Propagation, Sowing Depth and Planting Density: By cuttings into sections between 20 and 30 cm long. The stalk has rings, or nodes, around it and they're spaced about 6 inches apart. A new plant will grow from each node. Try to cut the cane so that you'll have at least two nodes per section. Plant in ridges and furrows with a spacing of 60–135 cm between the rows, the most common spacing being 90 cm.
Fertilizer: Depends on soil test results and calculated nitrogen budget. After soil pH, the second most important component should be nitrogen, followed by potassium and sulfur. The lowest priority should be phosphorus. The recommended amount of nitrogen is based on 1 Kg N per ton of expected plant cane, and 1.25 - 1.50 Kg of N per ton of cane expected for ratoon crops. Nitrogen must be applied at an early stage of growth. For a 12 months crop, the entire amount should be applied within 3-4 months after planting.
Maturity: 10-18 months, depending on variety and growing conditions.
Mites are tiny (0.5-.08mm) 8-legged acarids seen with a hand-lens that feed with piercing mouthparts, in groups on leaf undersides.
Mite feeding stunts and malforms the leaves and buds, causes leaf drop and arrests plant growth, resulting in stubby growth. Young canes are more heavily attacked. Yield can be greatly reduced.
Preserve natural enemies of mites by avoiding early season, broad-spectrum insecticide applications. The most important predator early in the season is the western flower thrips. Later, big-eyed bugs, minute pirate bugs, predaceous mites, and other predators are important. Use continuous scouting and monitoring to locate “hot spots” where mite infestations are heavy; treat hot spots.Keep crop properly irrigated.Sprinkler irrigation suppresses mites.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Synthetic pesticides:dimethoate
Natural oils, neem oil and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.
Biolab biocontrols:predatory miteslacewings
Sugarcane Aphid, Melanaphis sacchari
Aphids are small (2-3mm) green, brown, yellow and black colored insects with two pegs sticking up on the top of the abdomen. Many aphid species attack stone fruit crops. Aphids are mainly found on young shoots and on the underside of leaves. Aphids use piercing-sucking mouthparts to remove plant sap and are most important as vectors of viruses.
Use resistant varieties.Natural enemies that control aphids include green and brown lacewings, lady beetles, Syrphid fly larvae. Use yellow or blue sticky traps for monitoring.Prune the tree crown to open it to sun, wind, parasites and predators.Control weeds in and around the planting.Sanitation: prune, remove and destroy heavily-infested plant parts.
No reasonable treatment threshold found.
Contact insecticides have limited impact as plants enter the cupping stage.
Artisanal pesticides:garlic extractNeem tree seed extract/oilschili pepper extractPyrethrum flower extract
Annex 2. Guidelines for Pest Management Plans (PMPs) for Turkmenistan Crops and Beneficiaries
What is a PMP24?
Pest Management Plans or Guides provide field crop, livestock production or project decision-makers – farmers and farm managers – with best production practices recommendations, usually adapted by region, crop phenology and seasons. The aims of PMPs are to reduce the risks to production from pests by using a combination of best practices, including IPM, IVM and Integrated Weed Management (IWM), that maximize crop or livestock health, and thus resilience to or tolerance of pests, and without an over-reliance on pesticides needed when best practices are not followed. Thus, prevention of pests plays a strongly pivotal role in the PMP, followed closely by management of pests when prevention alone is not adequate for the level of control needed or desired.
Who are the PMP’s intended audiences and users?
Farm land preparation and crop production/livestock and project decision-makers Farmers Farm managers
Why is a PMP being done?
PMP Objectives:
Prevent or reduce pest damage risk to agricultural production or health Protect the health of farmers, farm family members, laborers and community members from pesticide risks Maintain economically sound practices Reduce environmental pollution and degradation risks Enhance the overall quality and quantity of biodiversity on the sustainable farm work environment Respond to foreign market demand for the use of agriculture sector best management practice standards, also
called Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) which include IPM measures, to achieve farm and produce certification Comply with local, regional, donor and international laws, conventions, and regulations
Organization of the PMP
The following pieces of crop- or livestock-specific background information are used to build a PMP base
General information on the crop/livestock/sector Crop/livestock common/species names: Crop/livestock developmental stages: Production regions and how they differ by soil type, pH, fertility, etc Overall concerns and priorities for crop/livestock production Crop/livestock cultural best practices Crop/livestock Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) including some IPM (see PERSUAP section on GAPS and
IPM) recommendations
Individual Pest Prevention and Management Sections for each of the following pest types:
24 PMPs or Year-Round (seasonal) IPM Programs are state of the art in many developed countries, and they help institutionalize IPM in planning and practice. PMPs provide agriculture managers and farmers with a tool to predict and prevent many crop pests of each crop throughout a season. See examples of PMPs at http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html, upper left corner under “Year-Round IPM Programs”. Projects may use or modify PMPs as they see fit.
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Vertebrates (birds, rodents, other)
For each pest type, first, identify overall priorities for pest prevention and management in the target crop or livestock.
Next, identify individual pest species noting the type of damage incurred; part of plant damaged: roots/rhizomes/tubers, stems/stalks, leaves, florescence, or seeds (field or stored); or if livestock, part of animal affected.
To best understand how to manage a pest, one needs to understand how, where, when and on what parts of the plant or animal the pest feeds. For field pests and stored grain/food pests, many PMPs are designed and outlined as follows containing the following information, for each major species of pest (insects, mites, slugs/snails, nematodes):
Photographs of each pest, life stages Photographs of plant or livestock damage Description of the pest, life cycle and survival strategies25: Description of damage symptoms Best Prevention Practices
o Use any and all of the above GAPs including IPM o Country or region-specific information
Best Management Practiceso Focus on prevention (above) o Country or region-specific information
Information on PMP-recommended pesticides:
Information needed for each pesticide referenced in the above PMP, by pest (so the farmer/farm manager has the information at their fingertips and do not need to refer to other documents and tables to find it):
Pesticide essential information needed
Active Ingredient (AI) name Product Trade names (with EPA and WHO Acute Toxicity Classifications in parenthesis) Amounts to use per hectare PHI Special comments on best application methods and frequency Specialized training/certification/permits for use of RUPs Any resistance management strategies needed Pesticide application record sheet Guidelines for reducing spray drift Re-entry interval (REI): field safe re-entry period after spraying Maximum residue levels (MRL) permitted by markets26
Pesticide precautions with use including Reading the label Legal responsibilities and permitted registration uses Permit requirements for possession and use Recommended and obligated use of PPE and best practices First aid and antidotes Transportation best practices Storage best practices
25 Survival strategies: All pests have survival strategies that allow them to live and breed in each crop’s farming systems. Knowing the survival strategies, including overwintering habit and alternate host plants, that are employed by the pest can help with decision making at the farming systems-level (e.g. choice of rotation crops) and also can help to anticipate pest outbreaks.
Safe use best practices Container disposal best practices Leftover pesticide disposal best practices Protection of non-pest animals, plants, endangered species and water body quality Protect natural enemies & honeybees: http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r584310111.html Posting signage in treated fields Some chemicals not permitted on processed crops Potential for phytotoxicity (crop injury) on some crops Documentation and record-keeping on farms
Information needed on Natural Enemies of Pests:
Common Names of Predators and Parasitoids effective against above pests: For a list of common natural enemies of crop pests, see http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/index.html and for CAR, http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/about. Genera will likely be the same around the world, with different species in different continents, filling similar niches.
Additional Information Needed:
Will there be an IPM Coordinator, an IPM Advisory Committee, Education and Licensing for Applicators, Currency and Approval of the PMP?
Although farmers on USAID projects are likely using numerous IPM tactics, without really calling them that, IPM philosophy or planning is not generally an active part of crop production in Turkmenistan plots; thus, a basic understanding of the steps or elements needed in an IPM program are addressed below, following FAO’s Farmer Field School methodology used in Asia, parts of which were adopted from USDA’s Extension System Concept27.
Step 1: Learn and value farmers’ indigenous IPM tactics. Most farmers are already using their own forms of GAPs and IPM, many of which are novel, self-created, adapted for local conditions, and many of which work well. These local tools and tactics need to be well understood and taken into account when making PMPs. Accurate assessments of these farmer’s GAP and IPM technologies, as well as an understanding of actual losses due to different constraints in farmers’ fields are required before designing a crop production and pest management program. S&C farmers will have records of historical pesticide use and trends, as well as information on current use of artisanal or local IPM tactics.
Step 2: Identify key pests for each target crop. Although perhaps up to ten species of pests may impact a crop and yields at different plant growth stages, generally only two or three are considered serious enough to spend money controlling. Farmers should be encouraged to monitor their population size, their life cycle, the kind of damage they cause and actual losses. Note that crop loss figures based on farmers’ perceptions of damage and loss are often overestimated.
Step 3: Evaluate all management options. Use of best management practices, preventive measures, and “organic” options to control pest impacts may eliminate the need for synthetic pesticides.
Step 4: Choose IPM methods, identify Needs and Establish Priorities. Continue dialog with project field staff, ministry extension staff and farmers when choosing methods to be used. Consider the feasibility of attractive methods, including the availability of resources needed, farmers’ perceptions of pest problems, their abilities to identify pests, their predators, diseases and parasites, and to act upon their observations.
Step 5: Do effective activities and training to promote IPM. Next, identify strategies and mechanisms for fostering the transfer of the needed IPM technology under various project and institutional arrangements, mechanisms, and funding levels. Define what is available for immediate transfer and what may require more adaptation and validation research. Set up an initial planning workshop (with a COP-supported and signed Action Plan) to help define and orient implementation activities, and begin to assign individual responsibilities.Learning-by-doing/discovery training programs The adoption of new techniques by small-, medium- and large-holder farmers occurs most readily when program participants acquire knowledge and skills through personal experience, observation, analysis, experimentation, decision-making and practice. At first, frequent (usually weekly) sessions are conducted for 10–20 farmers during the cropping season in farmers’ fields by trained instructors or extension agents. Smallholder support and discussion groups Weekly meetings of smallholders, held during the cropping season, to discuss pest and related problems can be useful for sharing the success of various control methods. However, maintaining attendance is difficult except when there is a clear financial incentive (e.g., credit).Educational materialIn many countries, basic written and photographic guides to pest identification and crop-specific management techniques are unavailable or out of date. Videos featuring graphic pictures of the effects of acute and chronic pesticide exposure, and interviews with poisoning victims can be particularly effective. Youth education Promoting and improving the quality of programs on IPM and the risks of synthetic pesticides has been effective at technical schools for rural youth. In addition to becoming future farmers, these students can bring informed views back to their communities.Food market incentives (especially important in the last decade)
Promoting Organic, GlobalGAP, British Retail Consortium (BRC), Fair Trade or other certification for access to the lucrative and rapidly growing S&C systems-driven international and regional food markets can be, and is, a strong incentive to adopt IPM.
Step 6: Partner successfully with other IPM implementers. The following design steps are considered essential. Articulate the partnership’s vision of IPM Organizations may forge partnerships based on a common commitment to “IPM” – only to discover too late that that their visions of IPM differ considerably. It is therefore highly important that partners articulate a common, detailed vision of IPM, centered on the crops and conditions the project will encounter.Confirm partner institutions’ commitmentThe extent of commitment to IPM integration into project, design, and thus implementation depends strongly upon the following key variables: IPM program integration into larger project. The IPM program is likely to be part of a larger “sustainable agriculture” project. The IPM program must fit into a partner’s overall goals. The extent of this integration should be clearly expressed in the proposed annual work plan.Cost sharing. The extent of funds (or in-kind resources) is a good measure of a genuine partner commitment.Participation of key IPM personnel. Organizations should have staff with expertise in IPM. In strong partnerships, these staff members are actively involved in the partnership.
Step 7: Monitor the fields regularly. At minimum twice a week, farmers should monitor their fields for pests, as some pest populations increase rapidly and unexpectedly; this increase is usually related closely to the stage of crop growth and weather conditions, but it is difficult to predict the severity of pest problems in advance.
Step 8: Select an appropriate blend of IPM tools. A good IPM program draws from and integrates a variety of pest management techniques, like those presented in the above list. Flexibility to fit local needs is a key variable. Pesticides should be used only if no practical, effective, and economic non-chemical control methods are available. Once the pesticide has been carefully chosen for the pest, crop, and environment, it should be applied only to keep the pest population low, not necessarily eliminate it.
Step 9: Develop education, training, and demonstration programs for extension workers. Implementation of IPM depends heavily on education, training, and demonstration to help farmers and extension workers develop and evaluate the IPM methods. Hands-on training conducted in farmers’ fields (as opposed to a classroom) is a must. Special training for extension workers and educational programs for government officials and the public are also important.
Step 10: Monitoring, Record-Keeping and Evaluation (M&E). Develop data collection forms and checklists, collect baseline GAP/IPM data at the beginning of the project, and set targets. For the use and maintenance of Good Agriculture Practices (that include safe pesticide storage, use and disposal), maintain farm or project files of: farmer and farm employee training records certification; farm soil, water, biodiversity, cropping and pesticide use maps; pesticide purchase and stock records; chemical application instructions including target pest, type of chemical applied, dosage, time of spray, rates at which pesticides were applied, harvest interval days, application machinery, PPE required and used, and any special instructions on mixing, exposure to children or dangers. Further, for project staff, beneficiaries, produce processing facilities, food warehouses, seed multipliers, or farmers that store seed or food and deal with stored seed and food pests, there are warehouse BMPs and monitoring reports that incorporate some IPM tactics. These monitoring forms track, by location or warehouse, use of pallets, stacking, general hygiene and sanitation, damaged packages, actual infestations or signs of rodents, molds, insects, drainage, locks and security measures, use of IPM tactics including least toxic chemicals and strict BMPs for use of common but hazardous fumigants like aluminum phosphide.
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Annex 4. Toxicity of Pesticides: EPA, WHO and Russian Classifications
General Toxicity
Pesticides, by necessity, are poisons, but the toxicity and hazards of different compounds vary greatly. Toxicity refers to the inherent intoxicating ability of a compound whereas hazard refers to the risk or danger of poisoning when the pesticide is used or applied. Pesticide hazard depends not only on toxicity but also on the chance of exposure to toxic amounts of the pesticide. Pesticides can enter the body through oral ingestion, through the skin or through inhalation. Once inside the body, they may produce poisoning symptoms, which are either acute (from a single exposure) or chronic (from repeated exposures or absorption of smaller amounts of toxicant).
EPA and WHO and Russian Toxicity Classifications
Basically, there are two systems of pesticide toxicity classification. These are the USEPA and the WHO systems of classification. It is important to note that the WHO classification is based on the active ingredient only, whereas USEPA uses product formulations to determine the toxicity class of pesticides. So, WHO classification shows relative toxicities of all pesticide active (or technical) ingredients, whereas EPA classification shows actual toxicity of the formulated products, which can be more or less toxic than the active ingredient alone and are more representative of actual dangers encountered in the field. The tables below show classification of pesticides according to the two systems.
a) USEPA classification (based on formulated product = active ingredient plus inert and other ingredients28)
1 Corneal opacity not reversible within 7 days for Class I pesticides; corneal opacity reversible within 7 days but irritation persists during that period for Class II pesticides; no corneal opacity and irritation is reversible within 7 days for Class III pesticides; and Class IV pesticides cause no irritation2 Expressed in ppm or mg/l of water
b) WHO classification (based only on active or ‘technical’ ingredient29)
Class Descriptive term
Oral LD50 for the rat (mg/kg body wt)
Dermal LD50 for the rat (mg/kg body wt)
Solids Liquids Solids Liquids
Ia Extremely hazardous 5 20 10 40
Ib Highly hazardous 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400
II Moderately hazardous 50-500 20-2000 100-1000 400-4000
III Slightly hazardous 501 2001 1001 4001
U Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use 2000 3000 - -
c) Russian Federation Classification:
According to a German study (https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/capchemru_chemmgmntru_final.pdf), quoted below, we learn how Russia classifies pesticides for acute toxicity:
Matrix to determine the class of danger according to health effects (GOST 12.1.007-76)
Parameter Class of DangerI II III IV
Workplace air limit value, mg/m3
< 0,1 0,1-1,0 1,0-10,0 > 10
Oral LD50, mg/kg < 15 15-150 151-5 000 > 5 000
Skin LD50, mg/kg < 100 100-500 501-2 500 > 2 500
Inhalation LC50, mg/m3
< 500 500-5 000 5 001-50 000 > 5 000
Coefficient of intoxication by inhalation (KVIO) *
* Coefficient of intoxication by inhalation (KVIO): maximum possible concentration of the substance in air at 20 o C divided by LC50for mice. ** Zone of acute effects: LC50 of the substance divided by LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration) at the level of organism as a whole, exceeding the level of normal adaptational physiological reactions. *** Zone of chronic effects: LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration) at the level of or- Zone of chronic effects: LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration) at the level of or LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration) at the level of organism as a whole, exceeding the level of normal adaptational physiological reactions divided by the minimum concentration causing negative effect in chronic tests of the endpoints (exposure 4 hours, 5 days per week in duration not less than 4 months).
“In Russia, the classes of danger serve for classification purposes. They can be regarded as similar to the EU classification system as they have defined criteria and cut-off values to determine the class of danger. The main systematic difference is that the MPC values are used for the determination of the danger class, which includes the use of a coefficient, whereas in the EU system, primary data from testing are used. The danger classes are used to regulate substances in a generic way (not using lists or specific properties): Different legislation makes reference to “substances belonging to a certain danger class”. For example, substances in the danger classes I or II (regardless for which property) are not to be used in mixtures for consumers. The criteria for falling into a class (cut-off values) are defined usually by national standards (GOSTs, Gosudarstvennyy standard) and are specific for an endpoint and exposure route.”
“Hence, if a substance could fulfill the criteria of Class I for acute toxicity and of Class III for chronic toxicity, for the final classification, the lowest danger class is selected. In the case of mixtures, the most toxic substance in the mixture is to be identified and its LC50 or LD50 value is derived for the determination of the hazard class. The GOST 12.1.007-76 is defining hazard classes for the purpose of classification of hazardous substances and general safety requirements based on health effects. Substances are divided into four danger classes. The danger class I is the most hazardous and the danger class IV means that there are almost no hazards at all. The rating is the following: > Class I – extremely hazardous; > Class II – highly hazardous; > Class III – moderately hazardous; > Class IV – low hazard. The parameters considered while defining the danger class are presented in the Table above. For pesticides 5 classes of danger are used. Combined classification according to health and environmental effects in provided in the Table below.”
Matrix to determine the class of danger for pesticides [5] (based on GOST 12.1.005-76)
For additional guidance on Russian pesticide classification, and distinct differences with WHO and EPA, please see the following reference resource: Hygienic Classification of Pesticides in the Russian Federation:
Initial comparison of toxicity classes of active ingredients under EPA and Russian classification systems shows that ingeneral, active ingredients belong to the same class under both systems. Given that no formal study oncompatibility/interchangeability of toxicity classes is available, this conclusion must be further reconfirmed by USAIDprograms involved in pesticides procurement and use. If confirmed, then the programs will have to consider prohibitionfor the application of EPA toxicity class II pesticides listed in this PERSUAP for household procurement and use, asrequired by current Russian, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and other CIS national laws.
Annex 5: Analyses of Active Ingredients in Pesticides Registered by Turkmenistan in 2004 and approved by this 2019 document
Introduction to Annex 5, below
Annex 5 below compiles all of the AIs in pesticides (natural/artisanal and synthetic) for which BEO approval is being requested (also compiled in the Executive Summary) and registered for use in Turkmenistan. Then the EPA registration/restriction, acute and chronic human toxicity and ecotoxicological information is already researched and provided, in order for USAID projects to use it without needing to do a lengthy and time-consuming amendment or new PERSUAP.
What these matrices provide to USAID projects
Annex 5 presents acute human toxicity and chronic health issues, water pollution potential, and potential toxicities to important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee pollinators, birds and several aquatic organisms. Project decision-makers—especially those who interface at the field level with beneficiaries—are encouraged to look at this table as well as at the label and SDS of potential pesticide choices to determine the AIs contained in them and then use this Annex as a quick reference guide to human and environmental acute and chronic attributes and issues with each chemical.
The pesticide attributes include pesticide class (to manage resistance by rotating chemicals from different classes), EPA registration and Restricted Use Pesticide (RUP) status (to comply with Regulation 216) and acute toxicity (judged by this document to be safe, or not, for smallholder farmers—most Class I chemicals are not considered safe for smallholder farmers to use). Further, Annex 5 contains basic pieces of human safety and environmental data needed for the various analyses required throughout the PER 12-factor analysis.
Key to Annex 5 matrix, below:
RUP: Few = one or two products; Some = a third of products; Most/All = most or all products containing the AI are labeled RUP by EPA
WHO Acute Toxicity Classes: O = Obsolete; Ia = Extremely Hazardous; Ib = Highly Hazardous; II = Moderately Hazardous; III = Slightly Hazardous; U = Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use
EPA Acute Toxicity Classes: I = Extremely Toxic; II = Highly Toxic; III = Moderately Toxic; IV = Slightly Toxic
Chronic Human Toxicity: KC = Known Carcinogen; PC = Possible Carcinogen; LC = Likely Carcinogen; ED = Potential Endocrine Disruptor; RD = Potential Reproductive & Development Toxin; P = Parkinson’s Disease Risk
Ecotoxicity: NAT = Not Acutely Toxic; ST = Slightly Toxic; MT = Moderately Toxic; HT = Highly Toxic; VHT = Very Highly Toxic
Reference websites used to find pieces of data contained in Annex 5: See references at the end of the report.
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Turkmenistan Insecticides (I) and Miticide/Acaricides (M)Reg 216 Factors E & G: Ecotoxicity, Non-target Impacts
Insecticide and Miticide Active Ingredients proposed for control of crop pests and thus proposed for Reg 216 analysis
Reg 216, Factor I Availability of Other Pesticide Options: AI chemical classes for rotation to avoid development of resistance, and reduction of effectiveness (Factor F)
Reg 216, Factor A
: Is AI R
egistered in EU
?
Reg 216 Factor E: W
HO
Acute Toxicity
Class
Reg 216 Factor E: EPA
Acute Toxicity
Classes
Reg 216 Factor E: C
hronic Toxicity
Reg 216 Factors G
& H
(Non-target
ecosystem, H
ydrology): Groundw
ater contam
inant
fish
bees
birds
amphibians
worm
s
Mollusks
Crustaceans
Aquatic Insects
Plankton
acetamiprid (I, M) neonicotinoid yes NL III NL no data MT HT
cyromazine triazine IGR yes U III NL known MT HT MT MT MT dimethoate (I, M) organophosphate yes II II PC, ED, RD potential MT HT HT HT MT HT HT HT MTimidacloprid neonicotinoid yes II II, III NL potential MT HT HT MT HT HT HT
indoxacarb (HH, other) oxadiazine yes NL III NL no data MT HT HT MT
thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes NL III PC no data MT MT
135
Turkmenistan HerbicidesReg 216 Factors E & G: Ecotoxicity, Non-target Impacts
Herbicide Active Ingredients proposed for control of crop weeds and thus proposed for Reg 216 analysis
Reg 216, Factor I Availability of Other Pesticide Options: AI chemical classes for rotation to avoid development of resistance, and reduction of effectiveness (Factor F)
Reg 216, Factor A
: Is AI R
egistered in EU
?
Reg 216 Factor E: W
HO
Acute Toxicity
Class
Reg 216 Factor E: EPA
Acute Toxicity
Classes
Reg 216 Factor E: C
hronic Toxicity
Reg 216 Factors G
& H
(Non-target
ecosystem, H
ydrology): Groundw
ater contam
inant
fish
bees
birds
amphibians
worm
s
Mollusks
Crustaceans
Aquatic Insects
Plankton
bentazon benzothiazinone yes II III NL no data MT MT MT ST MTchlorsulfuron sulfonyl urea yes U III RD potential ST MT ST MT ST HTclodinafop/propargyl a propionic acid yes III II, III PC, RD no data HT MT MT
dicamba a benzoic acid yes II II, III RD potential ST MT MT MT ST
fenoxaprop-p-ethyl propionic acid yes NL II, III NL no data MT ST ST MT MT
fluazifop-p-butyl propionic acid yes III II, III NL no data MT ST ST
glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes III II, III NL potential ST ST MT ST
glyphosate, isopropylamine salt phosphonoglycine NL III II, III NL potential ST ST ST mecoprop-p/MCPP chlorophenoxy acid yes III II, III PC potential MT MT MT MT
metribuzin triazinone yes II II, III ED potential MT MT MT ST ST
oxyfluorfen diphehyl ether yes U II, III PC no data HT HT HT HT
pendimethalin dinitroanaline yes II III PC, ED no data MT ST MT MT
prometryn triazine no III III RD potential MT ST ST STquizalofop-p-ethyl a propionic acid yes NL I, III NL no data MT MT MT MT MTs-metolachlor chloroacetanilide yes NL III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MTtribenuron methyl sulfonylurea NL NL III PC no data ST MT ST MT
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Turkmenistan FungicidesReg 216 Factors E & G: Ecotoxicity, Non-target Impacts
Fungicide Active Ingredients proposed for control of crop diseases and thus proposed for Reg 216 analysis
Reg 216, Factor I Availability of Other Pesticide Options: AI chemical classes for rotation to avoid development of resistance, and reduction of effectiveness (Factor F)
Reg 216, Factor A
: Is AI R
egistered in EU
?
Reg 216 Factor E: W
HO
Acute Toxicity
Class
Reg 216 Factor E: EPA
Acute Toxicity
Classes
Reg 216 Factor E: C
hronic Toxicity
Reg 216 Factors G
& H
(Non-target
ecosystem, H
ydrology): Groundw
ater contam
inant
fish
bees
birds
amphibians
worm
s
Mollusks
Crustaceans
Aquatic Insects
Plankton
cyproconazole / siprokonazol azole yes II III PC no data MT MT MT MT MTdifenoconazole azole yes II III PC no data MT MT ST MT MT HT
mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HT
metalaxyl benzanoid yes III II, III NL potential ST STpropamocarb hydrochloride carbamate yes U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MTpropiconazole azole yes II II, III PC, RD potential MT MT ST MT MTtebuconazole azole yes II II, III PC potential MT MT MT MT MT MT HT
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Turkmenistan Natural Artisanal/Homemade Agriculture Pesticides
Natural homemade pesticide Active Ingredients proposed for control of crop pests and thus proposed for Reg 216 analysis
Reg 216, Factor I Availability of Other Pesticide Options: AI chemical classes for rotation to avoid development of resistance, and reduction of effectiveness (Factor F)
Reg 216, Factor A
: Any R
estricted U
se Pesticides with this A
I?
Reg 216 Factor E: W
HO
Acute
Toxicity Class
Reg 216 Factor E: EPA
Acute
Toxicity Classes
Reg 216 Factor E: C
hronic Toxicity
Reg 216 Factors G
& H
(Non-target
ecosystem, H
ydrology): G
roundwater contam
inant
fish
bees
birds
amphibians
worm
s
Mollusks
Crustaceans
Aquatic Insects
Plankton
allicin (garlic extract) botanical no NL III NL no data VHT HT HT MT MT MT VHT VHT ST
azadirachtin/neem tree extract botanical no NL III ED no data ST NAT NAT MT MT canola oil botanical no NL III NL no datacapsaicin/chili pepper extract botanical no NL III NL no data STcinnamaldehyde botanical (spice) no NL III NL no datacitronella oil botanical no NL II NL no data MT MTeucalyptus oil extract botanical no NL II, III NL no datageraniol (geranium extract) botanical no NL II NL no data MTlimonene/lemon oil botanical no NL III NL no data MT MT STpine (tar) oil botanical no NL III NL no datapyrethrins (Marigold extract) botanical no II III PC no data HT HT ST MT HTquassin (Quassia amara extract) botanical no NL NL NL no data
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Annex 6: Rejected Pesticide Active Ingredients in Products Registered in Turkmenistan: NOT to be used on USAID/Turkmenistan projects or by beneficiaries
Pesticides Rejected by this PERSUAP Analysis
The following are pesticide AIs and Products registered in 2019 for import and use in Turkmenistan but Rejected by this PERSUAP for use by USAID projects, along with the reason each is rejected. This list is to be used to IPs so that they can clearly see which Turkmenistan-registered pesticides are rejected, and so that they know, specifically, which ones they cannot be promoted or used with USAID resources. And, active ingredients are placed in alphabetical order, for IPs to more easily and quickly locate them.
2,4,5-T and its salts and esters Aldrin Binapacryl Captafol Chlordane Chlordimeform Chlorobenzilate DDT Dieldrin Dinitro-ortho-cresol (DNOC) and its salts (such as ammonium salt, potassium salt and sodium salt) Dinoseb and its salts and esters 1,2-dibromoethane(EDB) Ethylene dichloride Ethylene oxide Fluoroacetamide HCH (mixed isomers) Heptachlor Hexachlorobenzene Lindane Mercury compounds including inorganic mercury compounds, alkyl mercury compounds and alkyloxyalkyl and
aryl mercury compounds Monocrotophos Parathion Pentachlorophenol and its salts and esters Toxaphene Tributyltin compounds
Severely Hazardous Pesticide Formulations
Dustable powder formulations containing a combination of: benomyl at or above 7 per cent, carbofuran at above 10 per cent, thiram at or above 15 per cent.
Methamidophos (Soluble liquid formulations of the substance that exceed 600 g active ingredient/l) Phosphamidon (Soluble liquid formulations of the substance that exceed 1000 g active ingredient/l and mixtures
of (E)&(Z) isomers, (Z)-isomer, and (E)-isomer Methyl-parathion (emulsifiable concentrates (EC) at or above 19.5% active ingredient and dusts at or above 1.5%
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCT) Tetraethyl lead Tetramethyl lead Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Pesticides and Chemicals (http://www.pops.int)
Pesticides
AldrinChlordaneDichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT)*DieldrinEndosulfanEndrin—not on PIC listHeptachlorHexachlorobenzeneMirex—not on PIC listToxapheneLindane
Industrial Chemicals
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)Alpha hexachlorocyclohexaneBeta hexachlorocyclohexaneChlordeconeHexabromobiphenylHexabromodiphenyl ether and heptabromodiphenyl ether (commercial octabromodiphenyl ether)PentachlorobenzenePerfluorooctane sulfonic acid, its salts and perfluorooactane sulfonyl fluorideTetrabromodiphenyl ether and pentabromodiphenyl ether (commercial pentabromodiphenyl ether)
Combustion Products
Dioxins—not on PIC list (formed by burning chlorine-based hydrocarbon chemical compounds, like any of the above chemicals )Furans—not on PIC list (formed by burning pentose compounds, especially plastics)
* DDT may continue to be used for malaria control in interior residual spraying (IRS)
Annex 8: Training Topics on IPM and Safe Pesticide Use
GAP/IPM
Pest, predator, parasite, disease identification: How to recognize common important pests and diseases, as well as the predators, parasites and diseases that attack and control them
Monitoring: The importance of frequent crop monitoring for pests, diseases and weeds GAP and IPM concepts, tactics and tools found in Annex 1 that can reduce pesticide use and associated risks on
specific pests of IP target crops PMPs – Pest Management Plans: Creating and using these farm crop-management tools
Pesticides
Understanding pesticides: Quality, types, classes and acute toxicities of common pesticides Regulations: USA and Turkmenistan laws that guide pesticide registration and use Natural pesticides: Raise awareness of and promote the use of natural pesticides found in Annex 1 as well as
green-label synthetic pesticides with relatively low risks Spot Treatments: The importance of spot treatments if needed (instead of crop-wide treatments) SDS: How to use SDSs for pesticide-specific information on risks and risk reduction measures REI – Re-Entry Intervals: Pesticide-specific risks associated with entering a sprayed field too soon after the spray
operation PHI – Pre-Harvest Interval: Pesticide-specific risks associated with harvesting a crop before pesticides have had a
chance to break down MRL – Maximum Residue Level: Risks associated with pesticide residues on human food Vulnerable individuals: The importance of keeping children, pregnant women, elderly and infirm away from the
field while spraying and kept out after spraying Human and environmental risks: Risks associated with more commonly-used pesticides (use information from
SDSs and Annex 5) When to spray: Early in the morning, late in the afternoon, or night without wind or rain Use of recommended PPE: Why it is used (see product SDSs, product labels and web reference below) Safe Use: How to transport, store and use pesticides safely Maintenance: of PPE and sprayers Monitoring for the development of pesticide resistance Proper collection and disposal of pesticide rinseate and packaging (see disposal web reference below and SDSs) The use of pesticide spray buffer zones near schools, water resources, organic crop production, apiaries, bird
sanctuaries, biodiversity enclaves, national parks or other sensitive areas. How to reduce and mitigate risks to critical environmental resources and biodiversity (found in PER factors E and
G) Honeybees: Ensuring pesticide applicators notify beekeepers about spray activities, and spray early morning or
late afternoon when no heavy winds or rain are present Water Pollution: Raise awareness of pesticides (especially some herbicides) with high ground water
contamination potential where water tables are high or easy to reach (use Annex 5 and SDSs) Exposure routes: Ways pesticides enter the body and ways to mitigate entry Basic first aid: Understanding how to treat pesticide poisonings (see first aid web reference and SDSs) Record-keeping: Pesticide used, when used, which crop, how applied, who applied
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Recommendations
Since this PERSUAP is intended to be used by several USAID Turkmenistan projects, in addition to CTJ, it applies to sectors outside of CTJ's current purview. This section breaks down training recommendations by sector, as has been done above with approved pesticides, and uses as a guide P-PERSUAP Annex 8: Training Topics and Safe Pesticide Use Web Resources.
Approved Seed Treatment Insecticides and Fungicides
For projects that are approved to provide treated seed, or support for seed treatment services for open-pollinated, untreated and farmer-saved seeds. Seed treatment with fungicides provide germinating seed and seedling protection from soil-borne fungal diseases. Seed treatment with the one systemic insecticide provide plants with at least 30 days of protection from most piercing, rasping and sucking insect pests (aphids, white flies, thrips, scales, mealybugs, plant hoppers, stink bugs) as well as some chewing, tunneling and boring insect pests (soil white grubs, wireworm larvae, and mole crickets; stem and stalk boring moth, fly and beetle larvae; and leaf miner larvae) that are difficult to reach with contact insecticides once they begin to chew and bore into plant tissues.
Training should first provide discussions on pests of seeds/seedlings and preventive non-chemical tools/tactics to reduce pest loss risks. These can include use of:
certified clean seed free from pathogens or pests, and use of resistant hybrids or varieties that suffer lower damage from pests and diseases due to natural or bred-in
resistance. They can also include cultural and agronomic practices that help clean soil:
solarization with plastic and sunlight, and use of soil bunding, mounding and raised-bed techniques so that soil dries out properly.
Training can emphasize and demonstrate use of tactics to generally reduce the levels of certain pests and diseases: inter-planting several crops, and use of crop rotations.
Training can provide information on proper basic PPE to use when planting treated seed: rubber gloves to protect hands from seed coating, dust mask to protect mouth and nose from inhalation of seed treatment dust.
If a project decides to provide resources for seed treatment services, they will need to ensure that such services have and know how to use seed treatment equipment/machines as well as PPE required and listed on the pesticide bottle labels and SDSs referenced above.
Approved Field Agriculture/Horticulture Pesticides (Insecticides, Miticides, Fungicides, Herbicides/PGRs, Rodenticides, Farmer-Produced Artisanal Extracts from Spices and Plants) and Veterinary Pesticides
Most of the approved insecticides, miticides, and herbicides are formulated as emulsifiable concentrates (EC), to be sprayed using backpack sprayers or tractor-pulled boom sprayers. Most fungicides are formulated as wettable powders (WP), also to be sprayed with backpack sprayers or tractor-pulled boom sprayers. Rodenticides are formulated as blocks or pellets that rodents eat, to be put inside rodent bait boxes. Most farmer-produced artisanal extracts are applied using backpack sprayers. Veterinary pesticides are also applied by backpack sprayers.
For projects that are approved to provide pesticides, including treated seed, use the following training regimen of GAPs, IPM tools and SPU topics is mandatory:
Good Agriculture Practices/Integrated Pest Management Topics Best agronomic practices for each crop grown in each region, including soil and water tests for quality and lack of
contaminants, as well as seed, spacing, watering, fertilization and harvesting Do pest, predator and parasite monitoring, survey and proper identification to understand the risks of spraying
pesticides.
143
Natural parasites, predators and diseases attack and control many pests, diseases, and weeds of project crops/livestock. Over-applications of pesticides can kill these beneficial organisms, leading later to outbreaks of the pests as well as outbreaks of secondary pests.
Frequent monitoring of the crop is one of the most-recommended tactics for identifying and preventing outbreaks of pests/diseases, and ultimately reducing the amount of pesticides needed.
Use treated and certified clean (pest/disease/weed-free) seed from pest/disease-resistant or tolerant cultivars, hybrids or varieties.
Do soil tests for soil structure, pH, macronutrient & micronutrient levels for precision soil amendment targeting. Regularly test soil moisture levels to manage soil-borne diseases and potentially reduce amount of irrigation water
used. Use raised-bed or bund production to better manage water use, soil moisture and speed seedling growth. Use minimum and no-tillage, cover crops, terracing and contour plowing to conserve soil. Maintain a vigorous plant by properly watering and fertilizing following soil test and moisture results. Rotate crops and intercrop different crop types. Use organic mulches and cover crops to suppress weeds, conserve irrigation water, manage soil moisture, and
thus protect soil from rapid salinization. To add organic nitrogen and structure to the soil, use green manures or rotate with nitrogen-fixing legume crops,
use inter-planting with legumes and agroforestry techniques. Use manures and compost to increase soil organic matter and nutrition, decrease soil-borne pathogens, sequester
carbon, hold moisture and decrease need for increasingly more expensive synthetic nitrogen fertilizers derived from fossil fuels.
Sanitation: After harvest, destroy crop residues and weeds in and near field. Have a pest management plan, organized chronologically by season or crop stage, which combines all or parts of
these preventive and curative tactics with other production tactics. Weeds can be managed by smallholder farmers by hoeing, or hand-pulling. Greenhouse use of window and ventilation screens to exclude adult moths from greenhouse. PMPs – Pest Management Plans: Creating and using these farm crop-management tools.
Safe Pesticide Use Topics Always read and follow instructions and risk-reduction measures printed on the pesticide label and SDS, if
available. Labels and SDSs should also have crops, pests and dosage recommendations (but some do not). To reduce the risk of pests/diseases/weeds gaining resistance to a certain pesticide or type of pesticide, always
rotate among classes of pesticides with different modes of action, if possible. Herbicides are primarily registered for larger-scale commercial farmers. Most herbicides are too expensive for
smallholder farmers, who manage most weeds by hoeing, or hand-pulling. For how and when to use each pesticide, train farmers to read and follow the label instructions. Understanding pesticides: Quality, types, classes and acute toxicities of common pesticides Regulations: USA and Turkmenistan laws that guide pesticide registration and use Spot Treatments: The importance of spot treatments if needed (instead of crop-wide treatments) REI – Re-Entry Intervals: Pesticide-specific risks associated with entering a sprayed field too soon after the spray
operation PHI – Pre-Harvest Interval: Pesticide-specific risks associated with harvesting a crop before pesticides have had a
chance to break down MRL – Maximum Residue Level: Risks associated with pesticide residues on human food Vulnerable individuals: The importance of keeping children, pregnant women, elderly and infirm away from the
field while spraying and kept out after spraying Human and environmental risks: Risks associated with more commonly-used pesticides When to spray: Early in the morning, late in the afternoon, or night without wind or rain Use of recommended PPE: Why it is used Safe Use: How to transport, store and use pesticides safely Maintenance: of PPE and sprayers Monitoring for the development of pesticide resistance Proper collection and disposal of pesticide rinseate and empty pesticide containers (EPCs)
144
The use of pesticide spray buffer zones near schools, water resources, organic crop production, apiaries, bird sanctuaries, biodiversity enclaves, national parks or other sensitive areas.
How to reduce and mitigate risks to critical environmental resources and biodiversity Honeybees: Ensuring pesticide applicators notify beekeepers about spray activities, and spray early morning or
late afternoon when no heavy winds or rain are present Water Pollution: Raise awareness of herbicides with high ground water contamination potential where water
tables are high or easy to reach Exposure routes: Ways pesticides enter the body and ways to mitigate entry Basic first aid: Understanding how to treat pesticide poisonings Record-keeping: Pesticide used, when used, which crop, how applied, who applied
145
Annex 9. Monitoring for Best Practices on Turkmenistan Beneficiaries
1. Name of NARS Staff Responsible for Monitoring Demonstration Farms:
2. Name of Demonstration Farmer: Crop: Date:
3. What are the major pests encountered by the farmer?:
4. Which of the attached below Preventive and Curative GAP and IPM tools and tactics are used by farmer?
5. Are pesticides used by demo farmer? Yes__ No__
6. How are pesticides applied? backpack sprayer__ other__
7. What are the names of the pesticides used?:
8. Which PPE does farmer have and use? gloves__ overalls __ boots__ mask__ goggles__
9. Has the farmer had Turkmenistan IPM and Safe Pesticide Use training? Yes__ No__
10. Are there any empty pesticide containers scattered in the field? Yes__ No__
11. Are there signs that the backpack sprayer has leaks? Yes__ No__
12. Does the farmer understand the pesticide label information? Yes__ No__
13. Is the pesticide stored safely out of the house or away from kids? Yes__ No__
14. Does the farmer use gloves for mixing the pesticide with water? Yes__ No__
15. What time of the day is/are the pesticides applied? ________
16. Are pesticides applied during rain or windy conditions? Yes__ No__
17. Are women or children permitted to apply pesticides? Yes__ No__
18. Is there any evidence that empty pesticide containers are used to store water? Yes__ No__
19. Does the farmer rinse equipment away from streams and open water? Yes__ No__
20. Does the farmer wash clothes after applying pesticides? Yes__ No__
21. How does the farmer dispose of empty pesticide containers? puncture/burry__ burn__
22. Is there any evidence that pesticides are becoming less effective? Yes__ No__
146
Preventive and Curative GAP and IPM options referred to in question 4, above:
Preventive Preventive CurativeSoil nutrient, texture and pH testing Farmer ability to correctly identify
pest predators, parasites and diseases
Mechanical insect control by hand picking
Pest resistant/tolerant seed/plant variety
Weekly field scouting to assess pest levels/damage
Farmers make & apply local artisanal plant extracts (neem, pyrethroid, garlic, chili, other)
Early/late plantings or harvestings to avoid pests
Use of trap crops to trap and destroy pests
Weed control by machine cultivation, hoe or hand
Seed treatment with pesticides Removal/pruning of diseased or heavily infested plants/tree branches
Purchase and release of predators or parasitoids to control major pests
Soil moisture testing Planting parasite-attracting plants on field margins
Use of pheromone traps to reduce overall pest levels
Raised-bed production or mounding Put baits and use other practices to encourage predator/parasite build-up
Use of pheromone inundation to confuse pest mating
Irrigation and drip irrigation Use of pheromone traps to monitor pest levels
Spot treatment of pest hotspots with insecticides, miticides or fungicides
Use of natural fertilizers (manure, compost)
Inter-planting crops with aromatic herbs (celery, cilantro, parsley, dill or local plants) that repel pests
Area spraying (complete field coverage) using synthetic and natural insecticides, miticides or nematocides
Use of purchased mineral fertilizers Mulching with organic materials or plastic to control weeds
Use of synthetic and natural fungicides or bactericides
Combinations of organic and mineral fertilizers
Plant living barriers or bamboo/tree barriers on windward edge of field
Use of herbicides for weed control
Crop rotation Exclude insect pests by using vegetable tunnels and micro-tunnels
Farm use of a locked storage building for pesticides
Use of green manure crops Use of biodiversity or energy conservation practices
Farmer use of pesticide in-ground compost trap for depositing and capturing spilled or leftover pesticides
Farmer ability to correctly identify pests and their damage
Crop stalks, residue and dropped fruit destruction or composting at end of season
Farmer use of receptacle for empty pesticide bottle disposal
147
Annex 10: Farm and Project Record Keeping Associated with Pesticide Use
Agricultural pesticide application detailsWeather details (If product is being sprayed outdoors)
Contact details
Date of application
Product trade name
Application rate Crop/
commodity treated OR situation product was applied
Extent of use (area/volume /weight)
Location where product was used
Wind speed
Wind direction
Name and address of applicator and (if applicable) supervisor
Name and address of person for whom the application was carried out
148
149
Annex 11: Pesticides Registered in 2019 by Turkmenistan
A LIST OF THE REGISTERED CROP PROTECTION CHEMICALS FOR TURKMENISTAN
Name of a chemical, company and production country Acting substances
Baker EL, Zack M, Miles JW, Alderman L, Warren M, Dobbins RD, Miller S, Teeters WR (1978) Epidemic malathion poisoning in Pakistan malaria workers. The Lancet, January: 31–33. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/74508)
Websites: Website references used to develop the PERSUAP International Treaties and Conventions:POPs website: http://www.pops.intPIC Website: http://www.pic.intBasel Convention: http://www.basel.int/Montreal Protocol: http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/montreal_protocol.php Pakistan malaria poisonings: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACQ047.pdf.Pesticide poisonings: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/200000-die-year-pesticide-poisoning-170308140641105.htmlIPM and PMP websites:http://ipm.ucanr.edu/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/topic_pest_managementPesticide Research Websites:http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html (Extoxnet Oregon State database with ecotox)http://www.greenbook.net/ (pesticide Material Safety Data Sheets)https://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=PPLS:1 (EPA Registration)Ecotoxicity:http://alamancebeekeepers.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Hazardous-Pesticides.pdf (pesticide toxicity to honeybees)http://wihort.uwex.edu/turf/Earthworms.htm (pesticide toxicity to earthworms)Safety:https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides (EPA regulated biopesticides)http://ipm.ucanr.edu/index.html (IPM, PMPs and pesticide recommendations)https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report (Restricted Use Pesticides)https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol/citizens-guide-pest-control-and-pesticide-safety (EPA Health & Safety)http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/PPISdata/ (EPA pesticide product information)Personal Protection Equipment (PPE):http://www.dupont.com/products-and-services/personal-protective-equipment/chemical-protective-garments/brands/tyvek-protective-apparel.html http://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/565206O/3m-cartridge-and-filter-replacement-faqs.pdfPesticide Container Disposal Options:https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/pesticide-containers
Annex 13: Donor-Supported IPM and Pesticide Projects in Turkmenistan
FAO (2016)
Farmers, experts, policy makers, researchers, extension specialists, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) representatives learned techniques for minimizing the use of pesticides at a recent FAO workshop in Dushanbe. Some 70 participants – hailing from Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan attended the three-day event (15-17 August) on Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
USAID AgTech (FY 2010 - FY 2016)
AgTech objectives were to:
1. Increase household incomes of producers.
2. Increase yields for crops (other than wheat and cotton) and livestock produced by private farms.
3. Increase area under cultivation for crops other than wheat and cotton by private farmers.
4. Reach milestones in market-oriented reforms that affect agriculture (These may include such results as: more long-term land leases for private farms; improved access to financing for private farms; increased exports of raw or processed agricultural products by private firms; and increased imports of agricultural inputs by private suppliers.)
AgTech activities focused on Dashoguz, Lebap, Ahal, Balkan, and Mary provinces of Turkmenistan. These are rural areas with concentrations of agriculture-oriented businesses. AgTech helped farmers improve production of greenhouse-grown horticulture crops. In Balkan, activities to promote tree crops such as pomegranates, almonds, and olive were undertaken. In provinces where AgTech was working, the project also helped livestock farmers improve pasture management.
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, German International Cooperation, formerly GTZ)
GIZ Sustainable and climate sensitive land use for economic development in Central Asia (2016-2019)
Land users, government agencies and the private sector in Central Asia adopt integrated, economically and ecologically sustainable forms of land use, taking climate change into account. In part, the programme continues the activities of a predecessor programme on sustainable use of natural resources in Central Asia, developing regionally adapted approaches for the participatory and sustainable management of land resources. Now, the focus has shifted to the integration of different forms of land use, such as pasture and forest management, and their economic valuation at both macro and micro levels. In cooperation with several other projects around Central Asia, the programme’s activities range from direct support for communities and inter-sectoral policy dialogue, to the promotion of cross-border cooperation and regional partnerships.
United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
Supporting climate resilient livelihoods in agricultural communities in drought-prone areas of Turkmenistan (2016-2021)
The project will directly strengthen the adaptive capacity and reduce the vulnerability of around 40,000 to 50,000 persons (of which around 51.2% would be women) in the Lebap and Dashoguz velayets by helping them improve the productivity of farm operations, be better prepared for increasing water scarcity and by introducing alternative income sources. Improved water efficiency and crop production systems will bring approximately 20,000 ha of agricultural and 500,000 ha of pastoral lands under climate resilient technologies resulting in a real net household income increase of at least 15% for participating households (including at least 20% of women-headed households). The replication potential of successful efficient water management and climate resilient practices and of new climate-friendly sectoral planning, legislative and
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capacity development measures would indirectly benefit around 500,000 people in Turkmenistan, of which around 50% would be women).
The objective of the proposed project is to support climate resilient livelihoods in agricultural communities in the Lebap and Dashoguz velayats in Turkmenistan. The project’s incremental value lies in enabling farmers in one of the driest regions of the country to overcome the critical barriers described above that prevent them from reducing the vulnerability to climate change induced water stress and other environmental hazards in the agricultural sector. It will develop and demonstrate a matrix of climate adaptation solutions for further replication outside of the two velayats. The experience will be shared and replicated beyond project boundaries through a serious of lesson sharing events. The project will attempt to achieve this objective through the design of the following three inter-related outcomes and their respective outputs and activities:· Outcome 1: Improved climate related socio-economic outcomes in the targeted agricultural communities in Lebap and Dashoguz velayats through the implementation of community-based adaptation solutions;· Outcome 2: Mainstreamed climate adaptation measures in agricultural and water sector development strategy and policy; and· Outcome 3: Strengthened national capacity for iterative climate change adaptation planning, implementation and monitoring
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy for Sustainable Water Management in Turkmenistan (2015-2021)
The project objectives are to provide for sufficient and environmentally sustainable water supply to support and enhance social conditions and economic livelihood of the population of Turkmenistan; reduce Green House Gas (GHG) emissions associated with water management; prevent and remediate salinization of lands.
The project will address the problems of water management, energy consumption, land degradation (salinization), and agricultural productivity through integrated activities, with a goal toward achieving multiple benefits in different areas. Thus improved water management will lead not only to greater water availability, but also to significant energy savings, avoided GHG emissions, and reduced salinization. Application of new renewable-energy solutions in water management will lead not only to avoided GHG emissions, but also to greater water availability in remote populated areas. This integrated approach will be practically applied and technically proven first at specific sites in the Akhal velayat, then replicated across the country through region-specific planning and outreach, as well as supporting policies and investment at the national level.
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Annex 14: Pesticide Regulations and Import from Neighboring Countries
China
After the United States, China is the second largest producer of pesticides. Chinese factories and pesticide companies produce the active ingredients for both the top and bottom ends of the sector. Some of the well-known multinational companies now sub-contract Chinese companies to produce active ingredients for their pesticides. However, many of the remaining Chinese companies flood developing world markets with the most popular generic chemicals that are easy to make but may have contaminants or less active ingredient (AI) than advertised, and that are not formulated optimally. Multinational pesticide companies recognize this problem and are using all means to combat it. The FAO panel of pesticide experts makes recommendations for the United Nations (UN) on the code of conduct for districution and use of pesticides30. The World Bank has also doen studies on pesticide quality and finds low quality to be an issue in most developing countries31.
In China, since 1963, the manufacture and sale of agricultural pesticides is regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture’s (MOA) Institute for the Control of Agrochemicals of the Ministry of Agriculture (ICAMA). Numerous Chinese products, some appearing with copied brand names and pirated identical international labels, can be found in the eastern CAR region.
Pakistan
Pakistan has a well-developed pesticide sector with some chemical companies that produce pesticides, but most are imported. Quality of these pesticides is somewhat variable, with numerous sub-standard and aldultered products being produced and sold. In Pakistan, before 1971, pesticides to be imported were standardized by the Federal Government of Pakistan through Department of Plant Protection (DPP), since no rules and regulations were in place. In 1971, the Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance (APO) was promulgated to regulate import, manufacture, formulation, sale, distribution, use and advertisement of pesticides. At least once a year Pakistan analyzes and releases a new list of registered pesticides.
Afghanistan
Due to years of conflict and no functional government, Afghanistan had no approved list of pesticides registered for manufacture, import and use. Finally, in 2015, the Pesticide Law was signed by the President on 19 October 2015, Gazette # 1190 (www.moj.gov.af). To counter the use of sub-standard pesticides entering from China and other countries, donors in Afghanistan are encouraging Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL), input stores and farmers to import and use only name-brand pesticides from established international companies.
Uzbekistan
In 1999, the Government of Uzbekistan established a special commission, the State Chemical Commission of the Republic of Uzbekistan, to control pesticide and chemical use. In 2000, Uzbekistan established a legal framework and adopted a series of legislative acts governing production, export, import and application of pesticides. A law was approved 2000 for protection of agricultural plants from pests, diseases and weeds, and that clarifies regulation of pest management in the country and forms the framework for laws on pesticide use and plant protection in Uzbekistan.
In 2004, the Republican Center for Plant Protection and Agrochemicals was established under the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources in accordance with Presidential Decree to enhance the quality of services rendered to beneficiaries and improve safe use of agricultural pesticides. According to the Ministry of Labor, a regulation was adopted on December 12, 2008 regarding the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Many products found in markets during 2016 enter north-western (Sughd) Turkmenistan from bordering Uzbekistan. They are smuggled across the international border, without specific knowledge of the customs service. 30 http://www.fao.org/3/a-a0220e.pdf31 http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website01004/WEB/0__CO-57.HTM
In 1999, Kyrgyzstan produced a law on “Chemicalization and Plant Protection” for registration and safe use of pesticides. At present, Kyrgyzstan has produced a 2010 list of pesticides registered for import and use. To do this, the Government of Kyrgyzstan has relied heavily on pesticide registrations in Kazakhstan. For instance, if a certain desired pesticide is already registered in Kazakhstan, then only one year of testing is required to register the same product for use in Kyrgyzstan. Generally, pesticide testing and registration would require a minimum of three years. Kyrgyzstan, which has no VAT tax, imports pesticides in large quantities and then re-packages them into smaller quantities affordable by farmers in Turkmenistan. Thus, Kyrgyzstan is a potential source of pesticides entering Turkmenistan. As a member of WTO, Kyrgyzstan is supposed to better manage movement of good across its borders and respect property rights, but full enforcement is lacking.
Russia
Each year, Russia produces an annually-updated list of pesticides registered for production, import, export and use. A copy of the list is found at http://www.mcx.ru/documents/document/show/13153.133.htm. Many of the Turkmenistan registered pesticides are produced in Russia.
Kazakistan
A 2002 Law on Crop Protection stipulates plant protection through the application of pesticides and other chemicals, but does not include norms on monitoring the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of chemicals in the soil. Measures that do have environment-related components, most are quite recent and long-term, and will take time to produce concrete results. The impacts of pesticide use on human health and ecosystems do not appear to have been assessed. Most regional pesticide importers and distributors have offices in Tashkent and Almaty, and it is likely that some pesticides imported to Turkmenistan enter through these companies and countries. They are both traded and smuggled across the international border, without specific knowledge of the customs services.
Iran
Since 1967, Iran has had rules and regulations concerning registration, production, transportation, usage, storage, import and export of pesticides. Based on this law, which has been amended several times since 1967, a special committee called A Pesticides Supervision Board (PSB) composed of members from Plant Protection Organization, Plant Pest and Diseases Researches Institute, Ministry of Health, Hygiene Research Institute of Tehran University, Veterinary Organization and some other concerns bodies, is legally responsible for registration of pesticides. During the 2016 study, numerous pesticide products from Iran were found in pesticide stores in Tajikistan, especially Green Market in Dushanbe, and sold primarily by ethnic Iranian shopkeepers. This is a large increase from what was found in 2011, when only two Iranian pesticide products were found. They are smuggled across the international border, without specific knowledge of the customs services. As well as lack of GOT oversight in the markets and of retailers.
EuroAsian Interstate Council for Standardization, Meteorology and Certification (EASC)32
The EASC provides former Soviet Union states an information repository and forum for decision-makers. The EASC’s modality and resources ensure that all CIS standards are coordinated on the issues of human health and environmental protection. Thus, even if Turkmenistan or another CIS country currently does not have pesticide regulations or lists of approved and registered pesticides; they will look to Russia or EASC for standards to emulate, adopt and follow.
Annex 15: Forms for Implementing Partners: Pesticide Inventory and Environmental Authorization to Purchase Pesticides
Pesticide Inventory
Within 45 days of approval of this PERSUAP, agricultural projects must report existing pesticide inventories to their AOR/COR using this form. If products in inventory are compliant with 2013 PERSUAP, they may be used, otherwise they must be appropriately disposed of (consultation with MEO required). No new procurement can be made that is not compliant with this PERSUAP.
Project Date___________________________
Contractor Chief of Party
Active Ingredient Product Name Concentration Formulation 2019 PERSUAP compliant?
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Environmental Authorization to Procure Pesticides
Projects seeking approval to purchase pesticides must submit this form, with an attached copy of the label of the product to be procured, for AOR/COR review and clearance.
Note: this form is additional to and not in lieu of other compliance and clearance requirements for pesticide purchases
Name of Project
Staff Member Responsible
Pesticide Product to be Procured:
Name of Product
Activity Ingredient (AI)
Formulation
Concentration
Language of Label (attach label)
Packaging (type and volume)
Quantity to be Procured
Is the crop and pesticide covered by the 2019 PERSUAP update
accepted for smallholder farmers
Toxicity class for:
Active ingredient (USEPA/ WHO from PERSUAP)
Product from label (supposedly, WHO classification)
Product (Russian/CIS) classification) if applicable
Safety Information
Name of Manufacturer
Country of Origin
Source and Mode of Procurement
Purpose of procurement
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Indicate, for what pests and diseases
Is there a completed IPM plan designed to prevent the pests in
question before curative pesticides are needed?
What circumstances require use of this pesticide?
Is there a safer use plan for this specific pesticide that specifies how the pesticide is to be used
and safety measures?
Is project to promote, procure or use recommend the pesticide?Where and when will the pesticide be used? (be specific)How will the project know that safety equipment is present?How many days after last treatment may a product be harvested (Pre-Harvest Interval) or consumed?For pesticides procured by TAWA, who will review that the pesticide is stored, used and monitored according to plan?Will training in safe application, safe storage, and safe disposal of waste be done prior to use?Quantity of pesticide to be purchased for each farmer.Area on which purchased pesticide will be usedExplain frequency of application. Explain appropriateness of amount to be purchased and applied.
Is the quantity being purchased appropriate for the area to be treated?
Certifications and explanationsYES NO If “No,” explain/Notes
AI is authorized by 2019 PERSUAP
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Training carried out
PPE Provided
Chief of Party Date__________________
Approved by C/AOR Date__________________
Approved by MEO _______________________________ Date _________________
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Annex 16: SOW for Turkmenistan PERSUAP
USAID Competitiveness, Trade and Jobs
SCOPE OF WORK
Preparation of the Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP)
1. BACKGROUND
The Competitiveness, Trade and Jobs (CTJ) activity is a five-year project (2016-2021) that aims to facilitate exports and employment in horticulture and strengthen transport and logistics services across the five Central Asian economies. By incentivizing firms to become more regionally competitive and by addressing cross-border impediments to trade, CTJ helps to develop a more diverse and competitive private sector and generate export-driven growth.
The Government of Turkmenistan recently approved a horticultural plan and requested CTJ’s assistance to implement this plan. The horticultural plan will include implementation of on-field and greenhouse horticultural production activities in accordance with international best practices. These activities are likely to involve assistance with the procurement and use of fertilizers and pesticides.
There is no current Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) for Turkmenistan. However, in 2012, USAID’s Agricultural Technology Program in Turkmenistan developed a PERSUAP which was approved on February 17, 2012 by the Asia Bureau Environmental Officer to ensure the safety of project staff, participants, and local communities in cases where working with pesticides is required. That PERSUAP was deemed valid through September 13, 2015. In order to implement the proposed horticultural plan, CTJ plans to update and revise this former PERSUAP and will submit the revised new PERSUAP to USAID for approval with the intention of carrying out relevant horticultural activities in Turkmenistan through the remainder of the project (September 2021). The revised and amended PERSUAP will be completed by a professional consultant hired by CTJ.
2. PURPOSE
Pesticides, if not used properly, can kill, damage, or otherwise injure both human beings and environmental resources. Pesticides can be synthetic, natural products (plant, microbe), or derived chemical products which are intended to kill, control, and repel insects, plant diseases, weeds, and other pest organisms.
The objective of the assignment is to evaluate and update the previous evaluation of the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits to fit the planned assistance “for the procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction” to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental impacts. Factors to be considered in such an evaluation shall include, but not be limited to following factors listed under 22 CFR 216.3(b)(1)(i):
(a) The USEPA registration status of the requested pesticide;(b) The basis for selection of the requested pesticide;(c) The extent to which the proposed pesticide use is part of an integrated pest management program;(d) The proposed method or methods of application, including availability of appropriate application and safety equipment;(e) Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use and measures available to minimize such hazards;(f) The effectiveness of the requested pesticide for the proposed use;(g) Compatibility of the proposed pesticide with target and non-target ecosystems;(h) The conditions under which the pesticide is to be used, including climate, flora, fauna, geography, hydrology, and soils;
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(i) The availability and effectiveness of other pesticides or nonchemical control methods;(j) The requesting country's ability to regulate or control the distribution, storage, use and disposal of the requested pesticide;(k) The provisions made for training of users and applicators; and(l) The provisions made for monitoring the use and effectiveness of the pesticide.
The study will cover anticipated activities proposed in the horticultural plan that was recently approved by the Government of Turkmenistan. The proposed activities may involve CTJ’s assistance for the procurement or use of pesticides. Under this SOW, assistance for the procurement or use of pesticides is defined broadly and includes recommending the conduct of training programs in pesticide handling and use. The PERSUAP will include production, storage and processing of the following 29 crops/commodities:Stone fruits (apricots, peaches and nectarines, plums and prunes, almonds, cherries (sweet and sour); Pome fruits (apples, pears, quince); Subtropical fruits (pomegranates, persimmons); Nuts (walnuts, pistachio); Table and wine grapes; Mulberry; Tomato; Cucurbits (especially melons, including watermelons, and cucumbers); Soybeans; Corn; Sunflower; Sugar cane; Potatoes."
The study will include new pesticides, analysis of new USEPA and international pesticide regulations and registrations, new registrations in Turkmenistan as well as new uses and international market requirements for pesticide residues on food. The Consultant will develop this analysis in close consultation and cooperation with the CTJ’s technical team, implementation partners, and USAID, taking into consideration feedback and guidance received from key stakeholders. The analysis will cover those pesticides proposed for use by USAID’s CTJ project that are: Registered by US EPA for the same or similar uses without restrictions; Also registered by the Government of Turkmenistan; and Available in the Republic of Turkmenistan.
The PERSUAP will include appendices evaluating the economic, social, and environmental risks and benefits of the planned pesticide use by crop commodity to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental impact. If a pesticide rejected by the PERSUAP is still desired or deemed necessary for use on project activities, an EA in accordance with §216.3(b)(l) requirements, in addition to the PERSUAP, will be conducted (separate from this SOW). This EA will include, but is not limited to, an analysis of the factors identified in §216.3(b)(l)(i) and subject to an amendment to this PERSUAP contract.
The SUAP portion of the PERSUAP report will: Have a strong focus on training (and retraining) implementing partners and leader farmers on findings in the
PERSUAP vis-à-vis Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs), Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Safe Pesticide Use (SPU);
Assure accessibility of protective clothing and equipment needed with training on safe use; Emphasize operational monitoring & evaluation; Work with the project to define key staff and interested actor roles such as public, commercial private and non-
profit private sector entities; Integrate pesticide risk mitigation measures with other project risk mitigation measures; Discuss disposal options and provisions for used pesticide containers; Provide a list of pesticides that may not be used or procured by USAID projects as well as a list of minimum risk
pesticides exempted under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) Section 25(b); and Provide standard records templates to be filled out by the project and /or partners in case of pesticide procurement
or use.
Respective Tasks and Responsibilities of USAID and the CTJ Project Team
The Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative (COTR), CTJ and USAID/Central Asia Mission Environmental Officer (MEO) will take an active role in this PERSUAP process by approving the technical activity, this SOW to conduct the analysis and all draft PERSUAP reports produced. The MEO will provide specific technical guidance and direction, review progress and other draft materials produced by the Consultant, and perform liaison functions, as needed, with the Asia Bureau Environmental Officer (BEO/Asia) and USAID’s CTJ project. The Regional Environmental Adviser (REA)
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for Central and South Asia, and for Office of Afghanistan and Pakistan Affairs, may also review all of the PERSUAP prior to BEO/Asia approval.
Turkmenistan is a unique country and presents some unique challenges. Information is not readily available online and on-site research is likely not possible do to the challenging visa regime – especially with regard to visa’s for international consultants researching regulatory issues. Accordingly, the Consultant’s work must be done remotely.
The CTJ Project will assign a local agronomist in Turkmenistan to work with the Consultant. The agronomist will assist the Consultant in implementing the study by providing timely information about uses and conditions of use for all pesticides, types of activity implementation, roles and responsibilities of implementing partners, farmers, laborers, extension officers, and local service providers to ensure all relevant pesticides are covered and to help the PI/PMS design training for at-risk populations in the field. The agronomist will be responsible for reviewing and providing comments on the draft and final versions of the study prior to the submission for peer review. The CTJ Project will translate the revised PERSUAP into the local languages as appropriate.
3. CONSULTANT OBJECTIVES AND DUTIES:
Overall, given that the CTJ-hired agronomist provides timely quality information, the Consultant will: Acquire, analyze and synthesize information on Turkmenistan’s newest list of registered pesticides, as made
available, as well as ways, means and capacity to regulate or control the acquisition, distribution, use, storage and disposal of pesticides;
List local restrictions, if any, on use of pesticides, and conditions required following an analysis of EPA registration of the same pesticides;
Examine, by data collected by the local agronomist on site visits to targeted project activity areas and clients, the conditions under which various pesticides will be used (ex., climate, flora, fauna, geography, hydrology, soils, proximity to water bodies, etc.);
Acquire from the project-hired agronomist information, if any, on the extent to which pesticide use is and could be part of an integrated pest management (IPM) program; and
Ask CTJ-hired agronomist to review the previous Turkmenistan PERSUAP (2012) to identify lessons learned, constraints, shortcomings and updates to be addressed in the 2019 PERSUAP.
Specifically, the Consultant will, as accurate information and data are provided by the CTJ-hired agronomist: Perform desk-based review of proposed CTJ’s activities, related work planning materials, and other relevant
documents. Review Turkmenistan’s newest list of registered pesticides, if made available timely by CTJ-hired agronomist, as
well as the list of potential pesticides to be used during implementation by crop/commodity and review US EPA status of the pesticides.
Review Turkmenistan Regulatory Acts on pesticide registration and application, as discovered and translated to English by CTJ staff and/or hired agronomist.
Contact the USAID/Central Asia MEO, COTR, CTJ project staff, and perhaps REA to review compliance requirements and pest management options to develop an agreed upon definition of “assistance for procurement or use of pesticides”.
Assess the overall capabilities and limitations of the CTJ project’s pesticide management relative to the more common pesticide use problems affecting the targeted users and implementers, as advised by CTJ-hired agronomist.
When deemed appropriate, necessary and possible by CTJ, communicate with relevant national Ministries, Departments and Agencies, NGOs, pesticide importers/distributors and retailers as well as farmers/cooperatives.
Outline “Off the Shelf” IPM and GAP (Good Agriculture Practices) measures that could be tried and used by the project’s clients for each production or commodity constraint.
Recommend and outline a training program, including a plan to train participants who will be implementing the recommendations of the analysis.
Recommend mitigation measures for project activities (in addition to training), identified in concert with project personnel, which involve pesticide use. Approved pesticides should be presented in a clear table form, similar to
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the Tajikistan PERSUAP, including listing the conditions, restriction and links to MSDS/MSS in a user-friendly manner.
In an annex to the report, develop a pesticide database in Excel that includes registration in US EPA and Turkmenistan (as made available), active ingredients, commercial names, major sources of origin, if available, toxicity levels by organization (US EPA, WHO, etc.), pesticide uses, pesticide formulation and concentration to demonstrate that PERSUAP recommended pesticides are intended “for the same or similar uses by US EPA without restriction.” With the help of the local agronomist in collecting, photographing or scanning pesticide labels, the consultant will receive labels of available pesticides and use them in pesticide analysis.
Provide, in an annex to the report, a brief description of the individuals who were consulted and their organizational affiliations as compiled and written by the CTJ-hired agronomist.
Provide an annex with preliminary Pest Management Plans (PMPs) for each crop-pest combination, including extensive preventive tools/tactics that can be used, as well as recommended curative pesticides.
Provide a full list of acronyms used throughout the document. Provide information on Turkmenistan’s obligations related to pesticides under the Stockholm Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPs) and Rotterdam Prior Informed Consent (PIC) conventions. Review other donor activities and policies towards pesticide use in Turkmenistan (capacity building, regulatory
reform, procurement, use, etc.), specifically those donors planning horticultural interventions in the near future (GIZ, World Bank, IFAD, etc.), if the information is found available online and/or the CTJ-hired agronomist visits each donor in the field and provides a report of findings.
Address the updated PERSUAP recommendations in the CTJ Economic Growth IEE Amendment 5, in a format recommended by the MEO. Annexes should include the Scope of Work.
4. DELIVERABLES: The Consultant will submit a work plan to CTJ no later than two working days after contract signature. The work
plan will include a brief description of the approach, working hypotheses, and a timeline of expected activities, plus the proposed completion dates for subsequent deliverables.
The major deliverable of this contract is the final PERSUAP report. The Consultant will submit the first draft of PERSUAP to CTJ (and by extension to USAID’s COTR and MEO) and incorporate feedback into a final draft. The final draft will be submitted by CTJ for independent peer review at no cost to the PERSUAP implementing team. The Consultant will, however, incorporate feedback from the peer reviewer prior to submitting the final PERSUAP report for Turkmenistan CTJ.
Address the updated PERSUAP recommendations in the CTJ IEE in a format recommended by the MEO.
5. PERSONNEL AND IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
The Consultant must have an advanced degree and significant coursework and expertise in entomology, plant pathology, weed science, IPM, pesticide toxicology or soil science. The consultant should have track records of at least three years demonstrated experience in both quantitative and qualitative research techniques within the environmental field and should have language skills within the Central Asian Republics or experience with research methodologies, tools, analytical techniques, business education and a proven ability to write clear and concise analytical reports. Familiarity with Regulation 216 is necessary and experience performing PERSUAPs, or similar pesticide environmental reviews, is preferred. In addition to the skills outlined above, the consultant must also meet the following minimum requirements:
1. Previous approval by the Bureau Environmental Officer for PERSUAP work 2. Experience with PERSUAP analysis and reports 3. Two years minimum experience in Central Asia 4. Ability and willingness to work independently
Based on the above skills and requirements CTJ has proposed for this work Environmental and PERSUAP Specialist (EPS), Consultant Mr. Alan Schroeder. Mr. Alan Schroeder recently completed the Programmatic PERSUAP for USAID Uzbekistan’s Agricultural Value Chain (AVC) Project and other sectors which was recently approved by USAID. Further,
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he is in the process of producing a PPERSUAP for the Feed the Future (FTF) Agribusiness Competitive Activity in Tajikistan (ACAT).
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Annex 17: Biography for Alan Schroeder, PhD, MBA
Alan Schroeder was raised on a small family farm where the beautiful Susquehanna and Unadilla River valleys meet in upstate New York, the same place where the powerful and wise Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse) Iroquois Confederacy held sway for over 600 years prior to European invasion and colonization. While the First Nations peoples grew the “Three Sisters” crops of corn, beans and squash, Alan’s father, Electrical Engineer Samuel Schroeder, grew every vegetable, fruit, spice and cut flower crop growable in the seasonal temperate upstate NY climate, and his mother, Registered Nurse Betty Dowling used the produce to cook and bake an assortment of northern and eastern European delicacies. The menu occasionally included poultry as well—chickens and ducks and their eggs were often fine table fare, hand-raised on the homestead.
At a very young age, Alan and his brother Daniel, true entrepreneurs, set up a roadside stand to sell garden vegetables, fruits and cut flowers to passersby. The income earned, plus numerous scholarships, helped put Alan and Daniel through college. This wonderfully rich bucolic rural agricultural environment and entrepreneurial spirit served as a powerful inspiration to Alan as he pursued his life’s dream: To work with producers on diverse and exotic crops in other countries.
With this upbringing, Alan made the decision to train as a Crop Protection and Agribusiness Specialist. With over 29 years of experience gaining knowledge, skills and abilities researching, writing, analyzing and reducing pest/disease risks to agriculture production, chemical and pesticide risks to humans/natural resources, and now risks from climate changes, Alan continuously learns from others. Alan takes great pride to assist developing country producers with expertise in agriculture, an understanding of USAID regulations, as well as formal training and practical experience in entomology, plant pathology, chemistry and agriculture business around the world. Producers in some 60 to 70 countries in all regions have taught Alan how they survive with their agricultural skills in challenging and ever-changing environments. NGOs have taught him how they make a difference every day in the lives of these producers, by introducing and applying new crop production tools and techniques.
Alan began his career in international development by being selected in 1989 as a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at CIMMYT, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center near Texcoco, Mexico. In 1990, he won a prestigious Science and Diplomacy Fellowship through the American Association for the Advancement of Science, working with USAID’s Bureau for Africa on agriculture research networks across Africa, and during which time he lived in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. He next served for nine years as an International Program Leader through USDA Agriculture Research Service, where he provided policy advice, technical leadership, risk-taking, vision and management input on invasive trans-national locust, armyworm, bird and rodent plagues, as well as complex and sensitive international environmental challenges. He provided integrated pest management expertise as well as pesticide safety, management and disposal advice for upper-level USDA and USAID administrators, US Ambassadors, and United Nations officials often saving the US government hundreds of thousands of dollars. During this time, he has been recognized by both of his universities, Delaware and Illinois, as a Distinguished Alumni for his strong focus on using technical information and sharply-honed critical thinking skills to take well-calculated risks, making common-sense decisions on multi-million dollar technical and political development challenges.
During 2001, Dr. Schroeder founded E-NoeTec Consulting, from which he has worked as an International Consultant on agriculture and environmental compliance issues ever since. He recently spent over two years living in Belgium, where his wife, Dr. Sonia Ortega, served as the Science Attaché to our USA Embassy to the EU, and during which time he developed a European arm to his consulting business. In his free time and with a lifetime focus on high-quality farming and food, he volunteers with the Arlington Food Assistance Center, a community-based non-profit that grows and provides nutritious produce and food for Arlington neighbors in need. He is also a certified Master Gardener, Private Pilot, a student of the martial art Taijiquan and a life-long TM meditator. He can be reached at [email protected].
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