t .PIAPTER II
NATURAL ENVIRONMENI' AID RESOURCE BASE
II.1 The natural environment of mountain regions is
"ecologically among the most fragile of terrestrial - 1 systems "• The delicate ecological balance in mountain
lands as elsewhere is maintained by the inflow and out
flow of energy and matter. Ecologically oriented studies
require indepth groundwork in unravelling the complex . ' system of linkages within the ecosystem that make up the
natural environment. This complex matrix of support
systems involves investigations not only into the processes
involved in sculpting the environment, but also the type
of resources available for human use from the environment.
The resource base of any region depends on, and
is an integral part of the environment. The analysis of
resource utilization and potentials are, therefore, in
dispensable for a comprehensive understanding of
ecological principles. To say that regions are unequally
endowed, diverse and disparate in terms of their resource
base~' is a well known axiom arrl cannot be overstressed,
1. Tejvir Singh,~. al. (ed.), Studies in Himalafian Ecology and Development Strategies (The Englis Book Store, New Delhi, 1980), p.194.
46
yet no region is by itsE?lf t:ich or poor, for the type
of resources clearly indicate the direction that human
activity should follow to fully utilize these along with
the positive aspects of that environment.
socio-economic development of any region is largely
dependent on the development of its resources, for the
resource base has in the historical pa~rt reflected
decisions regarding economic activities. In large parts
of the underdeveloped world which are characterised by '
low per capita production and a predominance of primary
activities, the resource base is "• •• still largely in the
potential stage, awaiting capital, skilled labour and
management, or larger markets for their development".!
In these regions, the natural resources are essentially
passive and remain dormant till changes in the socio-
economic structure reveal their use value. Once these
changes take place; land, water, minerals, vegetation
and energy resources acquire a dynamic character arrl use
potential.
-------------------------1. Joseph L. Fisher, "Economic Development, Principles
a~ Patterns" in ~Role of Natural Resourxes, edJ.ted by Williamson and Butterick lPrentice Hall, New Jersey, 1969), p.22. The quote was in context of regions in Antartica and the deserts of Asia and Africa.
47
In ~ime, better technology, transport and communication
systems have increased human demand for basic resources
from ever widening geographical areas. "As new resources
are created or new sources of existing resources are found
and developed, a parallel refinement in marketing, manage-
ment, technology, communications and the science may be
observed ••• This has created an interwoven linkage
between economic activity, political ideology, social
norms and security and the exercise of territorial
l imperative".
Within the analysis of human-environment interactions,
the basic fact underlying the linkages is that human
activities and the exploitation of natural resources are
two faces of the same process. Analysis of the natural
environment thus becomes necessary from the point of
understanding the relative constraints imposed on human
activities on the one hand and the relative advantages
offered to development through the available resources on
the other hand.
Zanskar tehsil is an underdeveloped region where
the existing use of natural resources is limited due to
_. _________ _ 1 .• J.S. Becht, et. al., World Resource Management
(Prentice Hail, Niw Jersey, 19755, p.8.
48
the low level of technology. Within the framework of a
largely negative environment in terms of high altitude,
rugged topography, arid highland type climate and sparse
vegetation, the role of natural resources in sustaining
human activity become vital in analysing the man-environment
interaction process. This analysis becomes important in
order to arrive at a mutually acceptable solution to the
problems of economic development through resource
exploitation and environmental adaptation versus the \
problems related to environmental conservation.
Analysis of the processes involved in sculpting
the landscape and forming the natural environment with
the associated availability and use of resources, is thus
of great significance. Once these have been understood,
the interlinking processes between the environment and
human activity can then also be understood from the
ecological perspective.
The framework within which the environment and
resource base can be analysed, is based on the following
premises. The underlying geo.logical structure and
subsequent geomorphic processes form the basic configuration
of the topography on which climatic parameters operate.
This natural environment provides the basic resources of
land, water, vegetation, minerals and energy available
49
for human activities.
In this perspective an attempt has been made to
analyse the natural environment and resource base through
the following:
i) The profile of land in terms of its broad
geological structure, the geomorphic
processes, the physiographic characteristics
and soil cover that provide land resources
available for human activities.
ii) The natural drainage and water resources.
iii) Climatic conditions.
iv) Natural vegetation.
v) Mineral and energy resources available.
II.2 Profile of Land
In dealing with land as a resource, it would be
first relevant to analyse the characteristics of the
geology and physiography of Zanskar. As is the case of
most mountain lands the terrain of Zanskar poses major
constraints due to steep slope,· ruggedi ty, and high '
altitude that restrict the available area to selected
zones that can sustain economic activities. The surface
configuration is closely linked with underlying geological
' formations on which geomorphic processes have acted to
produce the present topography.
50
II.2.1 Geological Structure t'
zanskar tehsil lies within the area traversed by
the Zanskar range in a north-west south-east direction,
flanked to the north by the Ladakh range and to the south
by the Great Himalayan range. The zanskar region has an
intrinsic genetic relationship with the evolution of the
complex mountain systems of the North-west Himalayas,
that resulted from major phases of tectonic activity
which raised the sediments of the great geosynclinal
Tethys Sea to Himalayan heights, building in the process
the lofty mountain ranges which describe the structural
linaments of the regions. The Zanskar range strati-
graphically consists of the most fully developed Paleozoic
system in India. 1 The core of the Zanskar range with the
Great Himalayan range to the south and Ladakh range to
the north, has " ••• been found to be of pre-Carribrian
metamorphic sedimentary origin forming the basement on
which all the subsequent geological formations rest. " 2
In the Zanskar range, ..... the ~edimentary unit is well
defined along the Zanskar thrust with rocks from the
Paleozoic and Mesozoic age with the sediments resting
1.
2.
D.N. Wadia, Geolo~ of !ndia (Tata McGraw Hill, Delhi, reprint 1§ ) , p. ~
lE.M·, p. 86.
51
on an old sialic crust.~-
The pre-cambrian rocks are widely distributed in
this region, ~1i th
••• the crystalline and metamorphic rocks exposed to the northern and southern borders of Zanskar basin... The crystalline rocks in the region south of zanskar basin are intruded by basic dykes and ·sills, dolerites, and amphibolites. The amphibolites are of paratype and show zonal development in the form of veins and augens, which have resulted from the high grade metamorphism (amphibolite facies) of marly impurities present in the metasediments at the time of regional metamorphism.2
Cambrian rocks in the Zanskar area consist of
shales, slates and quartzites and
1.
2.
••• have yielded trilobites and primitive brachiopods. Ordovician rocks are represented by dirty grey quartzites, earthy shales and sandstones ••• The Silurian system rocks are generally unfossiliferous ••• The snow white Muth Quartzite forms the most important stratigraphic marker for the Devoni ans in parts of Ladakh. • • The Lower Carboniferous succession in parts of Ladakh is represented by the grey limestone and quartzites which at places are intercalated with brownish calcareous and arenaceous shales... permian
F. wolfgang, et. al., Geolo;tcal Observations in the Ladakh R~on-: A ~II nary Report (Schweiz Mineral, Petrog. Mitt 57, 1977), pp.81-il3.
V.J. Gupta, et; al., Geology of Ladakh Lahul and SEiti RegionSio~imaJaYas with sijc!a1 Reference to the Strati~raphlc Position of ~ysch Deposits (Ferdlnaild En e verlag, Stuttgart, 1975), p.'S'i3.
52
rocks consist essentially of pale brown limestone, grey shales and sandstones. The boundary bet~een the Permian and Triassic systems has been subject to much discussion. The Triassic succession in the Zanskar part of Ladakh is poorly developed. The rocks exposed at the top of Lachungla consist of pale brown ooli.!l.£ limestones, calcareous shales and sandstones containing poorly preserved brachipods, pelecypods and ammonites fauna.1
It is, therefore, evident that the Ladakh, Zanskar
and Great Himalayan ranges have been sUbject to considerable
tectonic movements and that past geological evolution and \
stratigraphy of this region have been responsible for the
broad physiographic alignments of the are~
II.2.2 Geomorphic Processes an~Physiography
The Zanskar region is an excellent example of an
area formed''predominantly by glacio-fluvial geomorphic
processes, wind action and weathering. Analysis of ~he
resulting physiographic conditions in terms of "• •• distinc-
tive geometric configurations of the land surface are of
primary concern ••• because they exert far reaching and
fundamental influences on human. activity". 2
1.
2.
~., pp.544-51.
A.N. Stralher, Elements of Physical GeogGaphy (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1969) 1 p. 3 1.
53
The physiographictstructure of any environment is
in a constant state of change through geological time.
These modifications of surface configurations are a result
of natural agents that operated in an "• •• orderly
progressive cyclical sequence". 1 The agents that bring
about change include " ••• all those physical and chemical
changes that effect a-modification of the earth's surficial
2 form". These geomorphic agents include those medi urns
that are capable of eroding, transporting and depositing '
earth material over space. The processes essentially
embody the concept of aggradation and degradation that
lead towards a state of dynamic equilibrium.
The physical environment of Zanskar is essentially
one formed by glacio-fluvial geomorphic processes. The
massive ice-sheets that covered the Ladakh region during '
3 the Pliestocene era, had the effect of smoothening the
topography, scrapping and removing the soil cover and
finally depositing the loose debris elsewhere. Subsequent
1.
2.
3.
F.J. Monkhouse, Principles of Physical Geography (University of liondon Press, 1954), p.92.
W.D. Thornbury, Principles of Geomorphology (John ~vi~ey and sons, New York, 1969), p.34.
D. N. Wadia, .2E• _ill., p.17-~
54
mountain glaciers deeply eroded the original valley, t'
depositing debris along the lower parts of the valley •
"Glacial erosion is generally attributed to two
separate processes, plucking and abrasion. The former
refers to the quarrying effect when moving ice freezes
. /
on to bedrock and pulls out a block which it carries away.
Abrasion is due to the grinding effect of the debris
being transported in the sole of the ice-mass and has
been likened to the action of sandpaper 11 •1 Glacial
deposition can be broadly classified into two groups
i.e. "• •• direct glacial deposits notably till • • • commonly
identified morphologically as moraine; and indirect
aqueous deposits ••• resulting in clearly bedded and 2
sometimes label~ed washed drift. 11
Landforms resulting from glacial erosion and
deposition can be seen in a number of features ranging
from aretes, cirques, cols, truncated spurs and glacial
troughs, to a range of moranic deposits in Zanskar.
This landscape carved by glacial action was subsequently
exposed to a number of other geomorphic agents including
1.
2.
R.J. Rice, Fundamentals of 9eomorphology (Longmans, London, 1977}, p.244.
R.P. Goldthwait, Glacial Deposits (Halsted Press, Pe nnsy 1 v ani a, 197 5 5, p. 3 •
55
fluvial and wind action that considerably modified the ,.
original topography. (Photographs 2. 1 & 2. 2)
In the post glacial period, " ••• fluvial action
dominated in shaping of the landscape. In the floors
of many valleys, streams resort the moraines, fill in
rock basins, and level the surface of all depositional
material". 1 Fluvial action is often the most significant
geomorphic processes in changing landform patterns.
Factors influencing fluvial action depend on the effects
of snowmelt, precipitation, and resultant surface runoff.
These determine the water input to a basin system and
the driving force to fluvial processes. The erosional
properties of water moving through a channel result in
an immense range of features, as a result of wearing
away the bedrock, chemical activity and the mechanical
work of water. The depositional features of fluvial
action result from the transport and deposition of
sediment that has been eroded. Fluvial processes cannot
be clearly separated from the geomorphic processes of
weathering and of mass wasting, as both operate
simultaneously to erode slopes. Among the most important
features produced by fluvial action in mountain lands
1. M.J. selby, The Surface of the Earth {Casnell, L<?ndon, 197i}, p.l71. ---
'l.
2.1 Glaciation
2. 2 Gl aci at ion
56
like zanskar are the river terraces and alluvial fans. t'
(Photographs 2.3 & 2.4)
The high altitude mountainous Zanskar region can
be considered to have undergone glacial and subsequently
-glacio-fluvial and fluvial action, whic'h- with weathering
and mass wasting have been the dominant processes involved
in sculpting the present topography •)
zanskar with its glacio-fluvial landscape presents
among the most surrealist ~opography found in most
mountain lands. The main valleys are characterised by
their post-glacial u-shape troughs, though in the higher
altitudes glacial processes are still active. Large (l '\
deposits of moraaic debris scattered throughout the region
bear testimony to past glaciation. Subsequent weathering,
especially frost action, mass wasting and fluvial
processes· have further formed a number of distinct
landforms within the valleys.
Glacial action in Zanskar can still be seen by the
system of glaciers such as the Drang Drung near the
Pensi la Pass, (Photograph 2. 5) which is joined by smaller
tributary glaciers based on the channeling action of pre
glacial drainage networks. This proximity to the snow
line, combined by below freezing temperatures for over
half the year, has formed periglacial conditions in the
57
higher altitudes of Zans~ar. The geomorphic processes
in the mountain zone1 that affect the surface morphology
include:
1) The development of permanently frozen ground ----- ....
combine1with thermal contraction of the ground
under freeze and thaw conditions.
2) Frost weathering causing frost heaving, soil
churning,soil creep, upfreezing and particle
size sorting.
3) Rapid mass movement of solifluction. slopewash,
rockfalls, slumping etc., that lead to the active
development of slopes.
4) Fluvial regimes characterised by marked seasonal
discharge patterns and by a high level of suspended
and bedload sediment.
5) Strong wind action including processes of nivation
and snowpatch effects accentuated by lack of
vegetation and glacial derived accumulated debris. 2
Glacial action has resulted in the formation of
aretes and cirques as seen near the Pensila Pass, truncated
1. The first order mountain zone lies above 4,500 metres while the second first valley zone lies below 4, 500 metres as discussed in the previous chapter.
2. H.M. French, The Periglacial Environment (Longman, London, 1976), p.4.
58
spurs, hanging valleys a,Irl trough like U shaped valleys
in the stot and Zanskar valley. Kame terraces can be
seen near Karsha and a drumlin near Pipiting, while
moranic material is deposited throughout the valley
region. Glacio-fluvial and fluvial action has been
responsible for the formation of alluvial fans and river
terraces found in the Stot and Lunak valleys. Weathering
by freeze thaw action and gravitational pull has also
formed large talus cones and scree slopes especially
in areas where there are no water channels. (Photograph 2.6)
The generalised contour Map II$1 reveals the
highly rugged mountainous character of the region, as
well as the north-west south-east trend of the zanskar
and Great Himalayan ranges. The entire western and
southern boundary of the tehsil lies elevated over 5,300
metres above sea level, 1 along the crest of the Great
Himalayan range and the watershed dividing the drainage
basin of the Zanskar river from the Chenab river basin
in Lahul and Kishtwar tehsils. Most of this area above
5,300 metres lies under snow in the form of glaciers
which provide meltwater to 'fingertip' streams in the
drainage network.
1. source: 1:250,000 topographical sheets published by the .Survey of India.
lr- - ~~\'-
1
i 1lf;
/
-{
\ . ':
1T'·
ll
I I i
II I I
, .. ! ~.;-
J
-·-- STATE BOUNDARY -· -·-·-·- DISTRICT BOUNDARY
- ----- TEHSIL BOUNDARY ---RIVER
ZANSKAR
GENERALISED CONTOUR MAP
700
/
Map . 2-1
) ,,
rf Jl
"
59
The eastern port~on of the tehsil situated on the
right bank of the south-east north•west flowing Lunak
and the left bank of the Stot that flows from the opposite
north-west south-east direction, reveals a highly dissected
and complex structure. This southern part of the zanskar
range that falls within Zanskar tehsil, though not as
highly elevated as the Great Himalayan range is neverthe
less extremely rugged in character.
This extreme rugged1ty of the mountains with very
steep slopes as shown by the generalised contour map,
was further examined by calculating and mapping the
ruggedity index, 1 and broad trend of slope zones. 2 The
1. The ruggedity index 'R' was calculate:l by superimposing an inch grid over the topographic sheet and calculating the product of the number of average contour crossings per mile by the number of drainage eros sings per mile, for each grid. (After Dr. K. P. Dhurandher, A more rational approach to the determination of slopes of land surfaces, The Indian GeograEhical Journal, vol.SS {1980), pp:37-48.
2. C.K. Wentworth's formula was used to calculate the average slope of the land surface. Average number of contour crossing per mile into the contour interval divided by 3,361 (constant). The constant 3,361 is the mean of all possible values of sine which is the angle bet\'teen the grid lines and contours. In Map II.3, the average slope of each grid was calculated and isopleths deonting various slopes zones were drawn. Thus 5 zones were identified with slopes ranging from 0-5°, 10-15° and 20° to 25°. C.K. Wentworth, "A Simplified Method of Determining the Average Slope of Land Surfaces", American Journal of Sciences, Series 5 (1930),
60
ruggedity index brings o_y.t the relationship bet\<1een the
slope and number of drainage lines per unit area. Thus
a· high index value will denote steeper slopes and more
erosion as compared to areas with a low value. The
isopleths based on the calculated ruggedity index values
seen from Map II.2, range from below 0.09 in the west to
over 1.0 in the east. The highest values of 1.03 were
found along the eastern part of the tehsil in the highly
glaciated and eroded Zanskar range, while the western
part in the great Himalayan range had relatively loN
ruggedity index values~ due to the high sumrrdt elevations
that are still covered by snowfields and glaciers.
Slope zones shown by Map II.3 follow the trend
outlined by the ruggedity index. 1 In the analysis of
land surfaces, the calculation of slopes are important
for practical applications. To a large extent for
example, slopes influence the availability of cultivated
land and land for other human activities. Along the
Zanskar range in the eastern part of the tehsil, slopes
are inclinOO. betv1een 15° to 25°. In the lower parts
of the Great Himalayan Range, slopes range from 10° to
1. Due to the non-availability of detailed maps and the extreme ruggedity of the region, the slope zones presented only show a highly generalised trend.
-r t~.-v:-·.)t, ,... . I. : : : : ),-"? . r:-r- • ,.,r.::r-:-.. :"":,
/::: ) ~~~\r.L /.::::::( 1,12]Ji·
r.~.:;;;;. " , ~~ ]'brnr_r-/ ....
/· ..... :::: y-: ·. : : : : : : .. : : : ':-..'--~. . . . ... ---... ) .......... · ... : :::::.. . . :::)
, ...... ·t- . . . . . . . . . . J "'·. . "·· .... ·. '\,· ........ : J
1
ZANSKAR RUGGEDITY INDEX
5 0 5 10 15
Kms.
:"\..
~ -~ ........ " ~
1\ ~
'·t._f ""' ........ \. . r \"""":: : . ,., ·~.\"':· ~ .:. ~ .:. ::: qr:: ..
~~\ .,...., 1 ....... '\
_h ·::: ~ ~ '\" ........
RUGGEDITV INDEX
- 1-09-0-90
~ 0·"89- 0-70
IIIII t I 0·69 - o.so § 0-49-0-30
j: : ::: :1 0-29- 0-10
D BELOW 0-09
\ ........ . . . ..... ':-y::: .... ::: ::>"\
/:. ·.·/"\· :<\~ '-'"' ....... ,.. .
""'·-t \:< ' .. : : : .,::--:. l(""
·" . . ':"-:-~- ..... . \ . . . . . . \ ··~ : : : : : : : .· : ·\1~
·~· ...... \ \.~: :-: : : . ; >'\::Jr-..~,.,
••• 0
•• 0 0 •• \1 'f:T:: '-·,. . . . . . ~ . • ,:~ . ::: \ ·ii ....
'• 0. 0 0 ·'
··~-~ ., '· .... ,_ •
Map. 2-2
~ 1\·.:::) l .. "-· . .......
IK (,
1'.
·~.1~
61
15°, though the high s~ts under snow fields and
glaciers have comparatively gentle slopes ranging from
0° to 5°. Slopes in the Stot valley in the northern
part of the tehsil, are comparatively gentler than those
in the Lunak valley to the south.
Variations in the topography within the zanskar
tehsil were seen at a more detailed level along the
main river valleys. Map II.4 shows selected valley
profiles along the major settlements in the valleys
of the Stot, Lunak and Zanskar ri v.ers. 1 From the profiles
it becomes apparent that the Stot and Zanskar river
valleys are considerably wider than the Lunak valleyG
Villages along the Stot valley are also comparatively
less widely spaced than villages along the Lunak valley.
One of the most important facts that emerge from
the analysis of the generalised contour map, the ruggedity
index, slope zones and valley profiles, is the almost
total absence of flat land except in the triangular
confluence zone where the Stot and Lunak join to form
the Zanskar river. This relatively flat areas is central
to the entire region and can be clearly distinguished
from the stot and Lunak valleys.
1. Profiles of these valleys were constructed at right angles to the main river channel~ next to each settlement.
f
SLOPE IN DE6REES
-ABOVE 20
~ 15-20
[][[1IJ 10 - 15 a 5-10
Oo-5
Map. 2.3
ZANSKAR SLOPE ZONES
Kms.
~I
~~.
62
The Stot valley begins from the Pensila1 pass - ~
opening the Zanskar region towards Kargil in the north.
Two cirques immediately after the pass are surrounded
by glacial mounds and frost weathered angular boulders
and stones which clearly reveal the periglacial environ-
ment at this altitude. The largest glacier in Zanskar -
the orang Drung also originates from the ranges near
the Nun Kun massif and can be clearly seen from the
pensila pass. Terminal, lateral and medial moraines
are also visible around the glacier. The meltwater
from this and other small glaciers flow as the Stot
river till it reaches the central confluence zone.
The descent into the main Stot valley opens out
into a wide U-shaped valley. Frost action and masswasting
have formed large talus cones and scree slopes approximately
100 to 200 metres in height. Glacio-fluvial action has
formed a series of alluvial fans along the valley floor.
Fluvial action has resulted in the downcutting of the
original glacial moranic deposits, and in a few places,
aggradation and subsequent degradation has resulted in
the formation of river terraces overlain with rounded
.. --------~~--------
1. 'La' in Tibetan means pass, and is added as a suffix to the name of the pass. Refer, Map I.3 for the names of village mentioned in this section.
I
J
/ /
I I
I I
/
/ /
/
I
I
--(/ ,.-. \ i
\... .r--· I / ........ __..-. .,.,·
I
I I
I
..,--·-·-·-...., ,
S CAI.E OF PROFILES
VER"OCAL lc:m,l200m
HCRZOH1o\l 2cm 1 2-5 km.
·-·-.-.. ,.--..., -·-· ,, ..... ,
' \ ,.-.......
Map. :!4
ZANSKAR
SELECTED VALLEY PROFILES 5~~~0--~5~~1§0--~15
Kms
63
boulders. Tributaries in hanging valleys entering the
main stot bring considerable amounts of sediments \'lith
their torrential flow. A number of springs are also
found along the valley floor. These springs can best
be seen around the fresh water lake in the valley near
Sani villag~ at the beginning of the central triangular
zone.
The entire length of the Stot valley presents a
series of talus cones and glacio-alluvial fans along the
slopes, that have been deposited over the moranic deposits
formed earlier.
The second major headstream of the Zanskar, the
Lunak river, originates from a number of glaciers in the
higher reaches of the Zanskar range in both Zanskar and
Lahul tehsils. The main source, however, lies in the
stream originating from the Shingo glacier near the
Shingola pass connecting Zanskar with Lahul. AS found
near the Pensila Pass, angular blocks weathered by frost
action lie strewn along the slopes near the Shingola
pass as well. The route from this pass along the Lunak
river abruptly opens into a wide u-shaped valley covered
with moranic debris and large erratics. Unlike the stot
valley which throughout has smooth polished slopes, this
section of the Lunak valley is, hmvever, comparatively
more rugged. Like the Stot valley, a series of alluvial
64
fans, talus cones and scree slopes line the valley floor
till the village of Testa which is situated on a large
recessional moranic mound.
Beyond this village, fluvial action has been
much more dominant in the recent past, for the predominant
. landscape features of this valley are river terraces cut
out of the earlier glacial moranic deposits. The Lunak
meets another large tributary the Niri Chu just below
the village Chah. The Niri Chu has deeply cut its channel
forming a steep gorje. Rapid subaerial denudation in
these arid conditions have formed earth pillers from
glacial debris along the river bank.
Along the sides of tributary valleys, rounded
stones embedded into the side clearly indicate the level
of the river prior to the downcutting action of fluvial
erosion.
Frorn Chah village, the Lunak river carries on
northward in a much narrower valley with extremely irregular
and rugged slopes, quite unlike the Stot valley and upper
reaches of the Lunak valley. Fluvial action, weathering
and masswasting typify the geomorphic processes in this
section of the valley, with river terraces and scree slopes
being the predominant landscape features, besides the
erratics and debris of earlier glaciation. The Lunak
65
valley from Chah om1ards ,.upto the central confluence
zone, is narrower and in sections forms a steep walled
gorge.
Both the Stot and Lunak rivers encompass the
central plain z9ne to meet at the foot of Karsha village.
The stot river enters the plain as a slugrJish braided
stream, while the Lunak flows in a deep well defined
channel. Pad«rn the tehsil headquarters, is situated
on a rocky outcrop at the point where the Lunak enters
the Central plain zone.
The triangular shaped central confluence zone
probably contained a massive snov1field excen::ling from
the Stot valley glacier during the geological period
of glaciation. There are three clearly defined Kame
terraces on the Stot river side where Karsha is situated,
and two Kame terraces go onto the slopes on the side
between the stot and Lunak valley at the base of the
triangle. The third side along the Lunak river has
been polished smooth and covered with scree slopes
through the process of mas s\-vasting and frost action.
As mentioned earlier, fluvial action has been
the most important agent in the recent past. Four river
terraces occupy the area between the Stot and Lunak
streams before their confluence, " ••• indicating periods
66
of equilibrium or alternating periods of aggredation t'
and incision". 1 Pipiting village is situated. on a conical
hill on the first terrace on the otherwise flat triangular
valley. The entire terraced part of this valley is covered
by rounded stones, gravel and very fine grey silt deposited
by occasional flooding of water laden with glacial silt.
Beyond the point of confluence, the valley remains
wide and u-shaped with the sides covered by a series of
alluvial fans and talus cones. At the apex of the
triangular zone is a large morainic ridge just below
the village of Tongde which has subsequently been partly
covered by an alluvial fan. From Tongde the main Zanskar
river turns northwards and flows in a wide u-shape valley
for a distance of approximately three kilometres beyond
Zangla the last village in the tehsil. Beyond Zangla,
the valley abruptly changes into a steep walled gorge
which continues upto the point where the Zanskar river
meets the Indus near Nimmo village in Leh District.
All the areas of human activity are situated in
the three main valleys of the tehsil. The pockets that
contain settlements and cultivated land are generally _______ , 1. H. Osmaston, ~e Geology« -GeomorRhology a~
Quaternary History of~anskar fBristol University, unpublished paper, 1981), p.7.
67
situated in those areas where the land surface is flat
enough, has an adequate soil cover and available water.
These conditions necessary for cultivation are generally
satisfied by alluvial fans and river terraces. These
two units, thus, become the most important landforms that
are directly suited to human needs.
In the natural environment, therefore, the largely
negative mountain physiography in terms of high altitude,
rugged and steep slopes of Zanskar, have limited the
availability of land resources to selected favourable
sites in the valley region especially on alluvial fans
and river terraces. The quality of land as seen by the
soil cover thus becomes very important.
II.2.3 Soils
A major aspect of land resources is the quality
of land available for utilization. The soil is a dynamic
layer in the sense that many complex physical, chemical
and organic processes operate simultaneously within the
soil and these in turn undergo important changes with
the passage of time. 1 Soils are composed of inorganic
substances derived from the parent mineral bedrock and
1. A.N. strather, et. al., Elements of Ph~sical Geography ('v'liley& Sons,New York, 1~1 ), p.191.
68
of organic matter including a synthesis of organic
compounds. The type of soil is of prime concern in
regarding land as a resource especially in agricultural
societies, since the soil is the life layer in which
plant nutrients are produced.
In the rugged, arid, cold, mountainous conditions
of Zanskar, the depth, texture and composition of soil
becomes a prime determinant in relegating land for
agricultural uses especially since steep slopes and
ruggedity greatly limit toe availability of the total
land area. The soil profile as seen from a building
construction site near Padam, reveals a weakly developed
profile, with a thin 2-3 inch 'A' horizon, the near
absence of a •s• horizon and a predominant •c• horizon
composed of glacial morainic detritus. This moranic
depositional composition in Zanskar has largely determined
the soil texture. The texture is important in soils
because it determines the ability of the soil to retain
moisture and transmit water to the layers below. By
and large the soil texture in Zanskar is sandy-loam.
A percentage break-up of soils constituents1 reveals
that on an average 3.77 per cent comprises of coarse
1. Based on a survey undertaken by the Agricultural Department, at Padam (1981).
69
sand, 54.82 per cent of fine sand, 15 per cent of silt ;•
and 25.5 per cent of clay. The proportion of silt varies
between 3.3 per cent to 28.5 per cent, while clay varies
from 12 per cent to 25.5 per cent within the valley. The
amount of organic carbon found in the soil ranges from
0.3 per cent to 0.87 per cent and is much lesser than
the proportion found in the adjoining northern Kargil
tehsil. A chemical analysis 1 of the soil composition shows
that 84.63 per cent of the soil contains acid in soil
residues, oxides account for 15.54 per cent (others =
7.5 per cent, Ferric = 4.3 per cent, Calcium = 3.7 per
cent, and Magnesium = 0. 04 per cent), Phosphorus for
0.25 per cent, Potash for 0.03 per cent, Nitrogen for
0.07 per cent, Carbon for 0.67 per cent and Organic
matter for 1.56 per cent. With the p.h. value at 7.3,
the soil is alkaline, as usually found in dry areas where
soluble salts have been washed or leached away.
This low organic or humus content reveals that
the soils of Zanskar are poor in terms of agricultural
fertility. The organic composition has been greatly
increased by the use of manure on cultivated land, but
the rugged environment, aridity and cold climate have
9reatly limited the depth and fertility of the soil
1. ~·
70
layer. Though the quality o£ land is renewable and I'
can be improved_through chemical fertilization, it would
be a feasible proposition only after very large capital
inputs in the case of Zanskar.
!!.2.4 ~Resources
It is clear from the proceeding discussion that
Zanskar typifies a mountainous topography formed largely
by glacio-fluvial geomorphic processes. As stated earlier,
due to the inherent environmental contraints imposed by
the high altitude, extreme ruggedity, steep slopes,
underdeveloped and poor soils, human activity is limited
to a few select favourable sites that can sustain
cultivation, the main economic activity and hence the
human population. Cultivation is possible primarily
where land is flat or relatively gently sloping, and
most importantly has an adequate soil cover.
Land resources available 1 for human use in Zanskar,
are limited due to strong environmental constraints on
the one hand and the low level of technology on the
other. Table II.l and Figure II.l clearly reveal that
approximately 11 per cent of the total tehsil area
accommodates all .. the settlements of the region. On the
1. Land use has been subsequently analysed in Chapter v.
ZANSKAR
ALTIMETRIC FREQUENCY CURVE
7000
6500
6000
t.fl LLJ 0::
5500 I-LLJ ~
z 5000
I-I 15 4500 uJ I
4000
3500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
---------- PERCENTAGE AREA
Fig 2·1
71
Table II.l: ~titudina~~
--Altitude zone Area Cummu- (% Area Cummu-
(sq. km.) lati ve . lative area % Area (sq. km.)
---Below3500 I 123.13 123.13' 2.14 2.14
3500-3650 173.50 296.6 3 3.02 5.16
3650-4000 34 2. 94 6 39.57 5. 96 11.12
4000-4500 II 1648.64 2288.21 28.64 39.76
4500-5100 III 2173.86 446 2. 07 37.78 77.54
Over 5100 1292.47 5754.54 22.46 100.00
I Valley zone with settlements anj agriculture.
II Slopes with natural pastureland.
III Upper slopes and summits.
No. of Villages in alti-tudinal belt
5
12
8
72
basis of altitudinal variation three broad zones can t'
be identified as shown in Map II.5. These are the valley
zone containing all the area below 4,000 metres, identified
as the zone that can sustain agriculture; Zone B lying
between 4,000 metres to 4,500 metres that contains
sheltered valleys with natural pasture land. which are
, used for grazing purposes during summer months and Zone c
comprising all the land surface above 4,500 metres, being
the source of glacial fed streams that provide water to
the other two zones. For all practical purposes with
the exception of routes and mountaineering expeditions,
zone c is more or less beyond the realm of human activities
when considered in realistic terms. It is thus the valley
zone that provides land resources which can be and are
being exploited.
The paucity of water greatly restricts the land
area available for human use. The water availability
influences the location of settlements and hence of human
activities. Land as a resource can thus be better
analysed when considered along with the water resources
available, as the two are equally important in influencing
the man-environment interaction proces.s in areas like
zanskar.
/
v·..,-·-·-._.. 1 . ·--- ..... _.J .,_
INDEX ALTITUDE IN METRE
B ABOVE4500
D 4000-4500
[illill]illJ BELOW 4000
Map. 2.5
ZANSKAR
ALTITUDINAL ZONES 5 0 5 10 15
Kms.
"'-·-·""\ \. ·-. \
73
II.3 Drainage and Water Resources ;'
water is perhaps the most vital link between the
biotic community and the abiotic components of the
environment. Generally speaking human activities initially
tend to establish themselves in the vicinity of water
bodies. The drainage pattern and basin characteristics
of a region, thus indirectly reveal the water resource
potential for human use. Analysis of the man environment
interaction process w~thin a basin has been a well established
principle of water resource management and the basis of
development plans. In mountain lands especially, the
drainage network greatly influences the location of human
activity. The arid mountainous environment in Zanskar has
multiplied. the importance of water in the man-environment
interaction process, and the analysis of the drainage basin
characteristics are of great significance in order to
estimate potential water resources. The following section,
therefore, includes an analysis of:
(a) Drainage characteristics
~) Water resources.
II.3;1 Drain~e Characteristics
Zanskar tehsil lies to the north-east of a clearly
defined watershed boundary between the Great Himalayan
Range and the Zanskar range, within the basin of the
74
Zanskar river. The dominant drainage pattern in the ,.
region is of the trellis type, in which the actual arrange
ment of the main river and its tributaries lie in a
rectilinear pattern as shown in Map II.6. The principle
elements of this pattern are long parallel subsequent
streams occupying the narrow valleys of weak rock strata
that tend to be at right angles to the consequent streams.
This pattern is especially accentuated in the Lunak basin
that lies in the highly dissected Zanskar range.
The tehsil can be further subdivided as shown by
Table II.2 into the catchment area of the Lunak basin
draining 54 per cent of the total land area, the Stot
basin covering 34 per cent and the remaining 12 per cent
falling into the catchment area of the main Zanskar river. 1
Figure II.2 showing the longitudinal profile of the
main streams highlights that along the entire length of
the stot river which is 68.87 kilometre, the altitudinal
decent is from 4,400 metres at the Pensila to 3,505 metres
at the confluence with the Lunak river. The Stot river,
therefore, has an average fall of 14.57 metres per kilometre
{77 feet in one mile). The Lunak is 90.12 kilometre in
1. This includes the area occupied by those streams that enter the Zanskar river after the confluence of the Stot and Lunak, till the point where the Zanskar river leaves the tehsil.
LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
STOT R1VER
1.000
CONFLUENCE 3000
80
5000 LUNAK RIVER Vl
w
a:: 4500
~
w
:l: L.OOO CONFLUENCE
3000 0 10 20 30 1.0 50 60 70 80 90
KILOMETRE
ZANSKAR RIVER 3000
TEHSIL BOUNDARY
2000 0 10 20 30 1.0 5) 60 70 80 90
KILOMETRE
Fig 2·2
75
length from its origin in the Shigo glacier at 5,096 t'
metres and drops to 3,505 metres where it meets the Stot.
The average fall in the main Lunak valley is thus 10.79
metres per kilometre (57 feet per mile). The length of
that part of the Zanskar river that falls within the
tehsil boundary is 20.59 kilometre from the point of
confluence, and 97.84 kilometre upto Nimmo where the
Zanskar joins the Indus. Within the tehsil, from the
point of confluence onwards the river dips from 3,505
metres to 3, 268 metres and has an average slope of 16.47
metres per kilometre (87 feet per mile). This brings out
the relatively steep gradient of all the three main valleys.
The dynamics of the entire drainage network can be
further analysed through a network analysis that will
bring out the intrinsic relationship between the catchment
area, its component streams, and· the discharge of the
trunk stream. The defining of the drainage basin in terms
of a hierarchy of stream order segments as shown in
Map II. 6 is important in assessing the spat.ial aspects
of hydrological processes. In this hierarchical order,
all fingertip channels become first order streams, two
first order stre~~s meet to form a second order stream
and so on. Table II. 2 gives the _stream order for the
three basins in Zanskar. From the table it becomes
obvious that first order streams predominate in all three
I I
I
----.
STATE BOUNDARY
DISTRICT BOUNDARY
TEHSIL BOUNDARY
GLACIERS FIRST OROER STREAMS
SECOND ORDER STREAMS
THIRD ORDER STREAMS
FOURTH ORDER STREAMS
FIFTH ORDER STREAMS
1-,\ ,, '
I\ .,, " I ' I \ '-~
!<lap. 2-6
ZANSKAR
STREAM ORQERN;
0 1)
Kms
\.
76
Table II.2: ~~Orders and Bifuca!l2E Ratio
Subregion Stream'order I II III IV v
Total Stream Segments
---·---Lunak (Rb)
Number of stream segments
%
3.13 6. 30
335 107
{72. 35) (23. 12
5.66
17
(3. 67)
Length(km) 837.5 170.0 92.5
% (68.36 {13. 87) ·.. (7. 55)
~ {~) 5.83 12.00 2.00
Nurnl'>er of stream segments
'Yo
140 24
(83.83) {14.37)
2
{1.20)
Length(km) 245 119.5 60
% (54.44) {26.55) (13.44)
Central _Elain {Rb) 5.56 3.00
Number of stream segments 85 17
% (80. 19) ( 16. 04)
Length{km) 187.5 72.5
'Yo (65. 22) (25. 22)
3
(2.83)
15.00
(5. 21)
Total {~) 3.78 6.72 s.so
Nwnber of streams
Length of
560 148
(76.09) (20.11)
22
·(2. 99)
stream 1270 36 2 168
(64.71) (18.45) --------
-----------------3.00
3
{0. 06)
60.0
(4. 89)
1
{0.60)
25.5
(0. OS)
1
(0. 09)
12.5
(4. 35)
1
• •
463
-{!OO.OO)
6~ .. 0 1225
{5.30) (100.00)
••
•• • •
• •
. . • •
•• ••
167
(100.00)
450.0
(100.00)
106
(100.00)
287.5
5.00
5
{0. 06)
1 736
(0.00) (100.00)
196 2. 5
{100.00)
contd ••• p. 76 a ••
76a
table II.2 •• contd •••
Drainage denSity ---Subregion Total Basin Recent Drainage
stream Area Basin Density length (sq. km.) %Area ---
Lunak 1225.00 3017.56 52.44 0.41
Stot 450.00 1978.18 34.38 0.23
Central plain 287.50 758.80 13.18 0.38
Total 1962.50 5754.54 100.00 o. 34 ---- --
77
valleys constituting 68.36 per cent of the total stream
length in the Lunak basin, 54.44 per cent in the stat
basin and 65. 21 per cent in the Zanskar basin.
The shape or morphology of basins largely controls
the ordering of streams which can be stu1ied by the
bifurcation ratio between successive orders of streams.
In regions of homogenous bedrock, this ratio 'R' generally
-ranges between 3 to 5. Thus if the value of 'R' is below
3 or above 5; it shows variations in the bedrock of
different strea.111 orders. In Zanskar, as shO\-Jn in
Table II. 2, the bifurcation ratio for all three basins,
ranges from 3.78 first order to every second order streams,
6.72 second order to every third order, 5.5 third order
streams to every fourth order stream and 5o0 fourth order
streams to the main Zanskar river. Within the three sub
basins, the lithography of bedrock is mostly markedly
different in the Stot river, with 5.8 first to every
second order stream, 12 second order streams to every
third order stream, and 2 third order streams to the
main Stot river. The rocks are, however, comparatively
more homogenous in the Lunak especially between the first
and second order streams as the value of 'R' is 3.13, and
between the fourth and fifth order where 'R' is 3.0.
78
The total stream length of all orders to basin I
area is among the most sensitive of morphometric parametres
controlling the texture of landscape dissection and the
spacing of streams. This ratio defined as the drainage
density 'D' or total stream length per unit area of basin,
reveals the operation of surface run off in dissecting
the landscape through fluvial processes. Table II.2
shows that there is a total length of 0.34 kilometres
of stream length to every square kilometre of area. Within
the valleys, the Stot has the lowest drainage density
where D=O. 23 per square kilometre follo\ved by the Lunak
with D=0.41 and Zanskar river with D=0.38. These low
values of drainage density can be mainly attributed to
aridity.
The low drainage density and the predominance of
the smaller number of first order and second order streams
highlight the chronic water problem especially in the
Stot valley. Many of the first and second order streams
are mere trickles during swwner, and all the streams
including the main rivers are frozen during winter, thus,
further accentuating the scarcity of water in Zanskar. 1
1. A more realistic practical analysis of water poten-tials through the analysis of discharge data, surface runoff, erosion estimates, evapotranspiration etc. is required before the actual resource potential can be assessed. These aspects could not be analysed due to the lack of data, and the difficult field conditions that made primary surveys of this sort beyond the scope of this research work.
79
II. 3. 2 Water Resources ,.
From the analysis of drainage basin characteristics
in the stot, Lunak and Zanskar valleys, it becomes apparent
that there is an acute water scarcity in the region in
terms of total land area. This total land area, however,
is not available for human use, and the availability of
water resources is especially important in approximately
only 11 per cent of the total land area that flanks the
main river channels where all the settlements of zanskar
are situated. This clearly shows the great influence
drainage has on the location of human activities in keeping
with the pattern observed in most mountain lands.
The land area that flanks the major streams can
be amply supplied with more water by the use of modern
technology. At the present level of non-mechanization,
hO\-lever, very little of this available water is used, as
the present needs for water are limited to agricultural
land and for domestic purposes. All the set:tlernents lie
on the valley slopes at a higher altitude than the level
of water in the main river. Thus, small tributary streams
that flow into the main river are the primary source of
water.
Water is d±verted through/Kuls or irrigation
channel·s from the side valleys streams to the village
headworks. The amount of water available in these small
so
streams depends on fluctupting climatic conditions in
terms of temperature variations affecting sno\vmelt, amount
of precipitation and other related factors. This uncertainty
and seasonal variations have greatly enhanced the chronic
water shortages in some villages like Tongde, whereas it
causes floods in some low lying fields in Upti and Pipiting
villages.
A special note should be made of the scarse though
extremely important source of water from springs. Springs
provide clean water all year round and become vital during
winter when streams get frozen. Spring water wherever
available is primarily used for drinking and domestic
purposes, as it is much cleaner than water that flows
through the Kuls. A few isolated homesteads as an exception
to the general rule, use spring water to irrigate a few
fields that lie away from the main kul network, thus
augmenting the water shortage.
The non-availability of adequate quantities of water
at the right season, is among the most important problems
faced by the zanskar population. At the present level of
technology, water sources are limited to the flow from
side tributaries which in turn depend on climatic parameters.
These two factors {low technology and low precipitation)
with the general water scarcity, constitute the major
81.
environment constraints that further accentuate the
effects of aridity. There is thus great potential for
improving the quantity of water resources through lift
irrigation, dam and canal construction.
There are at present a number of schemes undertaken
by the State Government for improving the water resources
in Zanskar. 1 Of these the most important is the Haftal
Canal command scheme which began in 1979-80. This canal
on completion is geared to. meet the water requirements of
the villages Padum, Pipiting, Rugruk, Nyuruk, Selapi and
Gyapak, with a minimum discharge of 70 cusecs approximately
in winter ani 3,409 cusecs during the flood season in
summer. The total financial cost outlay of this scheme
with the Kumik Kul scheme is an estimated ~.56.60 lacs,
of which ~.1.6 lacs was spent in 1979-80, ~.0.9 lacs in
1980-81 and ~.3.5 lacs in 1982-83.
Among other efforts are two ongoing and six new
schemes which will bring 4,841 hectares under irrigation
at an estimated cost of ~.395.58 lacs. Within the flood
control and anti-erosion schemes, the physical targets
aim to cover 23.2 kilometre of embankments and spurs
and protect about 400 hectares against floods in 16
1. SUb-divisional Magistrate, Padam.
8:~
villages. These flood prevention schemes are located
at Sani, Abran, Rugruk, Yulang, at Haftal (near Sani)
and Pipiting along the Haftal canal com~and region, with
spot treatment along the Lunak, Stot and their tributaries.
Though there is an apparent lack of adequate water
resources in Zanskar at the moment, this can be overcome
by improving the methods of irrigation and introducing
small and medium projects like the Haftal canal scheme1
and by introducing mechan~sed lift irrigation in selected
favourable sites. Alternatively the existing system of
Kuls can be improved (as in the case of Kumik kul scheme)
by increasing their size, and lining them to:prevent
seepage from the point of origin to the village head' . .,orks.
II.4 Climate
Harsh climatic conditions pose another very
important environmental constraint in shaping the pattern
of life in Zans 1<ar. The seasonal rythm of the sun has
clearly defined the short summer from June to September
when all economic activities are at a peak and the long
1. Enough ecological considerations have not been given in the construction of the Haftal canal, due to the closeness of the Stot nallah near Pipiting. This may lead to waterlogging due to increased irrigation in the corrunand area, which in turn could lead to floods in the future. Recommendations given by Haq Consultants, ~ techno-economic analysis .,2f Karstil District-1981, A consortium of TechnoEconomic Consultants, Baitul Fazal, Jaipur.
8·3
intense cold winter, when most activities come to a
standstill. In his climatic classification, Trewartha
identified the climate of Tibet an:i similar regions to
be of the 'Highland type', and he cautions that 11 •••
representative temperature and rainfall curves for high-
land climates as a class do not exist and only the most
flexible generalisations are broadly applicable". 1
No metereological obse~atory exists in Zanskar,
and in many ways local conditions are dissimilar to
conditions in Leh, Kargil or Dras, the three stations
in Ladakh for which metereological data is available.
The following analysis based on climatic data of the
areas adjoining zanskar thus indicates the broad trend
in Zanskar rather than the specificities. The factors
analysed thus include the following:
{a) Temperature; (b) Precipitation; (c) The impact of climate on human activities in
zanskar.
II.4.1 Tem2erature
Of all the climatic parametres in Zanskar,
variations in temperature conditions are perhaps the
----------------1. G.N. Trewartha, An Introduction to Climate (Mo3raw
Hill, New York, 1968r. As quoted by H."Singh, Ladakh - Problems of Regional develo2ment in the Context of a GrowthPOle strateg:y," unpublisheaPh.D. thesis, J.N.U., 1978, p.51.
84
Table II. 3: ~y M<3;Ximum and Minimum Temperature oc {Padum)
MOnth Apri.!_ May/ July Janua;n: ,!'ebrua!:Y March Auszus!_ gptember Day Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max June Min Max Min Max Min Max .
1 -13 -5 -3 22 -2 15 8 24 11 30 3 24 2 -13 5 -3 15 -2 12 7 25 11 30 5 24 3 -10 _10 -10 5 3 18 10 25 11 26 5 24 4 -11 -3 -10 10 0 15 7 26 10 26 6 23 5 -18 -5 -5 18 0 20 9 24 12 26 6 22 6 -21 -8 -3 21 ·0 25 8 25 12 31 8 23 7 -18 -8 -12 14 -5 10 8 26 11 30 6 21 8 -18 -6 -16 10 -10 10 8 25 11 30 6 22 9 -20 -5 -5 20 -7 15 7 25 10 29 8 24
10 -10 0 -12 0 -4 15 -6 12 7 26 10 28 8 21 11 -12 -10 -10 16 -12 4 -5 10 6 25 9 29 6 23 12 -23 -3 -14 12 -18 10 -4 10 6 28 9 29 5 21 13 -26 -6 -20 -5 -18 4 -6 12 8 27 9 28 6 20 14 -23 -8 -22 -10 -12 20 -5 15 8 27 8 29 7 1'9 15 -25 -11 -18 8 -14 8 0 18 8 29 8 30 5 18 16 -25 -12 -10 6 -12 20 0 15 8 24 9 28 7 20 17 -25 -10 -12 10 -13 10 0 12 8 28 9 29 18 ' -21 -10 -15 5 -8 15 0 10 8 29 8 28 19 -21 - 5 -12 8 -10 10 0 10 9 29 7 26 20 -16 -5 0 12 -8 14 0 10 9 30 7 26 21 ;..21 -5 -8 8 -4 12 0 12 10 29 6 26 22 -18 3 -8 15 -2 23 0 10 10 29 6 28 23 -10 5 -12 6 -3 20 0 12 11 32 6 30 Source: Sub-Divi-24 -15 7 -14 8 -4 20 0 10 10 32 6 26 sional Magistrate, 25 -5 10 -5 8 -3 15 0 10 11 28 5 24 Pad am, 1981-82. 26 -8 8 -5 10 -15 12 2 18 11 28 5 24 27 -21 10 -5 10 -12 10 3 18 11 29 5 23 28 -12 9 0 20 -8 11 2 12 10 26 5 22 29 -10 0 -6 15 2 17 10 30 4 22 30 -12 8 0 20 1 15 10 28 4 21 31 -3 12
Average x -16.08 0.68 -1S.64 4.9 -8.32 13.7 -1.3 13.1 8.7 27.27 8.13 27.13
Mean -8.38 -5.37 2.69 5.9 17.98 17.6 3
85
most important in affecting human activities. t'
The high altitude Zanskar environment is essentially
an environment of progressively thinning atmosphere. There
is a fall in the partial pressure of component gases like
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and the
density of aerosal. This results in a chain of events -
it decreases the density of air thus increasing the
transparancy of the air and altering conditions of
insolation, absorption, radiation and evaporation. Only
a small part of the solar radiation is directly absorbed
in the air and almost all terrestrial radiation escapes
and there is no green house effect. 1 Solar radiation is
stronger in this high altitude region because of the lO\v
air density and strong infra-red and ultra-violet radiation
emitted by the sun. This considerably increases temperatures
in the sun.
Th d . 1 i d . . t t . d 2 e a.1 y max mum an m~n~ml.im empera ure ~n Pa am
for selected months given in Table II.3 shows that January
is the coldest month, with a minimum temperature of-26°C,
1.
2.
M.s. Mani, !.£glom and Phytogeog:r:aphy of High altitude plants n the N.W. Himalayas {OXford ani 'fBH:" 'New belnl,1978), p.11.
These figures are provisional and based on records kept by the sub Divisional Magistrate at Padam (1982).
86
arrl August is the warme9.t month with a maximum temperature
of 31°C.
Table II.4: Monthly Distribution of Tem;ee_r~t __ ure ~~ - -
Month Dr as --------~M~ Min. Mean Max.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
-9.0
-6.7
-2.0
5.4
15.1
20.5
23.7
23.6
19.6
12.8
4.3
-4.0
-22.2 -15.6 -2.8
-21.4 -14.05 o. 8
-15.0 8.5 6.4
-5.2 0.1 12.4
1.5 8.3 17.1
5.6 13.5 21.1
10.6 17. 1 24. 7
10.5 17.05 24.2
5.9
-1. 1
-8.6
12.7 20.9
5.8 14.2
-2.1 7.8
-16.9 -10.4 1.6
Leh Kargil Min. Mean Max. Min. M~
-14.0 -8.4
-11.8 -5.5
-6.3 0.05
-1.2 5.7
2.8 9.9
6. 7 13. 9
10 .. 2 17.4
9.6 16. 9
5.4 13.1
-0.9 6.6
-6.6 0.6
-11.1 -4.6
-4.2
-1.6
4.7
14.0
21.6
25.7
29.7
23.9
24.9
18.5
10.4
1. 2
-13.3 -8.7
-12. 1 -6
-5.3 -3
3.4 8.7
9.4 15.5
13.4 19.5
17. 7 23. 7
17.2 23.05
12.5 18.7
5.4 11.9
-1.3 ;,8.5
-7.9 ..;.3.3
--------------------------source: Climatological Tables of Observations
in India (1931-1960).
More accurate and reliable data pertaining to
temperatures are available for the three meteorological
stations at Leh, Kargil and Dras in other parts of the
Ladakh region. Table II .4 gives the monthly distribution
of temperat.ure for these stations. In Dr as the maximum
0 0 temperature ranges from-9 C in January to 23.7 C in July,
while the minimum temperature ranges from-22.2°C in January
0 to 10.6 C in July. The monthly mean temperature ranges
87
from-15.6°C in January to 17.1°C in July. In Leh, the
maximum temperature ranges from~2.8°C in January to
24. 7°c in July, vlhile the minimum ranges from -14 °c to
10.2°c and mean temperature from-8.4°C to 17.4°C for the
same months. Kargil shows a range of maximum temperature
from-4.2°C in January to 29.7°C in July and a minimum of
-13.3°C in January and 17.7°C in July, with the mean
temperature ranging from-8.7°C in January to 23.7° in
July~ .~eng the Ladakhis it is acknowledged that Zcnskar
is colder than Dras.
Climatographs 1, shown in Figure II.3 for these
three stations, reveal that Dras is the coldest place
with below freezing temperature for over five months from
the last quarter of October to the first quarter of May.
Leh remains frozen from December to March and Kargil from
mid-November to March. From the data available for Padam
(Table II. 3) and from local sources (dated by the freezing
of streams) it can be seen that Padam experiences below
freezing conditions from the last quarter of October to
the end of Apri 1.
There is, however, a high ~f diurnal range of
temperature and a vast difference between temperature
in the sun and in the shade. The latter is due to the
--------------------1. H. Singh, .521?• ill·, pp. 51-53.
DRAS
A
Source H. s ingh
CL IMATOGRAPH
KARGIL
INDEX -'·
COLD -
COOL ~
:-~WARM
ITIIIIIJ H 0 T •
Fiq. 2 .. 3
LEH
88
increased air transperancy because of which most objects t'
heat up much faster in the sun at high altitudes than
they do at sea level.
II.4.2 Precipitation
The Ladakh region of which zanskar forms a subset,
has aptly been called a. cold desert. The region lies in
the rain shadow zone of the Great Himalayan Range which
acts as an effective barrier to the moisture laden Monsoon
winds. By the time these winds cross the Great Himalayan
Range and blow over Ladakh, they are dry and do not
provide much moisture. As in the rest of the He stern
Himalayas, the Western disturbances are the main source
of precipitation. Precipitation in the form of rain is
minimal and is received mostly in the form of snow during
the winter months. The annual rainfall in Dras is
64.8 em, in Kargil it is 23.88 em and in Leh the
rainfall' is only 9.14 em. Most of the precipitation is in
the form of snow and some light rain during July and
August.
In Padam1, there is an a~proximate annual
rainf.all of 10 to 20 em. Most of this rainfall occurs
in 16 rainy days during the months July and August.
1. Data based on field observations and provisional figures obtained from the sub-Divisional 11agistrate Pad am (1982).
89
Precipitation in the fo~m of snow during the winter is
more important as a source of water. Most of this snowfall
ultimately augments the water supply of glacial meltwater
streams. There is, however, no recorded data on the
amount of snO\-Ifall in Padam.
II.4.3 Impact of Climate on Human Activities
From the preceding discussion it becomes apparent
that Zanskar has a harsh climate that contributes to cold
and arid conditions, which affect agriculture - the prime
occupation. Below freezing temperatures for nearly half
the year greatly limit the length of the agricultural
season and hence the pattern of the agricultural economy.
Corresponding to the thaw in April and the below freezing
minimum temperatures in October, the cultivating season
is limited from Hay to September.
The high air transparancy increases solar radiation
which in turn increases soil temperatures. This becomes
important as it hastens the ground thavl and minimises
freezing of soil moisture. This in turn leads to hastening
the g.ermination of seeds and the groHth of plants. The
thin air density and cold water vapour make evaporation
much faster than expected at this temperature and enhance
the arid conditions.
Precipitated in the form of both rain and snow
partly flows through the glacial meltwater rivers which
90
provide water for irrigation. The lack of rain during
the required agricultural season necessitates the use of
water tapped through irrigation chanals from these melt
water streams. In general, rain is considered detrimental
to crop growth if it falls after the ears of grain have
begun to ripen. It does not form an important source of
water directly, and in fact tends to cause frost at night
which sometimes damages the crops.
Besides the influence on agriculture, the harsh
climate further adversely affects other human activities
'in a number of ways. The intense cold during winter
greatly restricts mobility to within the village and
surrounding hamlets, as passes leading into Zanskar get
snow 't!"ound and are uncros sable during winters. Most
activities in winter are confined to the houses itself.
The impact of the harsh climate can also be seen
on the community in terms of affecting their general
,living conditions. The extreme cold in winter has
influenced the design of ho~ses which have small doors
and windows to keep the cold out and thick walls to
provide insulation. The cold has also affected the
pattern of their clothes which has necessarily to be
warm. These aspects have been- subsequently analysed.
91.
II. 5 Natural Vegetati.£!1 1•
The major environmental factors affecting plant
cover in Zanskar mainly include atmospheric cold, intense
insolation, snow cover, aridity, steep slopes and absence
of soil cover. High altitude mountain plants are
essentially found exclusively above the critical height
of 2,500-3,000 metres or above the timberline which is
the altitudinal belt with a mean temperature of 10°c in
the warmest month. High altitude plants mainly inclu1e
cryophytes, partly mesophytes and xerophytes.
The high altitude and cold climatic conditions
have confined natural vegetation to wild grasses and
small thorny bushes along mountain slopes, with occasional
grassy patches near water courses.
The most important natural vegetation, however,
is found on the higher reaches in sheltered pockets in
the form of grassy pastures where water is provided by
snowmelt. These natural pastures shelter livestock
during summer, where the animals are nurtured on grass
which is reportedly 'greener and more nutritious• than
that found in the lov1er altitudes. Unlike most other
mountain lands, zanskar does not have any forest resources
due to the lack of tree vegetation. This has greatly
limited the possibilities for the development of activities
Year
--1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
92
Table II.5: Number of Trees ,. Planted -
WilloH arrl Poplar
39, 230
58,600
54, 200
43,700
7, 600
2, 000
19,834
20,500
18,700
12, 100
Hyponphar=
7,500
19, 000
50,000
93
geared to forest products. ,··
Trees are limited to favourable sites near water
courses and generally found near the vicinity of a Gompa
or near a mosque as in the case of Padam. Trees carefully
tended in the villages are treated as valuable assets.
The predominant varieties are poplar, willow and hyponphae.
Unlike the rest of the Himalayan forested belt, wood is
almost non-existent, and does not constitute an important
1 source of fuel. Almost all the requirements for wood
used in house construction and for other uses comes from
beyond Zanskar.
Efforts undertaken by the Government Forest
Department for afforestation and land reclamation, are
still in their infancy. Prior to their efforts, the only
land under some tree cover was limited to Shila a hamlet
of Padam, and to Thungri and Ichar villages in the Stot
Valley. Table II.5 gives the nwnber of trees planted by
the Forest Department in Zanskar during the last decade.
Under the Sixth Annual Plan, schemes undertaken
by the Forest Department included demarcation, consolidation
and protection of 128 hectares at a financial outlay of
-----/
1. Twigs and bushes are however very important as fuel and juniper is especially important for use in monasteries. •
94
Rs. 26, ooo. Reimbursement and restoration of natural . t'
vegetation was undertaken for a physical target of 56
hectares at the cost of Rs.68,000, while the physical
target for afforestation programmes was 124 hectares at
a cost of Rs.10. 06 lacs, and development of pastures and
fodder was taken up in 170 hectares at a cost of
1 Rs. 2. 03 lacs.
A second programme under the Desert Development
scheme has further set a physical target of planting
45,000 saplings under their social Forestry Scheme at a
cost of Rs.45,000, and a further 20,000 saplings under
their canal bank protection scheme at a cost of Rs.5o,ooo.
II.6 Mineral and Energy Resour~
One of the interpretations given to the coinage
of the name Zanskar, is the origin from Zangs-kar or
the land of copper. 2
In historical records, Zanskar was
known throughout Ladakh for its whitish copper extracted
in small quantities from river sediments near the villages
Zangla and Testa, and used primarily for making vessels
for religious purposes. Beside the use of this small
amount of copper, mineral resources are limited to the
----------------------1. Sub-Divisional Magistrate's Office, Padam.
2. A. Cunningham, ~· ~·, p. 234.
95
extraction of some lim~ used for white-washing houses,
1 ggm2as and Ehorten~. Some borax and sulpher is also
found near the hot spring near Karsha village, but this
has found use only in the medicines prepared by the
2 2.!]~·
Mining and metal work has never been an important
occupation in Zanskar due to the paucity of known mineral
deposits and the prevailing religious norms of Buddhism
where mining is considered to be plundering the soil, and ·,
a task relegated to the lower class Gara3 (blacksmith)
families. There is at present no mining of minerals
throughout Zans kar and according to the 1971 census only
3 persons were occupied in mining and quarrying activities
which mainly included the excavation of soil and stones
for building purposes. A detailed geological survey is
needed before an assessment of mineral resources can be
made, as it may reveal hitherto hidden deposits and
present some potential for further development.
The traditional uses of energy, are reflected by
the low technological level used in their exploitation.
---------------------1. Gompas are monateries and chortens are reli]ious
structures shaped like t9e stupa.
2. Am-chi is the name-for local doctors in Ladakh.
3. ASpects of social class are taken up subsequently.
96
Fuel is limited to that provided by bushes, twigs and ,.
dung used for household purposes, 1 and to the primitive
use of hyde! power in the form of watermills that make
use of the natural gradient. These watermills are
indispensable for grinding roasted food-grains into
!~~~ the basic ingredient of the Zanskari diet. An
ing~nuous use of solar radiation energy is effected by
spreading a mud 'and manure mixture over the fields during
the pre-sowing period in Apri 1. The dark brown colour
of this mixture absorbs heat and aids ground thaw, thus
increasing the crop cultivating season. With the exception
of these traditional uses, energy inputs into the system
are limited to hwnan labour and livestock power.
Vast amounts of capital, skills and technolO<:Jical
know-how would be required to construct means of obtaining
other conventional sources of energy such as thermal or
more important hydel power. More non-conventional
sources of solar and w i~ energy, hO\vever, exist in
abundance. Of these solar energy, is the obvious choice,
since its use is ideally suited to these high altitude
-----------1. In the past few years, kerosene brought into the
region from Kargil and sold at the Government Food Stores, has become an important fuel in some villages.
97
arid conditions, where the radiation per unit area is
more intense than at lower altitudes. Solar energy
potentials for .use are very high, and will probably
become more viable in the long run compared to conventional
energy sources. Other parts of Ladakh notably in and
around Leh city, have already begun to use solar energy
which has proved to be a great success. 1
It is difficult to define with any appreciable
degree of realism, the pr~spects of the economic potential
of resources in semi-isolated underdeveloped regions like
Zanskar which " ••• may or may not ultimately follow a
course of economic growth of population, industry and
income. The development of resources in these backward
reg ions awaits further discovery and technological change.•.2
As the preceding discussion brings out, Zanskar is a high
altitude, rugged, mountainous region with a harsh climate.
This has resulted in a finite resource base, where cultivable
land is limited to the zone below 4,000 metres, water is
scarce and there are no forest, mineral or fuel resources.
In this context, the economic exploitation of available
resources from the natural environment can be understood
only in relation to reasonably defined traditional potentials.
1. Ap~ndix IV presents de~ails of solar energy heating projects undertaken by the Tata Energy Research Ins~itute at Leh city. Choglamsar a village close to Leh town, has the distinction of being the first village in India to be provided with solar energy used for street and domestic lighting purposes.
2. J.L. Fisher, ..QI2• cit., p.22.