Ecosystem Services Assessment in Mui Ca Mau National Park
Project Activity 2.6 for the Project: Developing a piloting model on payments for coastal wetland ecosystem services in Mui Ca Mau National Park in the context of climate change contributing to poverty reduction in local community
THIS DOCUMENT IS SPONSORED BY
Project sponsored by The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency in Vietnam
Project Partners
Biodiversity Conservation Agency, Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam
Research Center of Forest and Wetlands, Vietnam
Forum for Reforms, Entrepreneurship and Sustainability, Sweden This report prepared by
Ana P. Aponte, Daxam Sustainability Services, Sweden
June 2013 Citation BCA, FORES, FORWET 2013, Ecosystem Services Assessment in Mui Ca Mau National Park, Stockholm, Sweden Project Team Ulrika Stavlöt Ana P Aponte Scott Cole Linus Hasselström Daniel Engström Stenson Nguyen The Dong Huynh Thi Mai Nguyen Chi Thanh Nguyen Tuan Phu Nguyen Tien Dung Le Huu Phu
Contacts Biodiversity Conservation Agency, Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment Management No 10, Ton That Thuyet Street, Cau Giay district, Hanoi, Vietnam Tel.: + 84 4 37956868 Ext.3108 Forum for Reforms, Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Bellmansgatan 10 118 20 Stockholm, Sweden Tel: +46 08 45 22 660
Table of content
Contents
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Objectives and scope .................................................................................................................. 5
2. Brief of study area ...................................................................................................................... 6 3. Methodology and tools ........................................................................................................... 10
4. Ecosystems in Mui Ca Mau National Park ........................................................................ 13 Biodiversity .............................................................................................................................................................. 15
5. Ecosystem Services (ES) provided by coastal wetlands and mangrove forest in Mui Ca Mau National Park ......................................................................................................... 17 5.1 Provisioning ...................................................................................................................................... 18 Food provisioning .................................................................................................................................................. 19 Medicinal herbs ....................................................................................................................................................... 20 Provisioning of water (fresh and brackish) ................................................................................................ 20 Timber for construction ...................................................................................................................................... 21
5.2 Regulating services ......................................................................................................................... 22 Climate regulation ................................................................................................................................................. 23 Shoreline stabilisation ......................................................................................................................................... 24 Protection of fresh water supplies from saltwater intrusion ............................................................. 25
5.3 Cultural services .............................................................................................................................. 25 Ecotourism ................................................................................................................................................................ 25
5.4 Supporting services ........................................................................................................................ 26 6. Drivers of change in ecosystems in Mui Ca Mau ............................................................ 27
8. References .................................................................................................................................. 29
Abbreviations BCA Biodiversity Conservation Agency MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment NP National Park IBA Important Bird Area MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment PES Payment for Ecosystem Services PWES Payment for wetland Ecosystem Services ES Ecosystem Services ISPONRE Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation IBA Important Bird Area MCMNP Mui Ca Mau National Park ZER Zone Ecosystems Protection
1. Objectives and scope The objectives of the assessment of wetland Ecosystem Services (ES) in Mui Ca Mau National Park (MCMNP) are:
- To assess natural conditions of coastal wetland and mangrove ecosystems. - To investigate changes in ecosystems and causes of these changes. - To evaluate the types of ecosystem services that will support the activities during
the pilot stage of the project (mangrove forest protection, wetland ecosystems and biodiversity conservation, aquaculture and agricultural production and development od ecotourism services).
- To provide input into the development of a Payment for wetland and mangrove forest Ecosystem Services (PES) in MCMNP.
Scope of assessment: This report will be focused on direct and indirect ES in MCMNP.
2. Brief of study area The Mekong Delta (Cuu Long Delta in Vietnamese) is a part of the Lower Mekong River Delta, which is situated in the downstream Mekong Basin. The total length of the main flow is about 4,200 km, forming a basin with a total area of 795,000 km2. The Mekong downstream area in Vietnam accounts the 12% of the country (40,000 km2).
The Mekong Delta covers an area of 39,569 km2 in Vietnam and is currently home to 18 million inhabitants (2010). The Mekong Delta in Vietnam is farmed intensively and has little natural vegetation left. Forest cover is less than 10%. Agricultural expansion and population pressure are the major reasons for land use and landscape change. Both drought and flooding are common hazards in the delta, which many people believe is the most sensitive to upstream hydrological change (Mekong Delta Commission 2005). The delta is of great economical importance for Vietnam and is the country’s most productive agriculture and aquaculture area. Covering only 12% of the area of the country, it contributes around 30% of national gross domestic product yearly. In 2010, 500 million tons of fruits, 22 million tons of rice, 1.2 million tons of Pangasius and 400,000 tons of shrimp were produced in the Delta, contributing close to USD 5 billion in export earnings (WWF-‐ Greater Mekong Program). 13 provinces in Vietnam are part of the Mekong Delta. The focus area of study within this assessment is the rehabilitation area of MCMNP in Ca Mau Province.
Most of local communities leaving in and around MCMNP are poor and strongly depend on the wetland natural resources for their livelihood (Interviews with NP staff, 2013). In the wartime, local inhabitants subsidised themselves hunting and fishing. After reunification in 1975, a reclamation programme was started. Large areas of brackish and sulphated wetlands were washing for rice cultivation. Other areas that were not suitable for rice cultivation were converted to other kind of vegetable cultivation (pumpkin or maize amongst others). In late 1980s, an increasing boom of shrimp consumption leaded to destroy a large area of mangrove forest in Ca Mau peninsula and original mangrove forest was cleared for shrimp ponds construction. A decade later, as a result of setback of shrimp production together with the later establishment of Mui Ca Mau as a national park (Decision no. 142/2003 QD-‐TTg), the mangroves and other natural intertidal flats have been rehabilitated (see figure below).
Figure 1: Former shrimp farming pond restored 20 years ago. Now, this part of the NP belongs to the full protection area.
MCMNP is located in 4 communes, Dat Mui and Vien An (Ngoc Hien district) and Lam Hai and Dat Moi (Nam Can district), at 100 km from Ca Mau city. The total area of the park is 41,802 ha. (9,610 ha. are terrestrial and 32,192 ha. Belong to the marine area –see table 1 below-‐).
Table 1. Different protection areas in Mui Ca Mau NP
Mui Ca Mau NP Ha.
Terrestrial area
Full Protection Area 6,455.1 Zone Ecosystem Protection 2,907.6 Administration-‐Services Area 247.3 Total terrestrial area 9,610
Marine area Full Protection Area 6,561 Rehabilitation Area 25,631 Total marine area 32,192
Total Mui Ca Mau NP 41,802 Source: Mui Ca Mau National Park’s Management Board In 2012, 51,601 persons live within the border of the national park. Our work area belongs to the commune of Dat Mui in Ngoc Hien district. Of the four communes inside the park, Dat Mui has the higher number of households living in the protected area: 3,900. Of these, only around 200 have been allocated land. The remaining 3,700 households are without land or minimal land to support a dwelling. Because these households cannot farm shrimp and fishing is only possible from June to July when fish are plentiful, they depend on cutting mangroves and producing charcoal for a living (UICN, 2013). Local communities are highly dependent on wetland natural resources. In 2010, 95% of the economic output came from aquaculture (open sea and ponds), 3% from agriculture and 2% from forestry (Ca Mau statistical year book 2010 for Ngoc Hien district). All households involved in this project have aquaculture (shrimp and clam farming) as the main source of income. Only 5% of the families have another source of income apart from aquaculture or agriculture. Table 2. Average revenue and income (million VND 2012) of 20 households (HHs) participating in the project
Number of households
Revenue aquaculture
Revenue agriculture
Revenue activities outside pond
Total revenue
Total income
Income per capita per month
Poor HHs in rural area: income under 0.4 million VND per capita per month (*) 4 39.6 0.6 0.0 40.3 21.5 0.3
Pro-‐poor HHs in rural area: income from 0.41 million VND to 0.52 million VND/capita/ month (*)
1 40 0 0 40 24 0.5 Low income HHs in rural area: income from 0.5 million VND to 1 million VND/capita/ month
6 52.4 0.7 13.6 66.7 40.2 0.8 Fair income HHs in rural area: income from 1 million VND to 2 million VND/capita /month
8 87.6 3.4 11.9 102.9 65.1 1.4 High income HHs in rural area: income over 2 million VND/capita/month
1 222 25 0 247 165 2.75 (*) Decision of the Prime Minister 9/2011/QD-‐TTG: Promulgating standards of poor households, poor households to apply for stage from 2011 to 2015". Source: Forwet fieldwork (2013)
Mui Ca Mau’s wetland is very rich in biodiversity and has several special designations:
- Decision of the Prime Minister N° 142/2003/QD-‐TTg, Mui Ca Mau was establish as national park in 2003 and it belongs to the Special-‐Use Forest System of Vietnam.
- Recommendation of National Marine Priority by the Ministry of Agriculture (2005).
- National Action Plan for Biodiversity to 2010 and Strategy to Implement Biodiversity Convention to 2020 (2007), in which Mui Ca Mau is mentioned as one of the critical sites for conservation, development and sustainable use of biodiversity in Vietnam.
- UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (2009). The establishment of Mui Ca Mau’s biosphere reserve follows the policy of local sustainable development of the Vietnamese Government (Agenda 21).
- Birdlife listed 4,388 ha in Mui Ca Mau as IBA (Important Bird Area) - It was designated as Ramsar site (n°2088) in 2012. - Biodiversity Conservation Agency (BCA) listed Mui Ca Mau NP as a potential area
for implementing PES pilot studies for biodiversity conservation in its report “Research on methodology and possible application of PES for biodiversity conservation in Vietnam” (BCA et al 2011).
Rehabilitation area
Figure 2: Mui Ca Mau National Park and rehabilitation area
MCMNP is a special-‐use forest that belongs to the special-‐use forest system of Vietnam. The full protection area in the national park is managed by conservation bodies using
national policies for national protected areas and forests by decision No 142/2003/QD-‐TTg and Decision 08/201/QD-‐TTg of Prime Minister, for Protected Mangrove Forests. The rehabilitation and administrative areas are managed by existing regulations issued by Ca Mau People’s Committee and Community participation.
3. Methodology and tools The framework used in this assessment is The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). It is an international process designed to meet needs of policy makers and the public for scientific information concerning consequences of ecosystem changes on human well-‐being and responses to these changes (MA 2005).
As shown in figure 2 the MA conceptual framework places human well being in focus while recognizing the existence of intrinsic values of biodiversity and ecosystems and human’s decision making on ecosystems in respect to both human well being and these intrinsic values. The MA Conceptual Framework ascertains that there exists dynamic interactions between human and ecosystems and that change in human conditions would lead to changes in ecosystems and, in turn, changes in ecosystems would result in changes in human well-‐being. Thus, the process pays special attention to interrelations between ecosystem services and human well-‐being.
Figure 3. MA framework
MA defines ES as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as nutrient cycling, that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. ES are divided into four groups:
- Provision services refer to products human gain from ecosystems such as food, raw materials, freshwater, gene resources, etc.;
- Regulating services benefit humans through their regulation processes of ecosystems, including air and water purification, water and climate regulation, climate, erosion prevention, disease control, etc;
- Cultural services are immaterial benefits that help humans improve their awareness and spirit and develop their knowledge, creation and aesthetic experience;
- Supporting services are necessary to produce all other services such as oxygen and land formation.
A further step was taken in 2010 with the publication of The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity report (TEEB), which re-‐fined the MA classifications for the specific purpose of valuing ecosystem services. The TEEB report, together with more recent peer-‐reviewed literature and guidance documents on the valuation of ecosystem services, have focused on the importance of ecosystem services as one of several inputs that lead to the production of economic goods, which ultimately produce value for society (Boyd, 2010; Boyd & Banshaf, 2007; Fisher et al., 2009; Bioclimate, 2010; UK National Ecosystem Assessment, 2011). For example, the provision of biodiversity and aesthetic quality/landscapes are key inputs (together with labor and physical capital) in delivering tourism, a valued economic good. This report relies on these more refined frameworks for ecosystem service valuation, as they improve the policy relevance of “ecosystem services” as a management approach. The tools that have been used during the fieldwork and in the writing of this document are:
- Multi-‐sectorial assessment through literature review and interviews and fieldwork in Hanoi, Ca Mau city, Dat Mui and MCMNP (aquaculture, agroforestry, water, biodiversity, climate change, environment conservation and poverty reduction).
- Interdisciplinary assessment that combine both natural and social sciences. - Statistical method and comparative analysis (using amongst others the results of
the Downstream Mekong River Wetlands Ecosystem Assessment (Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, 2005), Climate Change Vulnerability and Risk Assessment Study for Ca Mau and Kien Giang Provinces (IMHEN, Ca Mau Peoples Committee, and Kien Giang Peoples Committee 2011) and Vietnam national biodiversity conservation strategy by 2020 (Decision 1216/QD-‐TTg, 2012)
- Due to a lack of resources GIS has not been used in this stage.
Following the indications of the MA conceptual framework, the final assessment of the ecosystem services provided in MCMNP will include:
- Assessment of goods and services provided by ecosystems (including
provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services) and how their changes affect human well-‐being.
- Integrated approach to such systems as aquaculture, agroforestry and ecotourism.
- Identification of direct and indirect drivers of the flow of ecosystem services;
To accomplish this assessment, three field trips to Ca Mau were conducted and collaboration between Swedish and Vietnamese partner has been fluent during all the steps of the project.
4. Ecosystems in Mui Ca Mau National Park The Mekong Delta was naturally formed under the complex interactions of physical conditions of Mekong River and the South China Sea. The climate, biodiversity, hydrology, land and water resourced found in the Delta are considered typical of tropical monsoon zone. By definition, an ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system (Smith & Smith 2012). Within the context of this project, human well-‐being, biodiversity and ecosystems are closely related concepts. Products of biodiversity provides services (e.g. food, ecotourism, …) to human beings, changes of ecosystems would affect the services that are offered and this have consequences for human well-‐being. In MCMNP changes in the ecosystems happen due to natural causes (storms and floods) or to human activities (clearing forest). MCMNP can be divided in the terrestrial area that is dominated by mangrove forest (planted or natural) and the marine area (9,610 ha are terrestrial and 32,192 ha are marine). The main ecosystems in MCMNP are:
- Inland mangrove forest with: Rhizophora forest, Avicennia forest, and mixed Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Sonneratia
- Estuarine ecosystem is developed where river water meets the sea. This ecosystem is strongly affected by tides and the water is brackish with varied salinity according to seasons. MCMNP estuarine counts with small tide amplitude because it is regulated by two conflicting tidal regimes (it receives diurnal and semidiurnal tides where diurnal tide is prevalent).
- Water body ecosystems. Within the Zone for Ecosystems Restoration (ZER) -‐2,907 ha-‐ that is the main focus of this report, three habitats play an important role: Table 3. Habitats in Mui Ca Mau National Park (ZER)
Habitats Importance
Mangroves grown mudflat. Natural mangroves are very rare in the Mekong Delta due to the war, especially the spraying of chemical defoliants, of shrimp expansion and uncontrolled forest exploitation in recent time (Sebastien T. B. 2000) The remaining natural mangrove forest is located in MCMNP with an area of around 5,000 ha.
Important in terms of biodiversity and protection against
climate change effects
Aquaculture ponds with mangroves. Ponds in the national park have areas ranging from 3 to 6 ha. All of them are used for shrimp farming. The ponds are characterized by the development of phytoplankton and zooplankton. All the ponds within the national park combine farming with forest protection.
Important in terms of provisioning, transport
and economic development
Canals and ditches. The brackish water environment, are
also the important shelters of shrimps, crabs, shellfish, etc.
Figure 4: Mangrove with Rhizophora forest
Figure 5: Aquaculture ponds with mangroves
Figure 6: Canal
For the past decades MCMNP has been following the same trends as the Mekong Delta. Over-‐exploitation of wetland ecosystems in the region has occurred resulting in habitat loss-‐fragmentation and degradation, environmental pollution, etc. In 1965; 87,097 ha of mangrove forest covered the area, in 2001 that number went down to 32,875 ha and in 2010 there was only 18,585 ha (Vu Tien Dien, Wataru Takeuchi, An Ngoc Van, Kyaw Sann Oo, Tomoyuki Nukui and Shin-‐ichi Sobue, 2012). Table 4. Causes of ecosystem loss in Mui Ca Mau National Park
Population growth à Overexploitation
In Ca Mau Province (*): Population: 1,214,900 persons Population growth rate: 0.92%. (The rate in the south of Vietnam is 0.06%) Poverty rate in Ngoc Hien district: 19% (national rate in 2010 was 9.5)
Seasonal clam larvae collectors During peak season, immigrants in the park reach ~2,000 outsiders or 50% of the park’s total population) (**)
Undervaluation of biodiversity from local authorities and people living in the natural park (e.g. temporary economic benefits from ecosystems were prioritized to conservation)
From 2000 to 2008 government policies expanded shrimp cultivation, leading to land use changes (Resolution No. 09/2000/NQ-‐CP,) Brackish shrimp culture got the key position, not only in term of from economic point of view or inefficiency of land, water and labour resources but also in mobilizing material resources to develop post harvest service of brackish shrimp (Phi et al., 2007).
Land use decisions were made through economic criteria No appropriate policies and measures on ecosystem exploitation and conservation have been applied
Invasive alien species Such as Mimosa pigra, Mimosa diplotricha and yellow snails.
Climate change
Recently phenomena observed (ICEM, 2011) -‐ Increased temperature -‐ Abnormally prolonged dry-‐hot season -‐ Unpredictable and high intensity rain events in the dry season. -‐ Sea level rises annually.
(*) Ca Mau Statistical Yearbook 2011; Dat Mui PPC, 2011 (**) Ramsar sheet Mui Ca Mau, 2012
Biodiversity Biodiversity is a key element in the development of ecotourism in the area. MCMNP is recognised at national and international level as a bird sanctuary and as one of the few places with natural mangrove forest remaining in Vietnam. On an international level, MCMNP is classified by UNESCO as protected area and it is a Ramsar and Interest Bird Area (IBA) zone. The loss of biodiversity could go together with the loss of these distinctions. Table 5: List of endangered and vulnerable species in Mui Ca Mau National Park
Endangered and vulnerable species
Scientific Name Common Name IUCN CITES CMS VRD Mammalia
Aonyx cinerea Asian Small-‐clawed Otter VU II VU
Lutra sumatrana Hairy-‐nosed Otter EN II EN
Manis javanica Sunda Pangolin EN II EN
Macaca arctoides Stump-‐tailed Macaque VU II VU
Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing Cat EN II EN
Viverra megaspila Large-‐spotted Civet VU VU Aves
Egretta eulophotes Chinese Egret VU I
Numenius madagascariensis
Far Eastern Curlew VU
Platalea minor Black-‐faced Spoonbill EN II I EN Reptilia Amyda cartilaginea Southeast Asian Softshell
Turtle VU II VU
Batagur baska Four-‐toed Terrapin CR I Cuora amboinensis Southeast Asian Box
Turtle VU II VU
Hieremys annandalii Yellow-‐headed Temple Turtle
EN II EN
Malayemys subtrijuga Snail-‐eating Turtle VU II VU
Ophiophagus hannah King Cobra VU II CR
Siebenrockiella crassicollis
Black Marsh Turtle VU II
Chondrichthyes
Himantura gerrardi White spotted Whipray VU
Actinopterygii
Hippocampus kuda Estuary Seahorse VU II EN
Pangasius krempfi Catfish VU
Source: Ramsar, IUCN 2011, Mui Ca Mau NP MCMNP has a wide range of natural and semi-‐natural ecosystems, including intertidal mudflats and mangroves of different ages, which are important breeding and spawning grounds for many important species of brackish water fishes, especially perciform (FFI 2007). These species contribute a significant proportion income for local fisher households in the area (VIFEP 2010). The most important ones are: Barramundi (Lates calcarifer), snappers Lutjanus spp., Fourfinger threadfin (Eleutheronema tetradactylum), Bronze croaker (Otolithoides biauritus), Spotted scat (Scatophagus argus), gobies such as Mudskippers Pseudapocryptes spp., Giant Mudskipper (Periophthalmodon schlosseri), sleepers such as Butis spp. or Dusky Sleeper (Eleotris fusca); mackerels such as Chacunda Gizzard Shad (Anodontostoma chacunda), Thai Gizzard Shad (Anodontostoma thailandiae), and Chinese Gizzard Shad (Clupanodon thrissa). Other commercial species migrate from the brackish water to the fresh water for breading. The most important species are: Plotosus spp., Arius spp., Plotosus spp. and Pangasius spp. including the globally vulnerable Pangasius krempfi (VIFEP 2010). The mudflat and mangrove forest also support the larva of many economic marine organisms such as Giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), Flower shrimp (Penaeus semisulcatus), Greasyback shrimp (Metapenaeus ensis), Spear shrimp Parapenaeopsis spp., Mud crab (Scylla serrate), clam species Meretrix spp., cockle species Anadara spp. and Saccostrea oysters spp.. The larvae and seedlings of these species, which found with large amounts in the park, are importance sources for aqua-‐cultural production around the park (FFI 2007 and VIFEP 2010).
5. Ecosystem Services (ES) provided by coastal wetlands and mangrove forest in Mui Ca Mau National Park Coastal wetland ecosystems, as mangroves forest in the case of MCMNP, provide important services that contribute to human well-‐being and poverty reduction. There are 230 families living in the rehabilitation area of the park and they are highly dependent on the services provided by the mangrove forest since the main activity of those families is extensive shrimp farming (complemented with clam and crab harvest). Farmers living and/or working in the rehabilitation area are aware of the importance of the forest for water and soil quality control, nutrient provision to feed the shrimps and mitigation of the effects of climate change. In order to understand the relation between households and mangrove forest is needed to clarify that the households in the rehabilitation area are tied to a Forest Protection and Reforestation contract that was signed in 1998. As described in the contract (named the blue book) in return for the work protecting the forest, households do not need to pay any kind of taxes for the use of the land. Holding this contract allows the families to ask for loans to the bank. With this contract the families gains the right to use the land as follow:
• 50% for reforestation • 21% for forest protection • 29% for agriculture, forestry and/or aquaculture
The MA for the Mekong Delta defines 4 main services provided by coastal mangrove forest. They are summarized in the table below. Table 6: Core functions of main ecosystems in Mekong Delta
Coastal Mangrove services -‐ Silting and fixing coastline as to form a vegetation wall to protect the coastline from being eroded by sea waves. -‐ Nursing, spawning and feeding ground for shrimp and fish. -‐ Treatment place of urban and industrial waste to prevent coastal water from being polluted. -‐Biodiversity conservation sites for 40 mangrove species.
Source: Box 3.1 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Sub-‐global Assessment: "Downstream Mekong River Wetlands Ecosystem Assessment" After the fieldwork in MCMNP a number of ES have been detected. The listed ES in table XX benefit people living in the study area and/or society in general, either directly (e.g., provision of firewood) or indirectly (e.g. climate regulation). In this ES assessment report, all the ES that have been detected are described. Then some of them will be selected for being part of the payment for wetland ecosystem services model/s that is one of the main contributions of this project.
Table 7: MA Ecosystem Services for the Mekong Delta Region Millennium Ecosystem Services
Provisioning Regulating Cultural Food Water Genetic resources Medicinal resources
Climate regulation Regulation of water flows Waste treatment Erosion prevention Maintenance of soil fertility Biological control
Spiritual and religious Recreational and Ecotourism Educational Aesthetic Inspirational Sense of place Cultural heritage
Supporting Soil formation and fertility Life cycle maintenance Primary production Maintenance of genetic diversity Source: Downstream Mekong River Wetlands Ecosystem Assessment (Vietnam – Mekong river-‐) IPBES, 2004. Table 8. ES in Mui Ca Mau National Park
Ecosystem Services detected in Mui Ca Mau National Park Provisioning Regulating Cultural
Food Water (fresh and brackish) Fiber Timber Firewood Genetic resources
Climate regulation (adaptation and mitigation) Water regulation and purification Shoreline stabilisation Disease regulation Pollination
Ecotourism Educational Cultural and spiritual
Supporting Soil formation Nutrient cycling Primary production
5.1 Provisioning Provisioning services are the products obtained from ecosystems. This includes the vast range of food products derived from plants, animals, and microbes, as well as materials such as wood, jute, hemp, silk, and many other products derived from ecosystems (MA, 2005). In MCMNP as in the Mekong Delta, almost all the inhabitants rely on the benefits provided by ecosystems. In this context, ES play an important role in poverty reduction and economic development. All of the 20 households involved in this pilot project have shrimp farming as their main economic activity (Thanh, 2012). Table 9. Current employment status in Ngoc Hien district
Labor Structure in Ngoc Hien District Fishery Agriculture/forestry Services Construction Industry
80% 3% 11% 2% 4% Source: Department of Statistics of Ngoc Hien district, District survey 2011.
Food provisioning Provisioning services are the products obtained from ecosystems. They may include food products derived from plants, animals, and microbes or other products such as wood for pulp and paper production, shelter, fuel or medicines (MA, 2005). Only 2 species of wild plants have been identified for being used as food in MCMNP: Amaranthus spinosus, Centella asiatica. Most vegetables that families use for consumption are planted (very small scale for self consumption) or bought in the market or from intermediaries.
Figure 7: Green beans and banana trees Figure 8: Banana trees planted with mangrove. Wild animals as food are not easily available for provision. Hunting is not allowed in the national park, and in the boundaries the stocks of these species are so limited that they are too scarce to use as food. It has been pointed by the guards in the national park that the growth of the human population and the loss of mangrove forest are reducing the habitats and limiting the capability of animals to adapt to new environments. Due to the actual limited capacity of the mangrove forest to provided food, and biodiversity conservation purposed, one of the activities that will be piloted in this project is to improve the agroforestry capacity of the households for cultivating vegetables within the limits of their ponds (the land contracts that families have linked them to allocate a percentage of their land to mangrove protection). The shrimp farming method used in the study area is named “silvo-‐aquaculture-‐fishery systems” (Christensen, 2003). This system consists of three farming features in a pond: aquatic animal farming (fish, crab and shrimp) naturally introduced; shrimp aquaculture and mud crab with stocked seeds; and mangrove forestation inside ponds. The tidal flow is used to bring aquatic animals, including juvenile crabs, shrimps and fish, into the ponds through a net with a mesh size bigger than them. It was noticed by farmers that due to the increasing number of ponds the availability of natural juveniles is not enough and farmers have the need of buying post-‐larvae shrimp from hatcheries. The low tide is used to harvest them when the aquatic animals get big enough and are thus bigger than the mesh size.
Figure: 9 10, 11: crab, fish and shrimp collected from the pond. Crab and shrimp were collected for selling, fish was collected for daily consumption. The shrimp farming within MCMNP is not as intensive as in the rest of the province so the production per hectare is lower. Typical yields for shrimp in extensive systems is 400 kg/ha/year with farmers earning 25-‐30 million VND /ha (Association of Sea Food Exporters and Producers Vietnam, 2011). With the application of new technologies in high efficient extensive shrimp farming model, the production can be around 50 million VND/ha/year (MCMNP, 2011) Information facilitated by FORWET (Thanh 2013) shows that the income average of the households that are part of the study is 12 million VND/ha/year. A total of 9,564 tons of shrimp were harvested in the park in 2011 (MCMNP statistics, 2012).
Medicinal herbs Families indicate that medicinal herbs are bought from another province and in a market.
Provisioning of water (fresh and brackish) The fresh water used for human consumption comes from the rain and groundwater. Water quality is high without alum contamination but most water sources contain an elevated content of alluvia that requires boiling before using it for drinking or cooking. If possible, households use water from the rain for drinking and cooking and gorwndwater for cleaning and bath. Fresh water is used for cultivation. During the rainy season fresh water comes from the rain but during the dry season groundwater is used for watering trees and vegetables. Even though vegetables and fruits are mostly for self-‐consumption, FORWET’s interviews with the 20 households (Dec. 2012 – Feb. 2013) show that only 6 households earn income from agriculture. This income is very low (from 1.5 millions VND to 25 millions VND per year) and is not their main economic activity. Brackish water from the river is used also to support shrimp farming and to recruit juvenile of shrimp, crab and fish.
Figure 12: Tide flow is used to fill the pond with brackish water. With high tide water goes from the river to the pond. Source: Reiko Omoto, Small-‐scale producers and the governance of certified organic seafood production in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta, 2012.
Timber for construction In the Mekong Delta timber for construction is extracted from mainly Melaleuca forest and partly from Rhizophora forest (mangrove forest). About 85% of the population is using planted trees for construction (MA sub-‐global assessment, 2004). The ecosystem provision of construction materials is of importance in MCMNP. Interviews with families living in the rehabilitation area showed that timber trunk for construction (mostly house frame) and firewood is extracted mainly from planted Rhizophora apiculata forests within the area of their ponds. Families living in the rehabilitation area of the national park have a contract on forest protection (see detailed information in Land Use Analysis Annexe) that does not allow them to sell timber from mangrove forest. This contract allows them to use mangrove trees in their ponds for self-‐constructions if the coverage of mangrove forest in their lots does not go under 70% of the total area. When they need leaf stem as materials for roof, usually of Cocos nucifera or Nypa fruticans they buy them. As showed in the pictures below, houses are generally not made with wood; instead walls and roofs are made using corrugated iron and when the family can afford it both walls and roof are covered with leafs. For the floor concrete or wood are used. A low income family typically has a house made with harvested natural materials.
Figure 13,14 and 15: different materials are used for house building There is not a big market for mangrove timber in the area. In Ca Mau province, construction companies prefer alternative materials such as cement and steel. As an example, the price of Melaleuca has dropped drastically from 50,000 VND/tree to 20,000 VND/tree, leaving many hundreds of families in financial difficulty and a dilemma for local authorities that had planned to replant 2,000 ha of Melaleuca for environmental protection purposes this year (Vietnam News 2013).
No updated information about timber stock is available for Ngoc Hien district. Currently an assessment of land use and forest changes is being developed within the REDD+ program, as part of the Netherlands Development Organization’s project Mangroves and Markets and it will be finished in April 2013 (MAM 2012-‐2016). Table 10. Area of mangrove forest in Ngoc Hien Distric and Ca Mau province
Location Total area (ha) Natural (ha) Plantation (ha) Stock (m3) Ngoc Hien 50.354 6.063 44.291 624.522 Total province 64.632 8.406 56.226 770.004 Source: Ca Mau forestry division, 2000 Mangrove forest in MCMNP has high quality according to the Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology, but they have little or no possibility for timber provision in coming years because it lies within the protection are of the park where forestry is not allowed. Fuel This includes wood, dung, and other biological materials serve as sources of energy (MA, 2005). Families usually cook with gas and use mangrove coal (obtained after cleaning the trees within the border of their ponds) only for longer preparation, e.g., when preparing medicinal drinks. Even though the use of mangrove trees is almost fully regulated in the ZER area, illegal cutting activities occur within the limits of the national park. The growth of the population in the buffer zone makes it difficult to control this kind of activity. Poverty rate in Ngoc Hien district is the second highest in the province; many families cannot afford to buy gas so illegal cutting of mangrove forest is common.
Figure 16 and 17: Mui Ca Mau guards confiscated mangrove coal and timber from illegal activities.
Figure 18: Mangrove in the core are of the national park is also cut down in easy access zones.
5.2 Regulating services Mangrove forest in MCMNP plays an essential role providing regulating services that benefit people living in and outside of the national park. The main ES provided are Alum regulation, climate change adaptation and mitigation regulation, erosion regulation, shoreline stabilization and storm protection.
Water regulation A well-‐preserved mangrove forest contributes to naturally widespread seasonal flooding water that dissolves and brings alum with its flow. When the amount of mangrove trees is not enough, alum washing time is too short and soil is more and more aluminous. When that happens, the water is not suitable for aquaculture activities.
Figure 19: the reddish color of the water shows that the pond is contaminated. In this case, the farmer dug too deep and the Fe2+ in the soil was in contact with water producing acidity. MCMNP has an active alum soil that contains high content of Fe2+. When inundated in water (as happened in figure 19), Fe2+ is deoxidized forming Fe+3 and generating H+ that makes pH decreased. Fe3+ that is not dissolved could form tiny entities causing disadvantages for benthos species. Formed H+ acidifies surface water strongly affecting benthos. H2S is toxic to aquatic life and even paddy rice. (MA sub-‐global assessment, 2004).
Climate regulation Climate regulation service is defined as the regulation of greenhouse gases, temperature, precipitation, and other climatic processes; chemical composition of the atmosphere (Ecosystems and Human Well-‐being: Wetlands and Water, 2005). Vietnam is considered to be one of the most affected countries by global climate change. Within Vietnam, Ca Mau province has been identified as being particularly susceptible to the impacts of potential extreme events and climate variability. According to the Sea Level Rise Report (IMHEN 2010), Ca Mau province is one of the top four most affected provinces in terms of areas inundated in Vietnam. MCMNP is mostly plain with an average elevation of 1 meter above mean sea level (Ramsar, 2012). The following potential effects of climate change on coastal zone in Ca Mau province have been described:
- Marked reductions in the movement of sediments from the Bassac River (and other Mekong tributaries) in the north to the east coast of Ca Mau in the south, due to lower sediment loads in the Mekong (IMHEN 2010). Sediment flow from upstream to MCMNP is important for two reasons: to stabilise the coastline and to naturally fertilise the soil and the water that are used for agriculture, fishery and aquaculture.
- In addition, increases in erosion due to more energetic wave conditions and intense monsoonal conditions and storms (IMHEN 2010). Erosion leads to costly agricultural impacts on society.
- Possible loss of mangroves and the ES they provide such as acting as an erosion buffer in Ngoc Hien, Nam Can and Dam Doi. Loss of these ES may result in economic damages and loss of natural ecosystem and impacts on waterways
- Lower lying areas such Ngoc Hien are likely to be subject to inundation both as a result of sea level rise and storm surges from extreme events (IMHEN 2010).
- Overtopping (the flow of water over a dam or embankment) and ponding (unwanted pooling of water) inland could lead to loss of land from permanent inundation (IMHEN 2010).
Those effects will have negative consequences for the national park’s biodiversity which is the key factor for its international recognition, loss of biodiversity could lead to the loss of interesting are for protection. Social and economic consequences come together with climate change effects. The livelihood of the MCMNP families relies on the services provided by the ecosystems. For instance, changes in the water quality could kill the shrimp production that is the base of their economies and also the main source of animal protein for the communities. Table 11: Effects of climate change on natural and human systems in Mui Ca Mau
Climate change effects Natural Systems
Precipitation changes
Temperature changes
Sea level rise
Saline intrusion
Floods Droughts
Typhoons Storms
Coastal erosion
Ecosystems
Water composition changes
Soil composition changes
Nutrient/sediment flows changes Biodiversity loss
Human Systems
Land loss Food/water security
Livelihood disruption
Regional economy
Settlement Transport
Energy Industry Health
Regarding to climate change mitigation, mangroves absorb a significant amount of carbon into the plant biomass through net primary production. Importantly, they also sequester some of this carbon in the soil for long periods of time (McNally, McEwin, Holland 2011). There is significant interest in mangroves as a result of their high carbon content. A recent study was carried out to measure carbon storage (above-‐ and below-‐ground, including soils) in mangroves across a broad zone of the Indo-‐Pacific region. It was found that the total carbon storage is very high relative to most forest types, with a mean value of 1,043 and range of 437 to 2,186 Mg C ha-‐1 (metric tonnes of carbon per hectare per year). The study also noted that although these values are considerable it is not clear what would be the loss of carbon as a result of mangrove removal or conversion, particularly below ground (Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol.37).
Shoreline stabilisation As sea level continues to rise and climate change leads to increasingly turbulent weather, communities in MCMNP are increasingly vulnerable. This places pressure on
civil protection and emergency planning budgets. Sea level is projected to rise by approximately 15 cm by 2030 and by approximately 30 cm in 2050 (IMHEN 2010). This same study indicates that a 15 cm or 30 cm sea level rise would not result in an appreciable increase in land area of the target provinces that would be "permanently inundated" primarily as a result of the protection afforded by the current system of sea-‐dykes and flood protection infrastructure. An exception to this is Ngoc Hien district which is already affected by inundation in periods of high seasonal tides (ADB, 2011). In addition to moderate storms, an average of four typhoons per year wreak havoc on Vietnam’s coastline (UN, 2012). A system of costly sea dykes has been established on the seaward side of mangroves to protect households and real estate. But the mangroves themselves provide additional support by dissipating wave energy, stabilizing the sea floor, and trapping sediment. Rehabilitation of these forests not only protects the sea dykes but also reduces maintenance expenses. The larger the mangrove stands, the more damage costs are avoided. Healthy mangroves can greatly reduce the maintenance cost and the need for sea dike (Othman, M.A., 1994). Mangrove roots keep the shoreline together, resisting erosion by wind and waves and providing a physical barrier that slows down storm surges and tidal waves, thereby reducing their height and destructive power. According to the United Nations, “mangroves can absorb 70-‐90% of the energy of a normal wave” (FAO Newsroom, 2008). A recent report notes that mangrove surfaces are rising at similar rates to sea level in a number of locations, which suggests that protecting and rehabilitating mangroves will provide mitigation against future sea level rise (McIvor et al 2013). The report notes that: “In many areas, short term anthropogenic losses of mangroves represent a greater threat to the provision of coastal defense services by mangroves than the longer term effects of sea level rise.”
Protection of fresh water supplies from saltwater intrusion Coastal mangroves prevent salt intrusion into freshwater supplies used for agriculture or direct human consumption. Data indicates that saltwater intrusion in MCMNP worsened during the dry season of 2012 due to higher tides (DARD, 2013). In some places, saltwater penetrated inland up to 3 kilometres into agricultural land. Canals along farmers’ fields have been dug in order to keep the saltwater out, however this was only a temporary measure.
5.3 Cultural services
Ecotourism MCMNP’s natural beauty and the diversity of animals and plants make it an ideal location for recreational activities and, in the best conserved places, ecotourism. In Ca Mau, many tourist sites have been or are being built, including Tram Chim, Dat Mui, Tinh Doi, etc. Ecotourism is expected to be a key economic sector of the region. Ca Mau has a number of tourist attractions and in 2010, received 6,460 foreign and 218,540 domestic visitors. In many other parts of the province, as in MCMNP, tourism is still largely underdeveloped. One of the most important reasons is weak infrastructure and the lack of a clearly defined tourist development strategy. Travel time to Ca Mau will be reduced due to the construction of the national highway. Ca Mau city has a domestic
airport and there are plans to upgrade it to reach an annual capacity of 300,000 passengers. The only one way to travel to MCMNP is by boat but no touristic boats are available. In other parts of the Mekong Delta where tourism is more developed, visitors can enjoy bird watching, kayaking or visiting museum. However, these activities cannot be enjoyed in MCMNP due to the lack of infrastructures or trained guides. During the pilot stage of this project, selected households will enhance their accommodation facilities and skills in order to offer homestay experiences to visitors. Today, visitors’ options are limited, which leads most to undertake day trips, as there is no place to sleep. A project on cultural tourism has been approved in 2013 in MCMNP:
Mui Ca Mau Cultural Park. Location: Dat Mui commune, Ngoc Hien district – Form of investment: 100% direct investment capital of domestic and foreign investors. Objectives: Ecological Tourism area in salt-marsh forest of Ca Mau Cape. Area: 158 ha Land status: Kind of salt-marsh forest land, partial ground clearance. Duration of project: 49 years Project proposed unit: Culture – Sport and Tourism
Figure 20: Details of the project and map
5.4 Supporting services Supporting services are those that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. They differ from provisioning, regulating, and cultural services in that their impacts on people are either indirect or occur over a long time period, whereas changes in the other categories have relatively direct and short-‐term impacts on people. For example, humans do not directly use soil formation services, although changes in this would indirectly affect people through the impact on the provisioning service of food production (MA 2005).
6. Drivers of change in ecosystems in Mui Ca Mau In the MA, a driver is defined as any natural or human-‐made factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem. A direct driver unequivocally influences ecosystem processes and can therefore be identified and measured to differing degrees of accuracy. An indirect driver operates more diffusely, often by altering one or more direct drivers. An indirect driver is seldom identified through observing ecosystems, instead, its influence is established by understanding its effect on a direct driver (MA 2005). The MA sub-‐global assessment for the Downstream Mekong River wetlands listed drivers of change as showed in table below. Together with this list we want to show the drivers of change that have been observed in MCMNP rehabilitation area. Table 12: Comparison between Mekong river and rehabilitation area Mui Ca Mau NP Drivers of change listed for the downstream Mekong river
Drivers of change listed for the rehabilitation area of Mui Ca Mau NP
Indirect drivers Rapid population growth Yes Economic pressure Yes, poverty alleviation and the demand of
shrimp from national and international markets.
Poor management practices Yes, in the past biodiversity was under valuated but now, new regulations have placed sustainable development over rapid and unstable economic growth.
Direct drivers War Yes Rice intensification No, brackish water is not optimal for rice
cultivation Shrimp farming intensification Yes, with the difference that shrimp farming in
this area is extensive Strongly construction of irrigation systems No, due to the tides and the location of the
farms irrigation systems are very simple in the area
Intensive use of chemicals No, the use of chemicals is not allowed in the national park
Changes in land use and land cover Yes, before the area was designated as protected. Now shrimp farmers hold a contract on forest protection
Actions in the mainstream area Not well know but predictable are the effects that mainstream dams construction will have in the Mekong Delta Region such as changes in the sediment flow
Climate change Climate change (sea level rise, extreme events, changes in the temperatures and rain, saltwater intrusion).
Figure 21: Interaction of drivers of change. Changes in ecosystems (and their services provided) are affected by a sum of drivers and interactions between drivers.
!
Population!!growth!
Natural!resources!consumption!!
Economic!pressure!
Changes!in!land!uses!(from!mangrove!forest!to!aquaculture!
Under!valuation!of!biodiversity!
Pro>economic!growth!policies!
New!policies,!programmes!and!strategies!based!on!ecosystems!and!growth!
War!
Changes!in!ecosystems!and!their!services!
Climate!change!
Upstream!activities!
Social!pressure!
8. References
Carbon stock calculating and forest change assessment towards REDD+ activities for the mangrove forest in Vietnam. Vu Tien Dien, Wataru Takeuchi, An Ngoc Van, Kyaw Sann Oo, Tomoyuki Nukui and Shin-‐ichi Sobue, 2012. Dec. N. 09/2011/QD-‐TTg, setting norms on poor households and households in danger of falling into poverty (2011-‐2015). GTZ (2010). Assessing Mangrove Forests, Shoreline Condition and Feasibility of REDD+ for Kien Giang Province, Vietnam (Technical Report). IbidAn Overview.” Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol.37, No. 8-‐12: 383-‐392. IMHEN, Ca Mau Peoples Committee, and Kien Giang Peoples Committee (2011). IUCN (2010). IUCN Red list of threatened species. www.iucnredlist.org Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Study in The Mekong Delta – Part A Final Report: Climate Change Vulnerability and Risk Assessment Study for Ca Mau and Kien Giang Provinces, Vietnam. Mekong River Commission (2005). "Overview of the Hydrology of the Mekong Basin" (PDF). MRC, Vientiane, Laos.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-‐being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington DC. http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.356.aspx.pdf Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Sub-‐global Assessment: Down Stream Mekong River Wetlands Ecosystem Assessment. Institute of Geography, Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology. Ramsar. Factsheet n°10 on wetlands and climate change, adaptation and mitigation. UNDP: Mangrove rehabilitation: damage costs avoided in Vietnam. http://www.unep.org/forests/Portals/142/docs/Vietnam mangroves.pdf Vo Thanh Danh, 2011. Adaptation to sea level rise in the Vietnamese Mekong river delta: should a sea dike be built?
WWF-‐Greater Mekong Program
