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Water Environment Research, Volume 82, Number 10Copyright 2010 Water Environment Federation
2067
Ecological and Human HealthRisk Assessment
Thomas M. Biksey1*, Amy Couch Schultz2, Aaron M. Bernhardt3,
Brett Marion4, and Chrissy Peterson4
ABSTRACT: This literature review covers the risk
assessment process and addresses both ecological and
human receptors. 1The review covers the risk assessment
literature including methodology, analysis, interpretation,
management, uncertainty, policy, and regulatory guidance.
The review is divided into ecological and human health
sections. The focus of the review is on the risk assessment
process as it is applied to ecological systems and human
health, site investigation and remediation, and natural
resources. The objective is to provide an overview of the
scope of the literature published in 2009.
KEYWORDS: ecological, human health, risk
assessment, management, policy, regulatory
doi:10.2175/106143010X12756668802256
1*WSP Environment & Energy, 750 Holiday Drive, Suite 410,
Pittsburgh, PA 15220; Tel. 412-604-1040; Fax. 412-920-7455;
e-mail: [email protected]
2WSP Environment & Energy , Reston, Virginia
3Tetra Tech NUS, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
4WSP Environment & Energy, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Ecological
Problem Formulation and Methodology. A
methodology was presented by Zhang et al. (2009) for risk
assessment and regionalization of ecological disasters in
Jilin Province, Northeast China using the geographic
information system with climatology, geography, disaster
science, and environmental science in mind. The results of
the study aid in decision making for ecological disaster
prevention and could be helpful to rebuild the ecological
environment.
Graham et al. (2009) completed a comprehensive
analysis of chromium speciation in sediment and porewater
collected from 22 locations in the Baltimore Harbor to
understand chromium bioavailability, and the probability of
toxicity due to chromium in sediments. Overall, the results
provided field validation of the hypothesis that chromium
VI will not persist in sediments with excess acid volatile
sulfides and given the low concentrations of chromium VI
in sediment and porewater, it appears unlikely that
chromium in Baltimore Harbor sediments contributes
appreciably to previously observed sediment toxicity.
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Three sets of studies designed to test a thin-film
solid phase extraction technique for characterizing the
bioavailability of organic chemicals in sediments were
presented in Meloche et al. (2009). The authors found that
bioaccumulation studies with clams (Macoma balthica)
show excellent correlations between thin-film and animal
tissue concentrations, and conclude that thin-film extraction
provides an ecologically relevant, fugacity-based measure
of chemical exposure that can be expected to improve
sediment quality assessments.
Maruya et al. (2009) developed and tested a pore-
water sampler that uses solid-phase microextraction
(SPME) to measure freely dissolved (bioavailable)
hydrophobic organic compounds (HOC) concentrations
that are regulatory concern in sediment pore water. The
concept showed promise for directly measuring the freely
dissolved concentration of HOCs in sediment pore water, a
previously difficult-to-measure parameter that will improve
the ability to assess the impacts of contaminated sediments.
A simulated earthworm gut (SEG) was developed
by Ma et al. (2009) to measure the bioaccessibility of
metals in soil to earthworms by mimicking the
gastrointestinal fluid composition of earthworms. The
difference between chemical and enzymatic SEG
treatments was clear with respect to the bioaccessibility of
metals in soils with different physicochemical properties
and different levels of metal contamination. Although
further research is needed, the SEG could prove valuable
because it simultaneously evaluates the labile (chemically
extractable) and recalcitrant (Soil Organic Matter-
sequestered) fractions of metal in soil that could become
bioaccessible in the gastrointestinal tract of earthworms.
Dobbins et al. (2009) performed a hazard
assessment for parabens using common invertebrate and
vertebrate models to define acute and subchronic toxicity
thresholds for seven parabens; to examine whether there
was a relationship between aquatic toxicity and
lipophilicity of the parabens; and, to use a probabilistic
chemical toxicity distribution (CTD) approach to
characterize hazards associated with parabens in aquatic
environments. The distributions demonstrated that at
environmentally relevant concentrations in developed
countries, there is limited acute or subchronic aquatic
hazard of parabens to the organisms and responses
examined.
Fu et al. (2009) collected measured
bioconcentration factors (BCFs) in fish for organic
electrolytes, and then tested empirical BCF estimation
methods. They found that several methods provided
acceptable results for suitable methods for estimating the
BCFs.
A study was conducted to evaluate several
headspace and solvent extraction methods for mass
recovery of tricholoroethylene (TCE), to identify a
relatively fast and simple method to extract TCE from plant
branches completely, and to identify plant characteristics
that affect the efficiency of the most promising extraction
methods (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2009). Hot methanol
extraction performed the best with respect to TCE mass
recovery, and was relatively fast, simple, and reliable; this
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method recovered more than 89% of the TCE present in
branches of five different tree species.
Ecological Effects and Exposure Assessment.
In a literature-based study of measured concentrations of
anti-infectives (i.e., antibiotic medications) in wastewater
and natural and drinking waters, the potential spread of
anti-infective resistant bacteria and the resulting effect on
aquatic biota were evaluated (Segura et al., 2009). The
study found that 68 parent compounds and 10 degradation
products or metabolites of these substances have been
quantified in various waters with environmental
concentrations ranging from approximately 10-1
to 109
/l
and concluded that detrimental effects on aquatic biota are
possible with a potential result of indirect impact on human
health as well.
The polychaete Nereis diversicolor and the
bivalve Scrobicularia plana living in intertidal mudflats
were studied by Bonnard et al. (2009) looking at effects of
copper on the benthic invertebrates burrowing behavior.
Both species exhibited hypoactivity resulting from the
lowest tested concentrations of copper below lethality for
these species.
Survival and locamotory behavior of the
freshwater oligochaete Tubifex tubifexbased on exposure to
metals (cadmium, copper, nickel), Ivermectin, and
Imidacloprid were studied by Gerhardt (2009) in the
Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor. A short-term
automated behavioral toxicity test was developed indicating
toxicity is dependent on concentrations and exposure time.
The Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor was
used by Peeters et al. (2009) to observe the variation in
locomotion behavior of the amphipod Gammarus pulex
over a 7 day observation period. Results indicate that
gender plays a role in activity; however, considerable
between-individual differences existed indicating that
natural variation should be considered when behavior is an
endpoint for ecotoxicological assays.
Baatrup (2009) developed a computerized vision
system to quantify fish behavior, and the system has been
used to study the effects of endocrine disruptors on the
reproductive behavior of male guppies. Sigmoid displays
and posturing behavior were significantly suppressed by
estrogenic and antiandrogenic substances.
Female Chironomus riparius life stages were
investigated by Dornfeld et al. (2009) to observe avoidance
of copper contaminated water and sediment environments.
Even though the highest concentrations of copper caused
lethal effects, there was no sign of avoidance by ovipositing
females, first-, second-, or fourth-instar larvae.
Gestational exposure to 2,24,4,5-
pentabrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE99) and lifetime
exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) was
examined by Lilienthal et al. (2009) to determine
neurobehavioral and endocrine effects in rats. Sweet
preference, catalepsy, and brainstem auditory potentials
were shown to be affected by the brominated flame
retardants.
Amiard-Triquet (2009) evaluated the idea of
behavioral responses as a useful tool in ecological risk
assessments to connect between stress in the sub-
organismal and supra-organismal levels. Combining
behavioral biomarkers with biochemical and physiological
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biomarkers creates a multimarker approach to view a
population response to a chemical stress.
De Lange, Peeters, and Lurling (2009) used the
benthic invertebrate Gammarus pulex (Crustacea,
Amphipoda) in a Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor to
observe Principal Response Curves based on sublethal
concentrations of fluoxetine, ibuprofen, carbamazepine,
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. Increased ventilation
was determined to be a sign of stress, and locomotion
caused by stress depended on the type of toxin present.
The effects of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) on the liver
status, growth, and behavior of seabass was investigated by
Gravato and Guilhermino (2009). As levels of BaP
increased, oxidative liver damage occurred along with a
decrease in weight, size, food intake, and swimming
velocity.
A brine discharge to the North Fork Holston
River and conductivity dissipation was examined by Echols
et al. (2009) to evaluate the impact on benthic
macroinvertebrates. The results indicate that under low-
flow conditions, subchronic intermittent toxicity exists that
potentially impair the unionid populations for
approximately 26 miles downstream.
Staples et al. (2009) supported the environmental
fate and aquatic toxicity of methacrylic acid esters using
quantitative structure-activity relationships. The
methacrylate data was determined to be low to moderate
toxicity, and was used to develop predicted no effect
concentrations in water and sediment.
Benthic communities and physical habitats were
characterized in an urban and residential stream in
California by Hall et al. (2009) using multiple linear
regressions from two years of studying the relationship of
benthic metrics to physical habitat metrics, pyrethroids, and
metals. Benthic communities were primarily affected by
habitat metrics and when habitat metrics, and metals were
observed in the statistical models then no significant
relationship was seen from pyrethroids.
Zajdlik et al. (2009) conducted a case study using
Atrazine in multimodel species sensitivity distributions to
estimate water quality guidelines. This bimodal method
allows the water quality guideline to be created for the
pesticide using a statistical subset of data and emphasizing
the more sensitive portion. whereas other models did not
account for small sample sizes.
Using species sensitivity distribution, Wong et al.
(2009) examined metals toxicity data derived primarily
from daphniids compared with toxicity data of copepods
and other species of cladocerans. C. dubia is a cladoceran
with relatively small body size making it extremely
sensitive to trace metals; therefore, copepods and other
cladocerans are most likely protected from water quality
criteria derived from data using the genusDaphnia.
Weston et al. (2009) investigated temperature
manipulations to identify pyrethroid insecticides as the
primary source of toxicity in whole sediment toxicity
identification evaluations. The authors found that toxicity
increased two to three fold with temperature decreases as
little as 5C and 10C, respectively.
A graphical information system-based model was
developed for assessing the combined effects of multiple
estrogenic compounds on endocrine disruption and intersex
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of fish populations in England and Wales by Williams et al.
(2009). The study used a catchment-based approach to
evaluated risks from these compounds.
Powell et al. (2009) demonstrated that
bioaccumulation models could be developed by Hall et al.
(2009) that predict the uptake and loss of a chemical based
on chemical properties and physiological processes using
characteristic times. The characteristic time model can be
effectively used to evaluate both water-respiring and air-
respiring biota.
Selenium exposure and uptake from selenium-
spiked sand to leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)
via direct and indirect ingestion was investigated by Rich
and Talent (2009). Sublethal effects were apparent with
increasing soil concentrations indicating that soil uptake is
an important exposure route in some reptiles.
Stebbins et al. (2009) developed a nonlethal
microsampling technique to extract albumen to measure
mercury concentrations in wild bird eggsm and then the
eggs were returned to the nest for incubation. The
reproductive effects of mercury to avian species can be
effectively evaluated because of the nonintrusive nature of
this methodology.
Arsenic uptake from soil and plant tissue to deer
mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) was evaluated by Ollson et
al. (2009). Calculated uptake rates from standard estimated
daily intake models highly overestimated the actual daily
intake of arsenic by an order of magnitude.
The dissolution kinetics of acid volatile sulfide
(AVS) and simultaneously extracted metals (SEM) were
measured by Poot et al. (2009) to evaluate whether the
dissolution of AVS and metals in the sediment occurred
simultaneously. The only metal that appeared to have
similar reaction kinetics to AVS in the study sediment was
copper.
Perron et al. (2009) evaluated the applicability of
using reverse polyethylene samplers (RePES) as a phase II
toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) method for
evaluating the toxicity of nonionic organic contaminants in
whole marine sediment. RePES can be used as an effective
TIE method to reproduce the toxicity of intact sediments.
Marine species sensitivity distributions from
exposure to oil were used by Smit et al. (2009) to evaluate
the relationship between biomarkers and organism level
effects. Biomarkers from oil exposure were up to 50 times
more sensitive, but biomarkers could be used as a screening
tool for evaluating when additional study is warranted.
Quinn et al. (2009) developed a no-observed-
adverse-effects level (NOAEL) and a lowest-observed-
adverse-effects level (LOAEL) for the northern bobwhite
quail (Colinus virginianus) from RDX (1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-
triazine) administered orally in corn oil. The resulting
NOAEL and LOAEL were 3.0 mg/kg.d and 8.0 mg/kg.d,
respectively.
Qi et al. (2009) measured the liberation of arsenic
from arsenical herbicide contaminated soils that
demonstrated three types of release mechanisms including
kinetically controlled, equilibrium controlled, irreversibly
bound. Arsenic would be desorbed from the kinetically and
equilibrium controlled soils by acid rain, but the
irreversibly bound soils would not release arsenic.
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The binding affinity of nitroaromatic compounds
to three types of Chinese soils was investigated by Zhang,
SHU*, and Chen (2009). Results from the study indicate
that soil organic matter rather than clay minerals was the
primary binding pathway of nitroaromatics in these soils.
Reiss et al. (2009) evaluated the ecological risk
of triclosan (2,4,4-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl), a
common bactericide, from the application of sewage
sludge. Typical sewage sludge concentrations should not
pose an ecological risk to earthworms, birds, mammals,
terrestrial plants, or soil microorganisms.
Smolder et al. (2009) used a series of laboratory
toxicity tests to evaluate metal bioavailability from
different soil types and sources of metals. Total metal
concentrations are not solely indicative of toxicity and
other factors including soil properties, aging and source of
metals play a contributing factor in the bioavailability and
toxicity of metals in soil.
Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) was proposed for
use as a model plant species to evaluate the transfer of
metals from contaminated soils to higher trophic-level
species by Sinnett et al. (2009). Concentrations of
cadmium and zinc measured in the leaves of U. dioica
strongly correlated with tissue concentrations in the
primary consumer test organisms Helix aspersa and
Lumbricus terrestris.
Nickel and cadmium concentrations in wheat and
potato crops were measured and compared to the field-
measured soil-diffusive gradient in thin film (DGT)
concentrations by Perez and Anderson (2009). Total metal
concentrations in conjunction with those measured in the
DGTs provide a practical field-based method to determine
metal concentrations in edible portions of crops.
Stanley et al. (2009) evaluated two methods for
measuring semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in
tadpole tissue. Although both evaluated methods showed
promising results, matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD)
provided additional benefits over pressurized liquid
extraction (PLE) including detection of more SVOCs and
reduced solvent volumes necessary in the extraction
process.
Bioaccumulation of RDX (1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-
triazine) in the earthworm (Eisenia andrei) was evaluated
by Sarrazin et al. (2009) using toxicokinetic studies. As
RDX soil concentrations increased from 1 to 10 000 mg/kg,
the BAF dropped significantly from 6.7 to 0.1, respectively
showing that BAFs can differ widely in a sandy loam soil.
A 13-d amphipod reproduction test was
developed by Mann et al. (2009) that encompasses
gametogenesis, fertilization, and embryo development
before hatching. The sensitivity of the test endpoints were
evaluated using field collected sediments that were
naturally contaminated, predominantly with metals, and
using metal-spiked sediments prepared in the laboratory.
Side-by-side reproductive tests with mummichog
(Fundulus heteroclitus) and fathead minnow (Pimephales
promelas) were conducted with effluent from a bleached
kraft pulp mill in Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada, to
determine the differenced in the effects of endocrine
disrupting substances among the available tests (Melvin et
al., 2009). A comparison of the results of the study to other
published studies suggest that current reproductive
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bioassays are only sensitive for detecting magnitudes of
change of greater than 50% and that differences exist in the
sensitivities of fish.
A 4-d, staticrenewal survival and growth test
was developed for use with D. magna and the test results
were compared to performance criteria and results from 7-d
survival and reproduction tests with Ceriodaphnia dubia to
determine the level of comparability between the two
methods (Lazorchak et al., 2009). Results from the 4-d D.
magna survival and growth test method indicated that this
method produces consistent results with various reference
toxicant materials and provides data that are both
reproducible and useful for detecting potential toxicity in
aquatic environments.
Brooks et al., (2009) investigated the
consequences of sublethal contaminant effects in prey on
predatorprey interactions, particularly the interaction
between prey behavioral changes and predation by
predators with different hunting strategies. The results of
this study highlighted that the full effects of contaminants
cannot be predicted by single species acute toxicity tests
and that ecological risk assessments may therefore need to
incorporate trophic interactions and population changes that
can occur as an indirect result of sublethal exposures within
natural assemblages.
A method was presented by Kipka and Di Toro
(2009) for extending the target lipid model (TLM) of
narcotic toxicity to polar narcotic chemicals. The model
predicts the log median lethal concentration with a root
mean square error of 0.460 for nonpolar and polar
chemicals and 0.501 for only polar chemicals. The authors
concluded that their model is simple and effective and can
be applied to any polar and nonpolar narcotic chemical to
calculate the LC50 acute toxic endpoint.
A method was presented by McGrath and Di
Toro (2009) for developing scientifically defensible,
numeric guidelines for residual petroleum-related
constituents, specifically monocyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (MAHs) and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), in the water column, using the target
lipid model (TLM) that was developed for assessing the
toxicity of type I narcotic chemicals. An acute to chronic
ratio is used for chronic expression and sublethal effects.
They concluded that the methodology is capable of
predicting both the acute and chronic toxicity of MAHs and
PAHs in single exposures and in mixtures and can be used
by the oil spill community to compare residual
concentrations of PAHs against defensible, numeric
guidelines to assess potential ecological impacts.
Risk Characterization, Uncertainty, and
Management. De Lange et al. (2009) developed a new
method to predict ecological vulnerability in wildlife using
autecological information. The method resulted in an
ordinal ranking of vulnerable species which was applied to
six representative contaminants: cadmium, copper, zinc,
DDT, chlorpyrifos, and ivermectin, to include essential
metals with low to medium toxicity to persistent organic
chemicals with high toxicity.)
Lin and Meng (2009) proposed an extrapolation
approach using available acute (median lethal or effect
concentration) and chronic (no observed-effect
concentration) toxicity test data at the organism level to
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derive a reference value contributing to the development of
predicted-no-effect concentration on population persistence
for population-level ecological risk assessment of
chemicals. They concluded that the extrapolation approach
is widely applicable and is promising for performing
population-level ecological risk assessment on a more
general basis that can support reasonable chemical
management.
Human Health
Methodology. Using a modified Chemical
Hazard and Evaluation Management Strategies model
along with Canadas National Pollutant Release Inventory
(NPRI), Dunn (2009) developed a relative risk ranking.
This ranking scored chemicals of concern based on
toxicity, chemical fate properties, and NPRI data to set a
priority to help the community determine hazards as well as
for future risk assessment and evaluation by the
government.
Toxicity. The potential uptake and toxicity of
tungsten carbide and cobalt-doped tungsten carbide
nanoparticles on human and rat cells was evaluated by
Bastian et al. (2009) using human lung, skin, and colon
cells, and rat neuronal and glial cells in vitro. The authors
demonstrated uptake of tungsten carbide nanoparticles by
mammalian cells with no acute toxicity; however, the
cobalt-doped nanoparticles were shown to have an
increased cytotoxic effect with the most sensitive cells
being the astrocytes and colon epithelial cells. Oxidative
damage to DNA was measured by Folkmann et al. (2009)
in a study where rats were exposed by oral gavage to C 60
fullerenes and single-walled carbon nanotubes. The study
results showed that low dose oral exposure to both C60
fullerenes and single-walled carbon nanotubes resulted in
elevated levels of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2-deoxyguanosine in
the liver and lung, which were associated with genotoxic
ability of the substances as opposed to an inhibition of
DNA repair.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is
developing an online resource for toxicology information
identified as the Aggregated Computational Toxicology
Resource (ACToR), which incorporates information from a
wide variety of public sources on chemical structure,
physical-chemical properties, in vitroassay data, tabular in
vivodata, summary toxicology determinations, and links to
online toxicology summaries (Judson et al., 2009). This
resource is also being used as a means to identify and
prioritize chemicals where additional toxicity testing is
needed.
Bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical commonly used
in polycarbonate plastic manufacturing, may be linked to
endocrine disruption in animals and possibly humans at low
exposure levels; a study was conducted to evaluate the
potential exposure to BPA through ingestion of beverages
from polycarbonate plastic drinking bottles in a group of 77
Harvard College students. (Carwile et al., 2009). Urinary
concentrations of BPA were measured during both a
washout week (minimal exposure to BPA) and an
intervention week (drinking cold beverages from
polycarbonate bottles) and compared and it was determined
that there was an increase in urinary BPA concentrations by
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a factor of two thirds following the week of polycarbonate
bottle use.
Morisseau et al. (2009) used a mechanistically
based screening assay, identified as high-throughput
screening using nine enzyme-based and five receptor-based
bioassays, as a tool to obtain rapid toxicological data for
176 synthetic chemicals. The authors concluded that this
rapid screening method could be useful tool to identify
potentially hazardous chemicals and prioritize them for
further research. In 2009, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA, 2009a) released draft
toxicological reviews for the following chemicals:
trichloroethene
hydrogen cyanide and cyanide salts
1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
ethyl tertiary butyl ether
chloroprene
trichloroacetic acid
methanol
halogenated platinum salts and platinum
compounds
cis- and trans-1,2-dichloroethene
1,4-dioxane
Also in 2009, the USEPA published its final
assessment for particulate matter, which included the
agencys most recent evaluation of the scientific literature
regarding the potential health effects associated with
exposure to particulate matter in ambient air (USEPA,
2009b).
A predictive Bayesian dose-response assessment
was conducted to compare the toxicity of carbon nanotubes
with the toxicity of crocidolite by Iudicello and Englehardt
(2009) using a theoretically derived emergent dose-
response model. The study concludes that the two
toxicities are comparable when looking at intratracheal and
intraperitoneal applications; however, further dose-
response data is recommended.
Finley et al. (2009) administered soil samples
containing PCDD/F toxic equivalent (TEQ) concentrations
orally to female Sprague Dawley rats. The results compare
the soil bioavailability of the cogeners, evaluate the
consistency of bioavailability results with in vitro
bioaccessibility, and develop quantitative bioavailability
measurements for a health risk assessment.
A physiologically-based pharmacokinetic
(PBPK) model was used to measure the radiation dose
equivalents to benzene metabolites to estimate benzene risk
by Nakayama et al (2009). The life-time exposure risks
were predicted to be 5.4 x 10-7and 1.3 x 10-3based on life-
time exposure to benzene of 1 micrograms per cubic meter
(!g/m3) to 3.2 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3).
The simulation of one- and two-sided confidence
intervals for benchmark dose estimation when model inputs
in the profile likelihood method employed by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency benchmark dose
software are on the boundary was conducted by Kopylev et
al. (2009). The coverage was close to 1, with a confidence
level of 95 percent or "= 0.05 for several.
The potential for organotin (OT) heat stabilizers,
potentially immune, nervous, and reproductive toxicants, to
leach from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes to residential
drinking water was evaluated by Fristashi et al (2009) by
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developing probability distributions of U.S. population
exposures to OT mixtures in drinking water transmitted via
PVC pipes; the 90th
percentile average daily dose (ADD)
was determined to be 0.034 2.92 x 10-4micrograms per
kilogram per day (!g/kg-day). The calculated ADD is
significantly lower than the World Health Organization
(WHO) ADD of 4.2 !g/kg-day for the most toxic OT
evaluated in the study, dibutylin (DBT); the estimated
exposures to the population were also significantly lower
than the WHO safe long-term drinking water concentration.
An inhalation unit risk factor (URF) for 1,3-
butadiene of 5.0 x 10-7
per microgram per cubic meter
(!g/m3) was developed by the Texas Commission on
Environmental Quality (TCEQ) using an updated
epidemiological study based on styrene-butadiene rubber
production workers which was not available at the time the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency developed the URF
for 1,3-butadiene in 2002 (Grant et al, 2009). Air
concentration values of 20 !g/m3, which reflects no-
significant-risk level of leukemia mortality, and a chronic
reference value of 33 !g/m3, which is protective of ovarian
atrophy, will be used to evaluate ambient air by the TCEQ.
By modeling the uncertainty in toxicity
standards, the approach for the evaluation of chronic
noncarcinogenic effects of chemical mixtures developed as
part of the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) was
evaluated by Price et al. (2009) to determine if
overestimation of risk as a result of compounding
conservative assumptions for individual components when
applied to the mixture. The use of TTC leads to
conservative estimates of mixture toxicity and the resultant
noncancer toxicity default values are appropriate for
screening assessments of mixtures.
Exposure Assessment. Using blood mercury
concentrations and fish/shellfish consumption data from the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES), an evaluation was conducted of the
distribution of blood mercury within coastal and non-
coastal areas (U.S. Census regions) among women of
childbearing age as a function of fish consumption for the
period from 1999 through 2004 (Mahaffey et al., 2009).
The results showed higher levels of blood mercury among
women living in coastal areas with regional differences
across the U.S., and across social and economic groups
leading to the conclusion that blood mercury levels were
associated with income, ethnicity, and area of residence.
A study was conducted to measure and compare
concentrations of various oxidative phthalate metabolites in
breast milk, serum, saliva, and urine of 33 lactating women
in North Carolina (Hines et al., 2009). Phthalate
metabolites were more prevalent in urine samples and were
detected with less frequency in serum, milk, or saliva and it
was concluded that the urinary metabolite concentrations
reflected material exposure and were not representative of
the concentrations in other bodily fluids. Phthalate
exposure was also the subject of a study by Hernndez-
Daz et al. (2009) who examined the role of medication as a
potential source of phthalate exposure in the U.S.
population by measuring the urinary concentrations of
phthalate metabolites in both users and nonusers of oral
medications where phthalate is present in the polymer
coatings. The study results showed higher concentrations
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of urinary phthalate metabolites among users of phthalate-
containing medications as compared to nonusers and
concluded that some medications could be a source of high
exposure to some phthalates raising a potential human
health concern especially for more vulnerable exposure
groups, such as pregnant women and children.
A cohort of 725 deaths from among 6,181 former
residents of Love Canal was used in a study of the
association between mortality and exposure to the
contamination present in the landfill beneath the residential
neighborhood that was located in Niagara Falls, New York
(Gensburg et al., 2009a). The mortality rates were
examined and compared with rates for New York State and
Niagara County and it was determined that a direct
relationship between exposure to landfill chemicals and an
increase in mortality rate was not clear. These authors also
evaluated the association between exposure to the landfill
at Love Canal with cancer incidence using data from the
same group of former residents, of which it was determined
that 5,052 were eligible study participants (Gensburg et al.,
2009b). An elevated incidence rate was identified for
cancer of the bladder and kidney and higher rates of
bladder cancer were noted within the group of residents
who were exposed as children, although the authors
concluded that the specific link between landfill exposure
and increased cancer incidence was unclear given the
various limitations of the study.
In companion studies, Gaitens et al. (2009) and
Dixon et al. (2009) evaluated the relationship between lead
exposure in children in the U.S. and the presence of lead-
contaminated house dust. In the first study, dust lead
samples from NHANES collected from 1999 through 2004
were compared to existing health-based standards and it
was determined that most houses with children had dust
lead levels that complied with federal standards, but still
may put children at risk. The second study evaluated the
relationship between dust lead levels and childhood blood
lead levels and lead poisoning. The study concluded that a
reduction in the current federal standard for floor dust lead
would be more protective of children. The association
between cumulative exposure to lead and cognitive
function in older women was examined using biomarkers in
bone and blood to assess cumulative lead exposure in
conjunction with performance of a battery of cognitive
function tests (Weuve et al., 2009). The results of the study
indicated that cumulative lead exposure, even at relatively
low doses, could have an adverse effect on cognitive
function in older women.
Sclo et al. (2009) demonstrated a strong
association between the risk of acute lymphoblastic
leukemia (ALL) and home paint exposure in children, with
a higher risk observed when the paint was used postnatally
or frequently. The study also examined the association
between ALL and the use of petroleum solvents in the
home and between acute myeloid leukemia and exposure to
paint or solvents; the study concluded that additional
research was needed to evaluate these relationships.
No association between the incidence of several
types of cancer and exposure to permethrin was
demonstrated among pesticide applicators that were
included in a cohort from the Agricultural Health Study
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(Rusiecki et al., 2009). The study examined permethrin
exposure for a total of 49,093 pesticide applicators.
Cooper et al. (2009) conducted a literature-based
evaluation of the immune-related, and specifically
autoimmune-related effects resulting from exposure to
trichloroethene (TCE) in mice and humans. The authors
concluded that TCE exposure was linked to various
autoimmune responses in both mice and humans and noted
both consistency in the studies identified in the literature
and good agreement between outcomes for mice and
humans in support of their conclusions.
Biological monitoring of urine uranium
concentrations was conducted to evaluate potential
exposure to depleted uranium in Gulf War and post-Gulf
Ware veterans (Dorsey et al., 2009). In a study conducted
over the period between January 2003 and June 2008,
1,769 24-hour urine specimens were analyzed and no
depleted uranium was identified in those veterans who did
not have embedded fragments of depleted uranium from a
previous injury suggesting that a health risk related to
depleted uranium exposure is unlikely for veterans without
embedded fragments.
The emerging environmental health effects
resulting from the modernization and urbanization of
African countries was evaluated in a literature-based study
(Nweke and Sanders, 2009). The study determined that the
traditional hazards such as inadequate sanitation were being
replaced by exposure to more industrial-type hazards such
as those related to natural resource mining and processing
and automobile exhaust, and noted that potential risks
related to water and air pollution were significant data gaps.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administrations
(FDAs) finding that concentrations of lead in certain
commercial multivitamin and mineral products used by
women and children do not pose a health hazard was
examined through the analysis of the methodology and safe
exposure levels used by the agency (Miodovnik and
Landrigan, 2009). The authors determined that the safe
exposure levels used by the FDA, the provisional total
tolerable intake (PTTI) levels, were not based on blood
level levels that were sufficiently protective and that the
agencys analysis did not take into account nonfood sources
of lead exposure leading to the conclusion that
reconsideration of the FDAs position was warranted.
The potential link between arsenic exposure and
impaired glucose tolerance during pregnancy, and an
indicator of increased risk of type 2 diabetes, was studied in
a group of 523 women living near the Tar Creek Superfund
Site in Oklahoma (Ettinger et al., 2009). Correlating the
concentrations of arsenic in blood and hair with the results
of a 1 hour glucose tolerance test performed during routine
prenatal care, and adjusting for age and other factors, the
authors demonstrated an increased risk of impaired glucose
tolerance associated with arsenic exposure at 24 to 28
weeks of gestation, which suggests a potential increased
risk of gestational diabetes. Kozul et al. (2009) conducted
research involving arsenic exposure via drinking water and
food and the potential effect on immune response in mouse
lungs at concentrations reflective of the current federal
drinking water standard for arsenic. The results of the
study showed significant changes in the expression of a
number of genes of varying function, including aspects of
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innate immune response suggesting an association between
low dose arsenic exposure and effects on the regulations of
innate immunity, which could lead to a change in disease
risk, particularly in the lung. The effect of arsenic exposure
on response to respiratory influenza was the subject of a
study where mice were exposed to 100 parts per billion of
arsenic in drinking water for 5 weeks, which was followed
by intranasal inoculation with influenza A (H1N1) virus
(Kozul et al., 2009). Arsenic exposure was observed to be
associated with a compromised immune response to the
respiratory infection and the results suggested that the
altered response to respiratory infection may contribute to
other chronic respiratory disease. Heck et al., (2009)
evaluated the association between arsenic exposure at low
to moderate concentrations (less than 100 !g per liter) and
the incidence of lung cancer in 10 counties in New
Hampshire and Vermont. Using toenail clippings to
determine arsenic exposure and estimating odds ratios of
the association between exposure and lung cancer, after
adjusting for confounding factors, it was concluded that
there is a possibility of increased risk of specific types of
lung cancer at low levels of arsenic exposure. Patterns of
urinary arsenic concentrations and arsenic species
(inorganic, methylarsonate, dimethylarsinate, and
arsenobtaine) were evaluated by Navas-Acien et al. (2009)
in samples from American Indians in Arizona, Oklahoma,
and North and South Dakota from 1989 to 1999. The study
identified low to moderate inorganic arsenic exposure and
long-term consistency in urine excretion patterns.
Pregnancy-induced hypertension and its
association with exposure to lead was studied in a group of
1,017 French women participating in the EDEN (a pre- and
postnatal development study) cohort study between 2003
and 2005 (Yazbeck et al., 2009). Blood lead concentrations
were measured in all participants and pregnancy-induced
hypertension was identified in 106 subjects; after
adjustment for confounding factors, such as age, parity,
weight gain and others, it was determined that blood lead
levels were significantly higher in subjects diagnosed with
pregnancy-induced hypertension.
The association between prenatal exposure to
bisphenol A (BPA) and early childhood behavior was
studied using data from 249 mothers who provided 3 urine
samples at 16 weeks and 26 weeks of pregnancy, and at
birth, and the administration of the second edition of the
Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC-2) to
each child at two years of age (Braun et al., 2009). Using
linear regression to analyze prenatal BPA concentrations
and the relationship to BASC-2 scores, the results
suggested a potential association between prenatal exposure
to BPA and specific (externalizing) behaviors in 2-year old
children, and in particular, female children.
A study was conducted on 150 pregnant women
from central New Jersey by Yan et al. (2009) focusing on
phthalates metabolites from measurements of maternal
urine, maternal serum, and cord serum samples collected at
the time of delivery. The results showed widespread
exposure to five phthalate parent compounds with urinary
concentrations being the better biomarker.
An experiment utilizing a computer controlled
mechanical chamber to contact human skin with carpet and
aluminum foil laden with soil in order to determine the
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amount of soil transferred. Ferguson et al. (2009) used two
different soil types accounting for variations of contact
pressure and time to determine that these had less influence
on the magnitude of transfer for the second contact.
Richardson and Fulton (2009) compiled data to
create an environmental emissions inventory for
endogenous and retail pharmaceutical estrogens discarded
in Canada during 2007. This inventory suggests that 960
kg of endogenous estrogens were excreted of which 420 kg
are impacting the surface water and soil/groundwater.
Two source-to-dose models developed from data
collected in a village polluted with emissions from a lead
smelter were integrated by Bonnard and McKone (2009) to
combine the idea of media-specific concentrations with
concentration of exposure of specific individuals. This
integrated approach helps to provide outputs with lower
variance, but further tests need to be run to determine
accuracy.
Dermal exposure to latex paint is the subject of
McCreadys (2009) study that uses a tiered approach, due
to drying time of latex paint, to determine bioavailability.
The idea of latex paint drying quickly reduces dermal
penetration from 100% of the applied substance to 5% and
potentially becomes 2% if the paint film is partially wiped.
Modeling and Probability Simulation. Various
models to predict personal exposure to volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) were developed and tested by
Delgado-Saborit et al. (2009) using microenvironment
concentrations collected via active samplers and sorbent
tubes combined with information collected through
questionnaires. The authors indicated that the best model
of the seven evaluated was based on stratified
microenvironment concentrations, lifestyle factors, and
individual-level activities and accounted for 40 to 85% of
the variance for individual VOCs and was validated for
most of the VOCs.
Manipulating oxygen uptake ranges and
ventilation rates, Allan et al. (2009) used a Monte Carlo
simulation to create probability density functions. Hourly
inhalation rates of construction workers were generated to
use as human exposure factors for risk assessments.
The control of air pollution was approached using
methodology based on traditional and fuzzy process
capability indices and compared with the six-sigma
approach by Kaya and Kahraman (2009). SO2 and
particulate matter in Istanbul exceed the ideal values and
should be decreased to provide a suitable environment.
With the aid of system dynamics modeling a
simulation was run using historical data to research the risk
of water shortage and the carrying capacity of water
resources for the city of Yiwu, China. Feng et al. (2009)
conclude that promoting environmental protection and
water conservation with economic development is the best
way to ensure the city grows in a way in which the required
amount of clean water will be available.
Accounting for treatment rate, Ding et al. (2009)
observed HIV patients when using a stochastic model with
treatment rate for AIDS transmission and control.
Knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of HIV patients were
considered while looking at the effects that changing the
treatment rate and contact rate pose.
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Risk of fire is increasing in urban areas of China
as the population continues to grow and this article by Wu
and Ren (2009) takes the main factors into account. City
planning along with decision making rely on the index
system of city fire risk evaluation, response time of fire
departments and a model using a theory of fuzzy
mathematics.
The mean value of intake of methyl mercury
through fish consumption by Japanese population was
estimated to be 6.76 micrograms per kilograms (!g/kg) or
0.14 micrograms per body weight per day using a Monte
Carlo simulation by random sampling of fish consumption
and species-specific methyl mercury levels (Zhang et al,
2009). No health risk was identified in an evaluation of
exposure to phthalates through food was evaluated by
Dickson-Spillman et al. (2009); however, consumers with a
higher natural and healthy diet interest correlated to higher
daily doses of phthalates.
Bengtsson et al. (2009) demonstrated that the
toxic equivalent concentration of a polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAH) mixture was dependent on the spatial
distribution of organic carbon at a site in southern Sweden
polluted with creosote using sequential Gaussian simulation
and indicator kriging models for 1.8 meter (m) by 1.8 m
blocks and site-specific data; Monte Carlo simulations for 5
m by 5 m blocks and yielded similar results.
Hierarchical models used to predict benchmark
dose (BMD) estimates of the effects of sodium chloride on
reproduction of Ceriodaphina dubia were found to produce
BMD estimates which more accurately reflected system
variability (Wheeler et al. 2009).
Rowney et al. (2009) used a geographic
information system approach to assess the risk of cytotoxic
drugs in the drinking water of the Thames River catchment.
Predicted concentrations of these drugs were many times
lower than human daily intake thresholds and would not
pose a risk to the general public.
Risk Characterization, Management, and
Policy. A survey of local public health officers in
California was conducted between August and October
2007 to evaluate concerns regarding the potential public
health effects that may result from climate change and the
level of preparedness of the various agencies to deal with
those issues (Bedsworth, 2009). The survey results
indicated a high degree of concern regarding the potential
health effects that may be triggered by climate change, but
a sense that the level of preparedness was not sufficient,
although the author concluded that, based on programs
being developed by local public health agencies, the level
of preparedness may be higher than perceived at that time.
The availability of federal funding in
the U.S. to evaluate and respond to the anticipated human
health effects associated with climate change was
incorporated into a study by Ebi et al. (2009) who
examined the potential health risks expected to result from
climate change and determined the estimated current
federal funding level to be less than $3 million per year.
Based on the perceived level of risk, the authors concluded
that a more realistic funding level would be in excess of
$200 million annually for both intramural and extramural
programs within the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, National Institutes of Health, and Centers for
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Disease Control, with oversight to be provided by the
National Academy of Sciences.
Through a review of applicable scientific
literature, English et al. (2009) were able to identify
surveillance indicators for climate change including
climate-sensitive health outcomes and environmental
vulnerability indicators, and mitigation, adaptation, and
policy indicators of climate change. The authors review
showed existing data for many of the indicators, but also
identified data gaps including an evaluation of sensitivity
and usefulness of the indicators.
A geographic mapping system was
used to determine vulnerability to the effects of heat waves
within the U.S., based on 10 factors that included
demographic and social variables, land cover, prevalence of
diabetes, and air conditioning (Reid et al., 2009). Four
factors were shown to account for greater than 75% of the
total variance among the 10 factors and included
social/environmental vulnerability, social isolation, air
conditioning prevalence, and proportion of elderly/diabetes
incidence and the areas of the U.S. with generally higher
vulnerability were in the Northeast and Pacific Coast areas,
the lowest was in the Southeast.
In a literature-based study, Karn et al. (2009)
examined the benefits and risks pertaining to the
application of nanotechnology and the resulting use of
nanomaterials in environmental remediation projects in the
U.S. and internationally, using information obtained from
45 sites regarding the nanomaterials used, the types of
pollutants being remediated, and the responsible
organizations, focusing especially on the use of nanoscale
zero-valent iron. The authors concluded that the use of
nanomaterials in site remediation has the potential to
reduce cost and time of cleanup, eliminate treatment and
disposal of contaminated soil, and substantially reduce
contaminant concentrations, all using in situ applications,
but also identified the need for evaluation of the potential
adverse environmental impact of nanomaterials.
The contribution of indoor air pollution to
cumulative cancer risk and the potential disparities in
cancer risk between Hispanic and non-Hispanic white
groups was evaluated using data from participants in the
Relationships of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal Air
(RIOPA) study through the evaluation of 12 of the volatile
organic compounds and carbonyls that were sampled and
considering sociodemographic factors and building
characteristics (Hun et al., 2009). The study results
indicated cumulative cancer risks for both groups that were
higher than the U.S. EPAs current 10-6 benchmark with
Hispanics having statistically higher cumulative cancer
risks than non-Hispanic whites due to differences in
exposure leading to the conclusion that Hispanics were
disproportionately affected by certain indoor air pollutants,
with contribution from outdoor sources, and that indoor air
pollution should be considered in policies designed to
reduce risk resulting from exposure to hazardous air
pollutants across all potential exposure groups.
Indoor air quality of schools in Oporto, Portugal
along with the health symptoms of the teachers was studied
to determine the present impact. Madureira et al. (2009)
identified many health concerns and determined that the
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increase in disease symptoms could be decreased with the
installation of adequate ventilation.
A Study was done by Rodionova et al. (2009) to
analyze gathered information relating to perceived societal
risks by people in the Russian cities of Moscow and Tula.
The highest risk perceptions were for violence, sex, and
addiction type hazards and the study compared these
perceptions by gender and education levels.
The medicinal plant Colebrookia oppositifolia
was used in a study to determine its antibacterial activity
against waterborne pathogens found in drinking water in
the Pothwar region in Pakistan. Using the API 20 E
method, Ahmed et al. (2009) assessed the activity of leaves
roots and shoots against Gram positive and Gram negative
bacteria that had been isolated.
The Catalan stretch of the Ebro River in Spain
was studied by Huguet et al. (2009) for a human health risk
assessment for exposure to the metals arsenic, cadmium,
chromium, copper, mercury, manganese, nickel and lead
from soil and water. The results from sampling indicated
low metal concentrations in the tap water and
concentrations in soils comparable to recent worldwide
surveys indicating minimal health concerns for the local
population with the exception of arsenic which needs
continued monitoring.
Ahmed et al. (2009) collected water samples
from filtration plants in the Potohar region in Pakistan to
analyze for faecal coliform bacteria and assessed Solanum
surrattense against waterborne pathogens. Results of the
water samples showed significantly elevated levels
compared to the recommended World Health Organization
guidelines, and a great potential exists with plants being
used for purification against waterborne pathogens found in
drinking water.
Siriwong et al. (2009) conducted a study of
organochlorine pesticide residues found in the Rangsit
agricultural area in central Thailand to create a human
health risk assessment looking at the potential dermal
contact exposure that local fishermen face. Using liquid-
liquid extraction and gas chromatography low
concentrations were detected, but a risk of concern is
present when looking at the worst case scenario based on a
maximum exposure.
An assessment of vulnerability was conducted by
Zhang (2009) providing a definition of socioeconomic
vulnerability and indicators arising from typhoon storm
surges in Guangdong Province, China. Methods of
numerical prediction, Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution
Function, information diffusion, fussy comprehensive
evaluation method with the Delphi method, and an
integration of these indicators allow the vulnerability to be
assessed.
After hurricane Katrina, Fox et al. (2009)
evaluated the potential for chemical mixture exposures to
identify health effects of concern. This study points out the
limitations of single substance risk assessments and urges
the need for disaster preparedness and response.
The Global International Council of Chemical
Associations (ICCA) Amine Oxides Consortium conducted
an environmental risk assessment on aquatic environments
using the United States exposure tool E-FAST (Sanderson
et al., 2009). A low risk to the environment was predicted:
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predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and the
predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) ranged from 0.04
to 0.003.
The result of a survey of two urban, English
regions on risk contaminated land in each neighborhood
and potential sources of information indicated trust is
reliant on perception of honest motives and perceived
expertise; if the public believes an expert sources is
motivated to distort information less knowledgeable
resident groups or friends/family were more likely to be
believed.
Regulatory Agency Guidance, Standard, and
Policy. The USEPA, Regions 3, 6, and 9, in cooperation
with the U.S. Department of Energy Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, developed and launched a website containing
the Regional Screening Levels for Chemical Contaminants
at Superfund Sites (USEPA, 2009c); it is noted that this
website was updated in May 2010. The website includes
tables of generic risk-based screening levels, the equations
used to develop the screening levels, and a calculator that
can be used to develop site-specific screening levels or
default screening levels for chemicals not included in the
generic tables.
An update to the Integrated Risk Information
System (IRIS) process was announced by the USEPA in
May 2009 (USEPA, 2009d). The new process includes a
streamlined review schedule intended to result in the
posting of new toxicological assessments to IRIS within
two years of the start date of the assessment.
White et al. (2009) published the findings of an
April 2007 workshop sponsored by the USEPA and Johns
Hopkins Risk Sciences and Public Policy Institute where
the state of the science on low-dose extrapolation
modeling as it applies to environmental health risk
assessments was reviewed using discussion topics
identified based on a literature review. Alternate
approaches were recommended for high-dose animal to
low-dose human extrapolation.
In May 2009, the USEPA announced its plan to
conduct various activities related to environmental
exposure to dioxin and related compounds. As part of the
implementation of this plan, the agency released several
reports, including a review of a dioxin exposure study
conducted by the University of Michigan (USEPA, 2009e),
a review of various state soil cleanup levels for dioxin
(USEPA, 2009f), and draft agency guidance on preliminary
remediation goals for dioxin for both Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act sites
(USEPA, 2009g). The USEPAs Risk Assessment Forum
released an external review draft of its recommended
toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) to be used in
conducting human health risk assessments for dioxin and
dioxin-like compounds (USEPA 2009h). Public comments
were obtained through correspondence and during an
October 2009 teleconference and have been made available
at www.regulations.gov(search under Docket ID No. EPA-
HQ-ORD-2009-0605).
The USEPAs Risk Assessment Forum released
external review drafts of guidance for the use of
probabilistic models to enhance risk analysis in the decision
making process with regard to human, ecological, and
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environmental risk (two separate documents, one including
case study examples and the other, a Managers Summary)
(USEPA, 2009i). The documents describe aspects of the
decision-making process where probabilistic tools may be
helpful and provide further discussion regarding
probabilistic risk assessment; public comments were made
available at: http://www.regulations.gov (search under
DOCKET ID NO. EPA-HQ-ORD-2009-0645).
The findings of a June 2008 workshop regarding
population-level ecological risk assessment was published
by the USEPAs Risk Assessment Forum (USEPA, 2009j).
The workshop focused on current approaches, methods,
and tools; strengths, limitations, trade-offs, and research
needs; and technical needs regarding the development of
additional guidance with respect to the agencys current
Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment.
The Global Change Research Program, under the
National Center for Environmental Assessment, released a
draft report concerning a proposed method for categorizing
the relative vulnerability of various species to the effects of
climate change (EPA 2009k). The framework document
includes four modules, including 1) categorizing baseline
vulnerability to extinction or major population reduction, 2)
categorizing vulnerability to future climate change, 3)
developing a matrix to score vulnerability to non-climate
and climate change stressors, and 4) qualitatively
determining uncertainty in estimating vulnerability.
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Water Environment Research, Volume 82, Number 10Copyright 2010 Water Environment Federation
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