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Critical Elements of Effective Supervision
With the Experienced Counselor
A Dissertation
Submitted to theFaculty of Argosy University Schaumburg Campus
College of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
In Partial Fulfillment of theRequirement for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
by
Alice H. Crawford
August 2010
Critical Elements of Effective Supervision
With the Experienced Counselor
©2010
Alice H. Crawford
All rights reserved
ii
Critical Elements of Effective Supervision
With the Experienced Counselor
Abstract of Dissertation
Submitted to theFaculty of Argosy University Schaumburg Campus
College of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
in Partial Fulfillment of theRequirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
by
Alice H. Crawford
Argosy University Schaumburg
August 2010
Katherine Miley, PsyD
Dale Septeowski, PhD
La-Don Jackson, PhD
Department: School of Behavioral Science
iii
Abstract
The current research project explored answers to the question, what are the critical
elements to conduct effective supervision with experienced counselors? A three round
electronic Delphi study was conducted with a panel of eight clinical supervisors. The
study, conducted over a nine week period, gave participants an opportunity to answer
four open-ended questions in the first round and address consensus of the group during
the second and third round. Results of the study identified four critical elements for
conducting effective supervision with experienced counselors: the supervisor; the
supervisee/experienced counselor; the supervision process; and the supervision
relationship. Conclusions of the study direct further research in the area of diversity and
outcome of supervision with experienced counselors.
iv
Table of Contents
TABLE OF TABLE…………………………………..…………………………………vii
TABLE OF APPENDICES………………………………………..……………………viii
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM...................................................................................2Problem Background...........................................................................................................2Purpose of the Study............................................................................................................6Research Question...............................................................................................................7Limitations of the Research.................................................................................................9Definitions.........................................................................................................................10Importance of the Study.....................................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE....................................................12Administrative Supervision...............................................................................................12Clinical Supervision...........................................................................................................17Components of Clinical Supervision.................................................................................22
Working Alliance...........................................................................................................22Supervisor’s Style..........................................................................................................28Feedback........................................................................................................................30Communication..............................................................................................................35Gender Issues and Communication...............................................................................37Multicultural Issues and Communication......................................................................39Ethical Issues.................................................................................................................46
Good Supervision vs. Bad Supervision.............................................................................50
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.........................................................................58Research Design................................................................................................................58
Selection of Subjects......................................................................................................59Instrumentation..............................................................................................................65Assumptions..................................................................................................................66Procedures......................................................................................................................67
Data Processing and Analysis............................................................................................69
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS........................................................................................71
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH...........88 Characteristics of the Supervisor...................................................................................88
Characteristics of the Supervisee...................................................................................94Characteristics of the Supervision Process....................................................................98
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Characteristics of the Supervision Relationship..........................................................103Limitations of the Study..................................................................................................107Future Research...............................................................................................................108
REFERENCES................................................................................................................110
vi
Table of Tables
Table Page
1. Panel Members by Education Degrees, Professional Title, Work Setting,Counseling Theoretical Approaches, Supervision Theoretical Approaches................74
2. Supervisor Characteristics Panel Rating......................................................................79
3. Supervisee Characteristics Panel Rating......................................................................81
4. Supervision Process Characteristics Panel Rating.......................................................83
5. Supervision Relationship Characteristics Panel Rating………………….…………..85
vii
Table of Appendices
Appendix A: Electronic Invitation ................................................................................... 123
Appendix B: Informed Consent ...................................................................................... 127
Appendix C: Study Description ...................................................................................... 130
Appendix D: Nominee Invitation .................................................................................... 132
Appendix E: Round One Questionnaire and Demographics ........................................... 136
Appendix F: Application for IRB Review and Certification of Compliance ................. 139
Appendix G: Round One Response ................................................................................ 152
Appendix H: Additional Comments Round 2 ................................................................. 165
Appendix I: Additional Comments Round 3 ……………………………………… ….. 167
viii
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express sincere gratitude to committee members,
Dr. Katherine Miley, Dr Dale Septeowski, and Dr. La-Don Jackson, for their invaluable
support and guidance in the planning and implementation of this research project. The
deepest appreciation is further offered to Dr. Jeffrey Edwards for his guidance in the
research methodology of the project and Robert Racine for help with data analysis. The
most heartfelt appreciation is offered to my editor, Amy Gralewski, for quick completion
of the task. The deepest appreciation is further offered to the Clinical Supervisors of the
Linked In groups for their participation in the research study. Without their contributions
of time and resources, this study would not have been possible.
ix
Dedication
To my husband, Bryant, for your patience during this process and my son, Christopher,
for understanding when Mom was in a “grumpy mood.” To my Mother and Father who
are my prayer warriors, my sister who always asked “are you getting something done?”
and family members whose prayers, love, and support have helped turn this dream into a
shared reality. It could not have been possible without you.
x
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM
Supervision is a common occurrence and major part of training and licensure for
beginning and novice counselors (Grant & Schorfeld, 2007). As part of a counseling
curriculum, the counselor-in-training is expected to complete hours of supervision in
order to meet degree requirements as well as continue postgraduate supervision to obtain
licensure. Bhat and Davis (2007) stated “supervision is the primary vehicle in the
counseling profession through which trainees provide services to clients in a monitored
environment” (p. 80).
However, the discussion of supervision and its focus on the beginning or novice
counselor discounts a population of counselors who continue to receive supervision, the
practicing or experienced counselor. Grant and Schorfeld (2007) found that not only do
counselors engage in supervision after licensure, they often engage in supervision for
years after licensure. Their study focused on members of the Psychotherapy and
Counselling Federation of Australia and found that a large percentage of the respondents
continued to engage in supervision, with 79% engaging in individual supervision rather
than peer or group supervision (Grant and Schorfeld, 2007). While the literature speaks
to effective ways for supervisors to conduct supervision for the counselor in training, it
does not speak specifically to how supervisors conduct supervision with experienced
counselors and how it may differ from supervision of a counselor-in-training.
Ronnestad and Skovolt (2003) discussed the changes experienced by the
counselor as he or she gains experience. Goodyear, Wetheimer, Cypers, and Rosemond
(2003) acknowledged this finding and pointed out that there should be more in-depth
discussion about the impact of supervision on the experienced counselor as the
experienced counselor gains experience. The authors contended that supervision with the
experienced counselor should be investigated to understand the impact of supervision on
this type of counselor.
Problem Background
Campbell (2000) stated, “effective supervisors need a broad range of
competencies in a variety of areas” (p. 5). The supervisor must assess and monitor the
supervisee no matter the level of skill or experience. This baseline helps the supervisor to
get to know the supervisee and meet the needs of the supervisee within the supervision
realm. According to Campbell, the important supervision skills include knowledge of
clinical supervision; understanding of the supervision models, methods and techniques;
understanding the importance of the supervisory relationship; understanding of cultural
issues and environmental factors; understanding of legal and ethical issues; and
familiarity with assessment and evaluation. While Campbell’s list is not exhaustive, it is
extensive; however, Campbell did not state whether the listing could be generalized
across all levels of counselor skills and experiences. Campbell also did not specify
whether these same factors are addressed in supervision with an experienced counselor or
if additional or fewer factors are needed.
While the major counseling and psychotherapy organizations in the US (i.e.,
American Psychological Association and American Counseling Association) do not
require ongoing supervision after licensure, many experienced counselors, like the
beginning or novice counselors, engage in supervision for personal and professional
growth. Not only do the experienced counselors express a desire to participate in
supervision, they have been known to seek it out if it is not provided in their work setting.
2
The difference in the experienced counselor and the novice/beginning or counselor-in-
training is how they define their personal and professional growth and what is needed in
supervision to achieve this growth. Ronnestad and Skovholt (2003) contended that the
professional development of the experienced counselor should not only encompass the
issues of the novice/beginning counselor, such as anxiety and supportive work
environments, but also include the counselor’s personal life challenges and experiences.
Roberts and Borders (1994) agreed that supervision is to focus, among other things, on
“one’s personal traits and issues affecting counseling performance” (p. 1). Borders
(1991c) further stated, “although skill enhancement frequently is the specified goal, the
supervision process also encourages greater self-awareness and fosters an integrated
professional and personal identity as a counselor” (p. 254).
According to Stoltenberg’s (1981) developmental model, the experienced
counselor is a professional who is considered Level 4 or Master Counselor:
The counselor has personal security based on awareness of insecurity; is insightful, with full awareness of the limitations of insight; and is able to function adequately, even with some occasional changes in degrees of motivation. (p. 63)
The experienced counselor is one who has practiced for a number of years, is
independently licensed, and can be found in various work contexts from educational
programs and schools to agencies and hospitals. Further, the experienced counselor is
aware of and understands the role of being a counselor. Experienced counselors are open
to new ideas and experiences, in touch with their inner feelings and their emotions,
possess trust, possess self-awareness, and have different personality characteristics,
which can help enhance the supervisory relationship Ronnestad and Skovholt (2003).
3
This professional is expected to incorporate theories of counseling, the
importance of the therapeutic relationships and processes, setting boundaries, approach to
counseling, distinction between their personal and professional life, ethical and legal
issues, the impact of diversity and environmental factors on client issues, and positive
client outcomes. The experienced counselor, not unlike the novice counselor, also
recognizes the importance of ongoing supervision for professional development
(Shechtman & Wirzberger, 1999). Though experienced counselors are viewed as self-
regulating, self-monitoring, and competent in the field of counseling, Barretta-Herman
(1993) argued that the emotional demands placed on counselors to deal with traumatic,
pervasive, intractable individuals and social problems warrant continued support. This
support can be achieved through clinical supervision. The supposition that the
experienced counselor may not need supervision defines supervision only as a teaching
tool for those who must learn how to be counselors rather than as an enhancement tool
for continued growth and competence. While there are many different approaches to
supervision for the counselor-in-training or the novice, it is not known if these same
approaches can be just as beneficial for the experienced counselor or if the experienced
counselor is looking for other factors to address. Unlike the novice counselor, the
experienced counselor has a wider knowledge base on counseling techniques and
therefore may need a different or additional focus in supervision. Supervisors may know
of the demand for additional focus and address those issues in supervision with an
experienced counselor, but to date nothing in the literature describes those issues.
The experienced counselor can bring many different perspectives to supervision
due to their experiences with counseling clients. The supervisor could learn from the
4
experienced counselor in supervision rather than the traditional theory that the supervisee
is to learn from the supervisor. Holloway (1988) questioned the developmental model of
supervision, since the emphasis is more on the counselor-in-training than the experienced
counselor. She stated that training helps the emerging counselors develop within the
supervisory context and the development results in a counseling professional. She asked
whether someone who has been a counselor and then furthers their professional training
is to be viewed as someone who is now an inadequate counselor during supervision. She
emphasized the idea that supervisees bring experiences to the table, which are not to be
dismissed but rather embraced to enhance the supervision process. Holloway (1988)
commented, “ultimately, of course, investigators in the field must engage in confirmatory
research in which they test the efficacy of various supervisory approaches with trainees
of various levels of experience, learning styles and motivational attributes” (p. 139).
Barretta-Herman (1993) concurred with Holloway regarding the developmental
model and recognition of the experience of the counselor in supervision:
It is important that the supervisor is not assumed to hold superior knowledge and skill vis-à-vis the practitioner, who in this model is experienced, licensed, often a specialist and in some cases a recognized expert. The supervisor of a competent practitioner recognizes and acknowledges the practitioner’s expertise and views the supervisor role as one of reflection, critique, challenge and support. (p. 60)
According to Worthington (2006), experience level adds to personal autonomy
and self-assurance. Counselors’ needs and abilities change as they gain experience, and
therefore, supervision should be conducted differently based upon the counselor’s level
of experience. This difference across the experience and skill levels leads to the
conclusion that supervisors’ approaches to supervision should be different for
experienced counselors in order to address the differences of the experience levels.
5
Purpose of the Study
Literature has stated that the experienced counselor looks for supervision in order
to enhance accurate case conceptualization (Gainor & Constantine, 2002), address
transference-countertransference issues (Worthen & McNeill, 2001), deflect experiences
of burn-out (Niebrugge, 1994), increase self-efficacy (Larson & Daniels, 1998), decrease
job dissatisfaction (Kavanagh et al., 2003), adhere to ethical and legal guidelines
(Cormier & Bernard, 1982), increase their knowledge of diverse populations (Sue, 1991),
and elicit feedback on performance (Pistole & Roberts, 2002) in order to increase positive
client outcomes (Worthen & McNeill, 1996). Tromski-Klingshirn and Davis (2007) also
stated that supervision promotes development or maintenance of counseling skills. Since
the experienced counselor is concerned with these issues in the supervision process, it is
possible the supervisor is addressing more than what is documented in the literature.
Many authors have discussed the fact that research is badly needed to understand
the applied methods of supervising experienced counselors (Goodyear et al., 2003;
Herbert & Trusty, 2006; Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992; Spence, Wilson, Kavanagh,
Strong, & Worrall, 2001). Supervisors conduct supervision with this skill level counselor
and yet there is a lack of in-depth literature on how supervisors conduct the process and
whether or not it is different from supervising a counselor-in-training. Understanding the
practices and techniques of supervisors engaged in supervision with the experienced
counselor will add to the supervision literature regarding the best practices of effective
supervision with this population.
6
Research Question
What are the critical elements of effective supervision with experienced
counselors? Wheeler and Richards (2007) advocated that a research agenda needs to be
formulated that takes into account long-term supervision and experienced practitioners.
Since there is sparse literature regarding supervision with an experienced counselor, the
literature reviewed will build upon the factors that are currently discussed in supervision.
At no time is the list considered all-inclusive, but rather a beginning point of exploration
into possible supervision practices currently done with experienced counselors.
Utilizing the outline of Campbell’s (2000) workbook of becoming an effective
supervisor, this study explored the important and critical elements of effective
supervision with experienced counselors from the supervisor’s point of view. In addition
to Campbell’s outline of factors for effective supervision, the guidelines of supervision
by the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) (1993) were also
included as a guide to the exploration of supervision with an experienced counselor.
ACES establishes guidelines in order to enhance the counseling profession. “The
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) is composed of people
engaged in the professional preparation of counselors and people responsible for the
ongoing supervision of counselors” (ACES, 1993).
Since the literature is sparse regarding the important and critical elements
involved in the effective supervision of an experienced counselor, a Delphi study was
utilized to enlighten the field of supervision with this particular population. A Delphi
method of research is practical to use “…when there is an absence of theoretical body of
knowledge to point to a particular decision” (Jenkins & Smith, 1994, p. 413).
7
The Delphi method, first developed by the RAND Corporation, is a technique in
which a panel of “experts” is queried about their opinion on a specific topic (Dalkey &
Rourke, 1971; Dalkey & Helmer, 1963). Once query and review takes place, a consensus
of the panel of the important factors of a topic result. The Delphi method used in this
study possessed several advantages such as anonymity for participants, participants who
were geographically dispersed which added to discourse, and being a method that utilized
both qualitative and quantitative aspects of research and was effective for conducting this
pilot study. Since the current study was a pilot study of preliminary research, the Delphi
method was an appropriate research vehicle.
The researcher looked for the supervisor’s interpretations of the important and
critical elements necessary, in their opinions, to conduct effective supervision with
experienced counselors in contrast to conducting supervision with a counselor-in-
training. The information was elicited from the Delphi panel through three rounds of
questionnaires. The first round consisted of open-ended questions exploring what were
considered to be important and critical elements of effective supervision with
experienced counselors and novice counselors, the advantages of conducting supervision
with experienced counselors, and the disadvantages and the comparison between the
experienced counselor and the novice counselor in supervision. The information
gathered from the first round was thematically analyzed and then coded as a survey for
the second round. The second round consisted of confirmation and ranking of the
researcher’s analysis on emerging themes quoted by the panel members in the first round,
along with any additional comments on missed themes. The third round consisted of a
review of the rank order of the themes and gave the panelists an opportunity to make any
8
final comments. The results of the study contributed to further understanding of
supervision practices.
Limitations of the Research
The disadvantages of the Delphi technique were possible poor analysis,
summarization and presentation of the panel’s responses by the researcher, the
construction of the questions to encourage rich data and discourse, sample size, and
rigorous data analysis (DeVilliers, DeVilliers, & Kent, 2005). The solicitation for
participants resulted in a diverse sample with participants from the East Coast, Midwest,
and West Coast. The participants worked and supervised in various organizations within
the counseling field. The results possess a low generalizability across the profession due
to the small sample size. However the study added to the current body of work on
supervision. The study was a pilot to begin to understand the aspects of supervision with
the experienced counselor; however, the study did not address all aspects of effective
supervision with the experienced counselor, but rather resulted in an initial point of
discussion for further exploration. The focus of the study was from the supervisor’s
perspective and did not encompass the experienced counselor’s perspective on being
supervised.
Since the supervisor is considered the “gatekeeper” of the profession and works to
address many issues presented by the counselor in supervision, supervisors can enlighten
the supervision literature by discussing their experiences in supervision with the
experienced counselor. Rather than suggest the supervisor conduct supervision with the
experienced counselor based upon the criteria for the counselor-in-training, it was more
beneficial to hear the supervisors’ experiences of this phenomenon.
9
Definitions
The term experienced counselor refers to counselors who are independently
licensed and have practiced for a number of years.
The term counselor-in-training refers to individuals currently involved in
counselor education classes. The term beginning counselor refers to individuals who are
involved in practicum phase and the term novice counselors refer to those who are pre-
licensure.
The term clinical supervision is in accordance with the definition given in the
Preamble of the ACES Ethical guidelines, which states, “Clinical supervision includes
the supportive and educative activities of the supervisor designed to improve the
application of counseling theory and technique directly to clients” (ACES, 1993, p. 1). In
addition, clinical supervision includes support and expansion of the counselor’s skills,
abilities, and talents as a counselor. The term supervision is used interchangeably with
the term clinical supervision for the purposes of this study.
The term administrative supervision is in accordance with the definition given in
the Preamble of the ACES Ethical guidelines, which states, “Administrative supervision
refers to those supervisory activities which increase the efficiency of the delivery of
counseling services” (ACES, 1993, p. 1).
The term organization refers to organizations, schools, counselor training
programs, mental health facilities, agencies, and companies that train, educate, or employ
the experienced counselors.
The term supervisor is used interchangeably with clinical supervisor and refers to
the individual who performs clinical supervision.
10
The term administrative supervisor is used to designate those individuals
responsible for the delivery of counseling services.
The term supervisee designates a counselor in clinical supervision. For the
purposes of this study, the supervisee also refers to the experienced counselor.
Importance of the Study
The literature on supervision has placed emphasis upon the counselor-in-training,
beginning, or novice counselor rather than any other stages in a counselor’s career.
While various studies have investigated the reactions, thoughts, and feelings of
experienced counselors and supervisors, the studies have not looked specifically at what
practices are being used to accomplish effective supervision with experienced counselors
nor have the studies investigated whether the accepted practices in the field are uniform
or variant. The current study focused upon the initial exploration or pilot study of what
supervisors think are critical elements of supervision with this profession and addressing
the issues and concerns of this profession.
Understanding what is done in supervision with the experienced counselor will
better prepare supervisors who deal with this population to be most effective in
addressing their needs. Since the current literature on supervision does not particularly
separate counselors-in-training from the experienced counselor, but does address much of
what is discussed by ACES and Campbell regarding supervision, the framework will give
a starting point to review supervision practices in the literature. This will allow an
opportunity to formulate questions that can be explored during the data collection phase
of research. Therefore, the literature review explored those predominantly listed factors
of clinical supervision.
11
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The list of factors within this literature review is by no means all-inclusive or
exhaustive, but rather a list of the frequently discussed topics within the existing
supervision literature. The factors discussed within this literature review are presented as
enhancements for effective supervision. While the literature primarily addresses the
counselor-in-training, beginning, or novice counselor more so than the experienced
counselor, many of the factors may be applied to the supervision process with
experienced counselors. The following literature review will utilize Campbell’s (2000)
workbook on effective supervision as an outline. Additionally, the literature review will
discuss the topics of the ACES components of effective supervision.
Administrative Supervision
Counselors work in private practice, schools, companies, organizations or
agencies. For counselors employed in all work settings but private practice it is not
uncommon to frequently receive supervision. The focus of supervision is both
administrative and clinical. Clinical and administrative supervision are often collapsed
into one function and provided by one individual, which could lead to task-oriented
administrative supervision becoming more critical than clinical supervision (Barretta-
Herman, 1993).
Henderson (1994) stated that administrative skills in supervision are helpful for
the ongoing development of counselors. Administrative skills include the leadership of
the counselor workforce, dealing with organizational issues, and program effectiveness.
Administrative supervisors can create a framework for the counselor to have a stable and
salient environment in which to practice; in addition, administrative supervisors address
12
the structure of the clinical program, coordination of clinical services, and evaluation
mechanisms for the counselor to function as an employee of the school, company,
organization, or agency. The supervisor performing administrative supervision may not
be viewed as a resource for personal and professional growth but rather “the
administrative supervisor is the person whom the counselor supervisee considers her or
his ‘boss’ at the counseling site” (Tromski-Klingshirn & Davis, 2007, p. 295). Tromski-
Klingshirn and Davis (2007) further stated that the administrative supervisor is
responsible for the managerial tasks such as overseeing case record, implementing policy
and procedures for continuity of care, quality assurance and accountability, the hiring,
firing and corrective actions of staff, and evaluating the counselor as an employee. The
authors warned that the dual role of administrative and clinical supervisor can threaten
the supervisory trust since the supervisor possesses increased power from being the
evaluator as well as the teacher. As a result of their study, the participants who had
difficulty in supervision because of the supervisor holding both roles of administrative
and clinical reported negative consequences from discussions in supervision regarding
their inadequacies because the submissions are utilized in evaluations, affecting monetary
and promotional opportunities. In order to avoid poor evaluations the counselors would
refrain from discussing their inadequacies and weaknesses which could result in a greater
risk of the counselor providing poor or unethical treatment. According to Herlihy, Gray,
and McCollum (2002) “…many supervisors must also deal with the administrative
supervision of counselors within organizations” (p. 55) as well as the clinical supervisor
role. Since the supervisors are to monitor the counselors’ actions and behaviors as an
employee and give feedback with regard to work performance, there is the concern that
13
supervisees will not disclose everything they are doing with clients during supervision.
Any areas of problematic issues with clients may not be disclosed due to the supervisee
feeling it could be counted against them when it comes to evaluation.
With demands upon the supervisors to contain costs and streamline daily
functions, the benefits of clinical supervision may compete with the administrative
supervision tasks. When an organization does not have a clear direction of the benefits of
clinical supervision, the result may be that there are not enough clinical supervisors
trained to handle the clinical supervision workload, resulting in task-oriented supervision
rather than growth supervision (Ask & Roche, 2005). Due to the demands on schools,
companies, organizations, and agencies to become more cost effective, supervisors may
have no choice but to conduct both the administrative and the clinical supervision. These
competing focuses can make it difficult for the supervisor to prioritize what aspect of
supervision is most important at any given moment.
Roberts and Borders (1994) studied existing supervision practices among school
counselors. The participants consisted of a random selection of North Carolina School
Counselor Association members. While 450 surveys were mailed, 168 usable surveys
were returned. A three-part survey was constructed to gather demographic information,
existing supervision practices, and preferences of supervision at this point of the
participants’ careers. The participants were asked to categorize the existing supervision
practice in one of three areas of supervision: administrative, clinical, and the counseling
program for school counselors. The participants answered questions about the type of
supervision received and whether this was their preference. The results indicated that the
school counselors were receiving more administrative supervision than any of the other
14
two types. However, the counselors preferred the other two types of supervision, which
allowed them personal and professional growth. Oberman (2005) concurred with the
findings of Roberts and Boders (1994) and concluded that the main barrier experienced
by school counselors receiving clinical supervision was that the supervisors did not have
the training to perform clinical supervision. The supervisors were usually school
administrators who did not understand the significance and importance, nor possess the
training in order to perform clinical supervision with the school counselor.
Barretta-Herman (1993) stated that the administrative function of the supervisor is
just as important as clinical supervision. “The supervisor… is charged with the
responsibility to facilitate the professional development of the practitioner and to create,
maintain and evaluate systems of client and agency accountability that enhance service
delivery” (Barretta-Herman, 1993, p. 61). The administrative supervisor is helpful in
organizing the counselor’s work duties (Herbert & Trusty, 2006), and gives structure to
the work. “The over-riding aim is to optimize the service provided to clients in line with
the goals, expectation and ethical and profession concerns” (Spence et al., 2001, p. 136).
This is to say that administrative supervisors can be beneficial for the counselor when
identifying goals, expectations, processes, and the philosophy of the counseling work
within the organization. Administrative supervisors can also be used to provide personal
support to increase worker motivation, morale, and commitment. At the same time, they
can help to decrease staff burnout, workplace problems, worker stressors, and coworker
conflicts.
Niebrugge (1994) found the desire to leave the job and the profession is
significantly related to satisfaction with supervision and the number of years the
15
counselor is engaged in supervision. Robinson, Murrells, and Smith (2005) examined
high attrition rates within a psychiatric hospital, which were attributed to work overload,
lack of management support, violence to staff from clients, lack of flexible work,
uncertainties about roles of different staff groups (role conflict and role ambiguity),
anxieties about adapting to new approaches to care for clients, and lack of opportunities
for career progress and continuing professional development. Supervision is expected to
aid in retention of the mental health worker. The study reported mandatory policies
instituted ongoing supervision of mental health nurses at a lower work grade with a
person of higher grade to assist in personal and professional growth. Results of the
program evaluation demonstrated a decrease in attrition, more work satisfaction, a
continued vigilance to professional interaction with patients, and a decrease in burnout.
Supervision can help counselors set realistic goals, address counselor shortcomings, and
alleviate work difficulties (Raquepaw & Miller, 1989). “Given the significant cost to
mental health organizations of staff turnover and absenteeism resulting from burnout and
work stress, there is a clear need for research to examine the parameters of supervision
that could assist staff to cope with the stressful aspects of their employment” (Spence et
al., 2001, p. 6).
While the administrative supervision gives structure to the counselor clinical
supervision solely focuses on ways of improving the counselor’s clinical skills. “Clinical
supervision needs to focus on clinical issues, such as clinical case review and processing
counselor-client dynamics as it is these clinical activities by which close supervision of a
supervisee’s clinical skill is maintained” (Tromski-Klingshirn, 2006, p. 59).
16
Clinical Supervision
Barnett (2007), in a discussion of supervision for psychologists, stated “clinical
supervision is an essential aspect of each psychologists’ training and as psychologists, we
each may participate in it throughout various phases of our careers” (p. 268). Just like the
psychologist, counselors can participate in clinical supervision throughout their entire
careers.
In a discussion regarding the continual competence of licensed psychologists,
Carroll (1998) discussed new challenges arising for the practitioner and the fact that there
is no formal program to monitor whether the practitioner remains competent throughout
his or her career. Clients present new challenges and counselors must continue to address
those challenges. Kanz (2001) concurred with Carroll, stating that experienced
psychologists should have ongoing clinical supervision due to the challenges of client
problems and difficulties, and that “the wide-range of client issues that psychologists
encounter also lends support to the need for supervision” (p. 45).
Warnke, Duys, Lark, and Renard (1998) indicated that supervision is beneficial
for the counselor when met with new and unfamiliar tasks. The counselor could “loop”
back through the initial stages of uncertainty experienced as a novice counselor when
faced with an unfamiliar task. Clinical supervision allows for discussion of intervention
strategies, case conceptualization, and new counseling approaches. While clinical
supervision is believed to be an effective way to obtain professional development, there
are many who have not received clinical supervision since licensure. The empirical data
is scarce on exactly how many continue with supervision and how many do not continue
after licensure. Henderson (1994) asked how a professional continues to remain
17
competent in their role, since clinical supervision plays a major part in addressing the
continued competence of the counselor. The counselor will continue to have issues of
dealing with new areas and challenges, which may not have been encountered before.
Cohen and Laufer (1999) concurred with Henderson regarding the importance of clinical
supervision for continued professional competence. Cohen and Laufer (1999), in their
research on Israeli social workers and their perception of their continued competence,
concluded that if clinical supervision is viewed as satisfactory by the participant it can
result in high levels of self-confidence and professional competence.
Worthen and Lambert (2007) discussed the importance of understanding client
outcomes to adjust the focus of supervision. The authors noted that understanding the
outcome of the intervention should change the focus of supervision and thereby promote
the most appropriate interventions. Monitoring of the client’s progress during therapy
and whether or not the interventions work is of great importance. The authors attempted
to make sense of the findings that whether the counselor is experienced or new, the
outcomes of therapy appear to be the same. Therefore, it is important to understand the
outcome of intervention to adjust the focus of supervision. Stoltenberg, McNeill, and
Crethar (1994) reviewed the current literature that discussed developmental models of
supervision, and suggested “experience is a crude indication of development and
expertise” (p. 421). Just like the psychologist, the counselor could need clinical
supervision to deal with more complex clinical situations and case conceptualization.
According to Worthington (2006), experience level adds to personal autonomy
and self-assurance. Counselors change in needs and abilities as they gain experience, and
clinical supervision changes based upon the counselor’s level of experience. Since there
18
is a difference across the experience level it leads to the conclusion that supervisors’
approaches to supervision must address the differences in the supervisees’ experience
levels. Supervisors must meet the counselors at their level of experience; otherwise the
supervision is not beneficial for either the supervisor or the supervisee. Supervisors
cannot use a one-size fits all approach because the needs of supervisees are different
depending on experience level. As time goes on, counselors may disengage in utilizing
the necessary skills to do effective interventions with their clients.
Schaefle, Smaby, Maddux, and Cates (2005) demonstrated that there is a decline
in counseling skills and non-transfer of skills of counseling students after beginning to
practice. Their study evaluated preparation for the counselor to engage in counseling
skills continually during and after training, and demonstrated an increase in retention of
skills. Supervisors who continue to engage in clinical discussion may help the counselor
to continue to adhere to appropriate clinical skills. Supervisors are gatekeepers to ensure
not only the quality of service for the clients, but also to ensure that the supervisees are
protected from losing their rigor for the services.
Schroffel (1999) explored clinical supervision and job satisfaction. The author
offered four arguments for why good supervision is important: life-long skill
development; emotional support; the need to maintain practice boundaries (e.g.,
transference and counter-transference issues); and the exchange of knowledge to
minimize a sense of isolation. Supervisors who remain distant are viewed as less
effective and out of touch with the counselor, while supervisors who are viewed as
accessible and engaging are seen as a resource and mentor. “Supportive supervision
includes reassurance, encouragement, approval and recognition, expressions of
19
confidence, ventilation, desensitization, and attentive listening” (Schroffel, 1999, p. 50).
In this study the supervisor was viewed as the bonding agent or linking pin. Effective
supervisors must do more than sustain a bureaucratic machine or clinical tutoring, in
addition they are communicators who must be competent in team building and mediation
skills, encourage autonomy and self-direction, and foster empowerment for the
supervisee. Such a supervisor demonstrates a sense of confidence and accomplishment.
Clinical and interpersonal skills, along with building trust, possessing open
communication, sharing information, and encouraging the counselor’s involvement, are
factors included in Campbell’s (2000) model of effective supervision. The participants
revealed the desire for routine and relevant clinical supervision to help in skill
enhancement. All respondents felt clinical supervision should never be eliminated and
those satisfied with clinical supervision demonstrated more satisfaction with their jobs.
The author suggested that the supervisor should periodically take a pulse as to whether
the supervision continues to address relevant issues and remains effective. The study
demonstrated that the quality of the clinical supervision helped the counselors feel more
empowered. Results further demonstrated an increase in counselor job satisfaction and
the fact that supervision needs to be tailored to individual needs. The clinical supervisor
needs to possess competence and accessibility. “The major point of this finding is that it
is not the amount of supervision but the quality of the supervisor that was the most
helpful and most valued by respondents” (Schroffel, 1999, p. 170). Schroffel (1999)
further stated, “based on the results of this finding it appears that workers want to be
clinically challenged in order to be introduced to new thoughts, ideas, and insights” (p.
172). The supervisor’s clinical quality of supervision is considered by the supervisees as
20
one of the factors that contribute to staff satisfaction and retention within counseling
organizations, because supervision is a forum to resolve clinical issues.
Clinical supervision can offer an increase in techniques and case
conceptualization for the supervisee (Borders, Cashwell, & Rotter, 1995). There is a
general consensus that supervision is different from therapy, though personal issues can
arise in both settings. There is a suggestion that advanced stages of counseling are the
appropriate time to discuss the impact of personal issues on counselor performance.
Advanced counselors repeatedly examine any personal issues that affect the counseling
relationship. They are concerned about involvement with the client and the process of
counseling. Supervisors can discuss those personal issues as they, too, gain experience in
the supervision process (Sumerel & Borders, 1996).
Borders and Usher (1992), in conducting a quantitative study on post-degree
counselors, found the primary goal of post-degree counselors in supervision was to
receive professional support and create skill-oriented goals within supervision. The data
reported that 32.1% of the 357 usable surveys were not receiving any type of clinical
supervision. Nearly 35% of the respondents reported receiving clinical supervision at
least once a month. The other approximately 32%, while receiving clinical supervision,
received it less often. While it was found that the post-degree counselor had less frequent
clinical supervision after achieving the degree than during the acquisition of the degree,
the post-degree counselor still preferred to have clinical supervision. In fact, the more
experienced counselors in the study were shown to seek out clinical supervision.
Earley (2004) discussed the relationship factors in clinical supervision and how
those factors impact a counselor’s usage of supervision based upon Bandura’s definition
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of self-efficacy. Earley’s study described how clinical supervision and counselor
performance may correlate in practicing counselors. Supervision is found to demonstrate
supportive instruction, increase counselor confidence, and moderate counselor anxiety,
which increases counselor self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is built on interactive mastery of
skills, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. One limitation is the
difficulty of finding someone who has something to teach the more experienced
counselor with regard to conceptualization, personal, and professional growth.
Performance feedback mechanisms, specific counselor tasks, and a variety of supervisor
orientations contribute to counselor self-efficacy. The counselors in the study viewed
clinical supervision as critical no matter the type or frequency. The counselors further
stated that clinical supervision is helpful in improving confidence and counselor
performance.
Components of Clinical Supervision
Working alliance. The supervisor’s style deals with the elements of
attractiveness, interpersonal sensitivity, and task orientation. The attractive style is
defined as the supervisor being warm, friendly, open, and supportive. Interpersonally
sensitive means the supervisor is therapeutic, invested, and perceptive regarding the
supervisee. The task-oriented style means the supervisor is one who is focused on the
goals of learning and structure. The supervisory style is related to the supervisory
relationship and particularly the working alliance (Ladany, Walker, & Melincoff, 2001).
A counselor entering supervision is looking for a competent supervisor to assist with the
learning process whether the counselor is a novice or experienced. The counselor, in this
case the experienced counselor, is looking for a supervisor who offers the opportunity to
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learn and to progress in different aspects of the counseling profession. The supervisor
can be instrumental in helping with this endeavor. “Good supervisors seem to have many
of the same qualities of good teachers and good counselors. They are genuine, open
flexible, respectful of individual differences.” (Borders, 1994, p. 45).
The supervisory working alliance is based upon mutual agreement of goals, tasks,
and emotional bonds, and considered an essential factor of effective supervision. A
strong working alliance between the supervisor and supervisee will enable both
participants to grow. Bordin (1979) developed the concept of the working alliance,
stating that “…a working alliance between a person seeking change and a change agent
can occur in many places besides the locale of psychotherapy” (p. 252). The working
alliance includes three features: goals, assignment of tasks, and emotional bonds. Goals
demonstrate the outcome of achievements, while the tasks are the agreed upon contract of
how to reach those goals. The bond, essentially made of trust and attachment, is the
foundation that facilitates this process. A strong working alliance has a significant
impact on the supervision process and constitutes active involvement of the supervisee
and promotes development and acquisition of complex skills (Kavanagh, Spence, Wilson,
& Crow, 2002).
Coll (1995) explored preferential types of supervision alliance of experienced
college counselors. The college counselors wanted to discuss, through self-report, the
types of clients and counseling interventions during their supervision sessions. The
author noted that the problem with self-report is that the counselor may neglect, whether
intentionally or not, to mention very critical information regarding intervention
techniques, client characteristics, and counselor involvement. The counselor may feel
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anxiety exhibiting a sense of vulnerability in dealing with a specific client, because they
often believe that they should be able to handle any situation presented by a client and
never appear inept in their counseling duties. However, this is an incorrect assumption as
there are many different clients who present with various issues that are not necessarily
the same as those the counselor may have previously encountered. The results of the
study concluded that counselors wanted to receive ongoing supervision with a
knowledgeable, experienced counseling professional.
Usher and Borders (1993) found post-degree counselors preferred a collegial
relationship-oriented supervisor and one with emphasis on conceptual personalization
and process skills. Considered the “practicing counselor,” this counselor seeks out a
supervisor who operates out of a peer-like collegial relationship. The authors
investigated three different classifications for the counselor: novice, intermediate, and
experienced. Utilizing the Supervisory Styles Inventory Revised (SSI-R) and the
Supervisor Emphasis Rating Form Revised (SERF-R), the authors explored the preferred
styles of supervision for the three categories.
The SSI-R, developed by Friedlander and Ward (1984), possesses three sub-scales
used to holistically measure supervisory style: attractive, interpersonally sensitive, and
task-oriented. The instrument measures the supervisor’s self-perception and the
supervisee’s perception of the supervisor. The attractive subscale measures the
supervisor’s collegial dimension, meaning the supervisor’s warmth, support, friendliness,
and openness. The interpersonally sensitive subscale measures the supervisor’s
relationship-oriented approach to supervision, meaning the supervisor is committed,
therapeutic, and perceptive. The task-oriented subscale reflects a content approach to
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supervision, meaning the supervisor is goal-oriented, thorough, focused, practical, and
structured in supervision.
The SERF-R, which was developed by Lanning and Freeman (1994),
demonstrates measurements of supervisors’ emphasis within the supervision process.
The four sub-scales of the SERF-R are professional behavior, process skills,
personalization, and conceptualization. The professional behavior subscale defines the
supervisor’s behavior within supervision. The process skills subscale is defined as the
way in which the supervisor conducts supervision. The personalization subscale
addresses the supervisor’s ability to see the supervisee as a counselor possessing warmth
and positive regard. The conceptualization subscale is defined as the appropriate
interventions and techniques utilized at the appropriate time in supervision. The
participants within the study were drawn from a listing of National Certified Counselors.
Two hundred seventy four participants responded to the research request to complete the
surveys. The results of the survey demonstrated that counselors with more post-degree
supervision have a stronger preference for an emphasis on personalization skills and less
on professional behaviors, and the results also demonstrated that all categories of
counselors wanted a collegial-relationship-oriented supervisor. Usher and Borders
(1993) concluded the highest-level professionals, considered the experienced counselor,
preferred a focus on personalization skills and a preference for the collegial-relationship-
oriented supervisor.
The supervision dyad, not unlike the counseling dyad, is noted to go through
weakening and repair of the alliance resulting from the resistance to change or self-
defeating behaviors and mistakes of either participant. This conflict will either result in a
25
strengthening or a deterioration of the bond. Burke, Goodyear, and Guzzard (1998)
studied the weakening and repairs of 10 supervisory dyads over time. Utilizing a
modified Working Alliance Inventory, the researchers explored the impact of weakening
and repair upon the supervisory alliance. The weakening-repair of the supervisory
alliance is considered the conflict between the supervisor and the supervisee and how
those conflicts are resolved. The conflicts can occur because of supervisee resistance,
supervisee’s self defeating behavior, or the supervisor’s mistakes. One of the results of
the study indicated the more experienced supervisee set the tone of the supervisory
sessions focusing upon his or her own needs. Another result of the study demonstrated
that more experienced clinicians attended to the repairing of the alliance more often than
novice clinicians.
Actions taken by the supervisor in the context of a strong working alliance can
minimize role difficulties, thus reducing the likelihood of negative consequences within
supervision. Working alliance is significantly related to supervisee’s perception of role
conflict and role ambiguity within supervision. Stronger bonds result in working through
conflicts, which decreases role conflict for both the supervisor and the supervisee. The
concept of the working alliance is just as salient in the supervisor-supervisee working
alliance as it is in the therapist-client relationship. “Presumably, when supervisors and
trainees discuss expectations, set goals, and agree on the tasks of supervision within the
context of a positive relationship, trainees are less likely to experience confusion or
conflict in supervision” (Ladany, Friedlander, & Nelson, 2005, p. 220). As supervisees
gain experience they may be reluctant to follow supervisor recommendations. They may
feel they are in the counseling relationship and better understand the client than the
26
supervisor. Being treated as a novice can result in role conflict for the supervisee who
may identify as a competent clinician but feels that he or she is being treated as if
incompetent. Due to the very essence of supervision, the supervisor is supposedly the
“expert” and should know best how to intervene. This type of role conflict could affect
confidence in the working alliance for both. Role ambiguity could also result,
diminishing self-confidence and resulting in a sense of futility. If the supervisor views
supervision in which the “expert” is teaching the “student,” this can cause role ambiguity
particularly for the experienced counselor, who does not need to be taught how to do
counseling. In this case, the experienced counselor may not benefit from supervision if
the counselor believes that his or her expertise and experience are being dismissed (Kirk-
Brown & Wallace, 2004; Olk & Friedlander, 1992).
Worthen and Isakson (2003) contended that the working alliance is “thus being
able to understand the elements of effective supervisory relationships, monitoring those
relationships and intervening as needed...” (p. 4). The authors presented a discussion of
the variables that mediate the supervisory relationship: the matching variable;
developmental or experience level; role induction processes; settings for practice;
previous experience with supervisor; supervisee variables; supervisor issues; dual role
concerns; evaluation issues; cultural variable; impression management and previous
supervision experience. All have an impact upon supervision. The authors indicated that
addressing the variables within supervision will enhance the supervision process.
Supervision is often a hierarchical relationship and therefore the role conflict
could escalate because of the relationship. Strength based supervision is “a non-
hierarchical supervisory relationship. One where there exists a give and take, where the
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supervisor does not assume to have more ‘correct’ privileged knowledge of both the
supervisee’s and client’s goals, intentions or views and where the supervision works
intentionally to create a strength based supervision” (Edwards & Chen, 1999, p. 10).
Milliren, Clemmer, and Wingett (2006) agreed that a non-hierarchical supervisory
relationship is of more benefit for the supervisee. In the authors’ discussion of Adlerian-
based supervision, they posited that a democratic relationship is much more beneficial for
the supervisee. The Adlerian-based supervision utilizes Respectfully Curious Inquiry.
Respectfully Curious Inquiry is comprised of seven components, which focus upon
mutual goals: attentive reflective listening on the part of the supervisor; assessing the
strengths; resilience and social interest; validating and encouraging useful behavior;
sharing humor, clarification, intuition, imagination to develop understanding; problem
conceptualization; and identification of socially useful solutions. The outcome of the
Adlerian-based supervision is the Therapeutic Empowerment in the supervisory
relationship, which produces equality, empathy, encouragement, and education for both
the supervisor and the supervisee.
Supervisor’s style. The supervisor’s style, whether task-oriented, supervisee-
focused, or clinically based, has an impact upon the comfort level of the supervisee in
supervision. Ladany et al. (2001) conducted a study to examine the relationship between
supervisory style and the supervisory working alliance, and predicted a strong
relationship between the two concepts. Supervisors who are comfortable with self-
disclosure appear to possess characteristics of more warmth, attractiveness, and
interpersonal sensitivity, thereby modeling openness. Results indicate that those
supervisors who are perceived as attractive have a greater emotional bond and more
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agreement on tasks and goals with the supervisee than those who are not. Those who
perceived themselves as interpersonally sensitive and task-oriented possessed the most
agreement on tasks in supervision. The more attractive and interpersonally sensitive
supervisors did self-disclose the most in supervision. The more task-oriented supervisors
did not self-disclose as often. Both the supervisor and the supervisee who viewed the
relationship as warm, friendly, and trusting saw the supervisory relationship as very
beneficial.
The various styles of supervision are underlined by support and direction.
Support shows empathy and building rapport, while direction refers to instructing,
teaching, and challenging the supervisee. The adaptive counseling and therapy model
proposed by Hart and Nance (2003) stresses these concepts. The model comprises four
concepts of style, which include telling, teaching, supporting, and delegating, changes for
the supervisee with the development of skills, competency, and experience. The study
asked what type of supervision is preferred by supervisees and whether it matches the
level of supervision requested and received by the supervisees. The four styles are
designated as A, B, C, and D. Style A is the directive/expert teacher; Style B is the
supportive/teacher; Style C is the counselor role; and Style D is the consultant. The
results were that supervisors prefer to be viewed as Style C and the supervisees preferred
Style B, meaning the supervisees were looking for a supervisor who was supportive but
was also a teacher. This was the preferred style of supervision across all levels of
experience. Experienced counselors appeared to prefer a supportive style of supervision.
The age of the counselor may be of importance in looking at the supervisory style.
As a counselor ages and experiences life, the influences can have an impact upon the
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counselor's approach to counseling and supervision. Gorrell (1997) performed a study to
understand supervisory styles for seasoned clinicians. Beginning with six hypotheses to
guide the study, Gorrell looked at how supervisees’ level of experience and age would
relate to preference of supervisory style; supervisees with up to 10 years experience
would have preference for the task-oriented supervisory style; supervisees with more than
11 years experience will prefer the interpersonally sensitive and attractive supervisory
style; supervisees between the ages of 23 and 45 prefer task oriented style of supervision;
supervisees between the ages of 46 and 60 would prefer interpersonally sensitive
supervisors; and supervisees 61 and older prefer attractive supervisory styles. As
mentioned in the study, people mature at various levels and their worldviews differ based
upon life experiences. The same is true for experience levels, due to clinicians dealing
with different populations possessing different mental and emotional disorders, which has
an impact upon their clinical expertise. The study resulted in the null set for all
hypotheses. The experienced counselors’ preference of style appeared to be more about
the experience level of the supervisor rather than the experienced counselors’ ages.
Feedback. Feedback is an important component of supervision. Blackwell,
Strohmer, Belcas, and Burton (2002) stated “failure to provide evaluative feedback raises
a serious ethical concern because the supervisor fails to provide one of the most essential
tasks of supervision and this can compromise both the supervisee’s growth as a counselor
and the client’s progress in counseling” (p. 242). The feedback given can lead to an
enhancement in skills; however, “counselor educators and field supervisors often feel
uncomfortable about assessing trainee skills and struggle to find an appropriate vehicle
for delivering essential constructive feedback regarding performance” (Harris, 1994, p.
30
19). Problems with feedback in supervision are often a result of poorly navigating the
delicate balance of encouraging trust in the relationship and giving meaningful
constructive feedback. Chur-Hansen and McLean (2006) discussed using formative
feedback, which can help the supervisee to identify abilities and improve strengths. The
reasons given for supervisors not giving summative feedback include lack of time to
provide the feedback and possible fear of litigation. These are some of the components
of feedback that can cause anxiety for the supervisor.
However, Daniels and Larson (2001) found that positive feedback can increase
the counselor’s self-efficacy and minimize anxieties. Negative feedback can result in a
lowering of counselor-self-efficacy and an increase in anxiety. The way in which the
supervisor gives feedback is apparently important and has an impact upon the supervision
relationship. Supervisors are encouraged to examine methods of giving feedback.
Problems with the supervisor’s methods of feedback could cause threats to the
supervisory bond (Goodyear & Bernard, 1998).
Ladany et al. (2005), in a discussion of negotiating role conflicts within
supervision, stated that there is role conflict due to the feedback component of
supervision. However, the authors stated that if the feedback component is missing, the
supervisee may not trust the supervisor due to wanting the opportunity to learn more or
focus on personal issues. Without feedback the supervisee is unclear about the tasks and
direction of the process. It is advisable for supervisors to offer constructive feedback
when evaluating counselor performance to help counselor growth (Harris, 1994).
King and Wheeler (1999) conducted a survey of supervisors who engaged in
supervision with private practice counselors. The study investigated whether the
31
supervisors felt any responsibility for the work of their supervisees and what
responsibility the supervisor should assume for the counselor’s work. The qualitative
study interviewed 10 individuals who were considered supervision experts due to length
of practice. The results of the survey stated that supervisors do have some professional
and ethical responsibility for the quality of the counselor’s work, but do not have legal
responsibilities. One of the participants in the study expressed the view that supervisors
are aware when counselors engage in unethical behavior but that it is another thing for
them to report the improprieties, most often as a result of supervisors viewing the
supervisory relationship as one between peers rather than one of a hierarchical nature.
Though the study was conducted in the UK, it does posit a question as to whether
supervisors in the United States have the same view.
The supervision relationship should challenge, stimulate, and encourage the
supervisor as well as the supervisee. The dilemma of the supervisor of having to both
encourage and give feedback effectively places them in the vicarious position of
balancing the dual role of encourager and critic. The dual role of the supervisor as
educator and critic could lead to the supervisee not reporting everything during
supervision and therefore missing the opportunity to address important issues (Minnes,
1987).
The evaluative aspect of supervision can also cause anxiety for the supervisor.
The experienced counselor would have no problems revealing areas of competence, but
may have problems in revealing areas of weaknesses. With an evaluative component of
supervision, the experienced counselor may not trust the supervisor enough to reveal
weaknesses therefore leading to problems of truly addressing issues within the counseling
32
relationship as well as personal challenges of the experienced counselor. Supervisors as
well as supervisees experience this double bind. The counselor, in an effort to look good
and yet manage their anxiety, may find themselves either becoming over accommodating
or defensive when feeling vulnerable. The supervisor may find it difficult to address and
confront incompetencies of the experienced counselor since the counselor is also seen as
a peer (Lizzio, Stokes, & Wilson, 2005).
Boyd, McNaughton, and O’Shea (2008) investigated a way to enhance
supervision by having formal feedback developed from counselor self-audit. The authors
contended that counselors can become better at delivering services if they are able to
share self-audits in consultation supervision. The authors invited counselors and
supervisors to be part of a focus group to offer views regarding self-audit and its place in
supervision. The focus groups were divided into three groups. One group was comprised
of counselors who decided to do the self-audit, another group was comprised of
counselors who decided against self-audit, and the third group consisted of consultative
supervisors. The qualitative study asked each group to address reactions to conducting
self-audit, positive and negative aspects, impact of self-audit on the client, impact of self-
audit on the counseling process, impact of self-audit on the counselor, ethical
responsibilities to the client having the feedback to inform the counseling, individual
progress, and mandatory vs. voluntary usage of self-audit. The data was transcribed
using thematic and SWOT analyses. The groups explored the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats of utilizing self-audit to improve service. The results of the
study indicated that using the self-audit had more positive than negative aspects. There
was concern the counselors would be afraid to review the self-audit in supervision
33
because it would demonstrate their weaknesses; however, this was not the case because
the supervision was consultative rather than an evaluative relationship. The counselors
were able to examine areas that were positive outcomes for the client and therefore help
them to focus upon areas for personal growth. Counselors felt the self-audit information
had little impact upon the supervisory relationship and they were able to openly and
honestly discuss issues with the supervisor. Counselors were resistant to collecting the
data initially but after the positive experience of using the information for discussion in
supervision they found this to be very beneficial to their practice, so much so they began
to use the data to explore other areas such as clients leaving prematurely and the best
practices for addressing client issues.
In order for the experienced counselor to reveal areas of vulnerability and
weaknesses, the supervisor is tasked with promoting a level of trust. Not unlike the
therapeutic relationship, the need to build trust is pertinent when revealing information
during the supervision process. Unlike the therapeutic relationship, the supervision
relationship calls for a deeper level of trust because of the feedback component. “…
Counselors and supervisors are both vulnerable. Supervision requires a level of two way
trust unmatched in the counseling relationship” (Pearson, 2000, p. 285). Supervisory
relationships can last for years; therefore, the trust becomes imperative for the
relationship to flourish. This demands special attention to the trust within the supervision
relationship. Pearson (2000) stated that the success or failure of the relationship depends
upon the trust developed between the supervisor and the supervisee. Anxiety resulting
from the act of supervision and the evaluative component should be discussed in the
supervision process in order to minimize any reluctance or resistance and build trust.
34
Ladany et al. (2001) concurred, stating “a unique feature of the supervisory
working alliance is that the relationship is considered to be based on perception of mutual
connections between supervisors and trainees. In other words, the supervisor perceives
mutual trust exists with the trainee, rather than a unidirectional notion of trust” (p. 265).
The supervisee will open up to the supervisor if supervision is a safe haven to
demonstrate vulnerabilities and inadequacies. Supervisee resistance to supervision can
result from a fear of being perceived as inadequate as a counselor.
Counselors are human and can therefore make mistakes. The importance of the
ethical behavior is being able to own up to the mistakes and having supervision can offer
a forum to discuss those mistakes. Cormier (1988) discussed the fact that many first time
counselors cover up their mistakes in order to look good to the supervisor. The problem
of appearing inept can cause stress and anxiety. If trust is built within the supervision
relationship, the counselor will be able to own mistakes, avoid unproductive blaming, and
shatter myths about the counseling process. Cormier also discussed the “veteran
counselor” and their problematic beliefs that they know everything about how to do good
therapy, they are an effective and powerful therapist, they are the expert on the client’s
behavior, they know about life and death, they are always self-aware, and they know
what is needed to save the world. The impact of life experiences will change worldviews
and the counselor is not immune to having these experiences. Having the trust to talk
with the supervisor about these mistakes and perform corrective action becomes
imperative.
Communication. In order to build trust in the supervision relationship, effective
communication must take place. The communication sets the tone of the relationship by
35
relating the respect the supervisor has for the supervisee, understanding the supervisee’s
worldview, and accepting their differences. “Current descriptions of counseling
supervision invariably include a discussion of the supervisor-counselor relationship and
the means by which the individuals communicate, manage the process of reciprocal
influence, affiliate, make decisions, and accomplish their respective tasks” (Dye, 1994, p.
9).
The communication is influenced by characteristics such as gender, race,
ethnicity, developmental level of supervisor and supervisee, theoretical approach, and the
power differential (Dye, 1994). Supervisors are expected to be aware of individual
differences, including experience levels, gender, multiculturalism, supervisee attributes,
self-efficacy, and supervisee conceptual level. Contextual elements that affect
supervision include the clientele being serviced, and the relationship and communication
between supervisor and supervisee (Goodyear & Bernard, 1998).
The way men and women communicate could impact supervision. Sells,
Goodyear, Lichtenberg, and Polinghorne (1997) stated that women demonstrate
behaviors to enhance the strength of relationships whereas men demonstrate more of a
task orientation in relationships. Using a quantitative index, the researchers measured the
amount of communication patterns between supervisors and supervisees of different
gender and the perception of effective supervision for the participants. Utilizing 44 dyads
they found that in male-male dyads the focus was more task-oriented, but the other three
types of dyad, female-male, male-female, and female-female showed no significance of
communication and impact upon ratings by the supervisees of effective supervision. The
researchers attributed the minimal significance of communication within the female-
36
male, male-female and female-female dyads to trying to do what was expected rather
than following their own values and beliefs of counseling thus not demonstrating any
conflict. However the study did point out a significant difference of communication due
to gender issues. Gender issues are important to examine in the supervision process.
Gender issues and communication. “Gender is a complex construct that is
defined by what society believes is true of males and females and the stereotypes placed
upon the sexes” (Doughty & Leddick, 2007, p. 18). Gender differences can interfere with
the supervision relationship particularly when it comes to communication styles.
“Women may be viewed as needing more help and this perspective can cause problems
of effective supervision and communication” (Doughty & Leddick, 2007, p. 18).
Lichtenberg and Goodyear (2000) studied structure in the supervision relationship and
found that male supervisors were expected to give more structure to the process than
female supervisors, as it was reported the male supervisors seem more directive in their
discussions.
Martin, Goodyear, and Newton (1987) performed a qualitative study examining a
supervision dyad between a male supervisor and a female supervisee with seven years
experience over a 10-week period. The exploration was to understand the best and worst
sessions of supervision from both the supervisor’s and the supervisee’s point of view.
Both stated the best session for each focused upon personal issues and their ability to be
vulnerable with one another. The worst session in the viewpoint of the supervisee
occurred when the supervisor placed the supervisee in the position of counselor. The
worst session for the supervisor was the one in which the supervisee did all the talking.
Scores of the supervisee went up in task orientation, interpersonal sensitivity, and
37
attractiveness during the course of the supervision sessions, adding to the importance of
supervision and communication. However, it makes one wonder if the scores for
supervision did not increase because of becoming familiar with one another during
supervision and therefore understanding the expectations within the supervision sessions.
When the supervisee and supervisor were both able to do more talking during the
supervision session, they rated the session as the best.
Twohey and Volker (1993) stated that women run the risk of not being heard due
to communication or relational styles devalued in a male dominant supervision
relationship. The authors explored the power differential in supervisory dyads between
men and women. It appeared that when men supervise women, a power imbalance
results from the hierarchical nature of supervision and the societal norms. A woman
supervising a man can result in the same power imbalance, because the woman may be
considered less experienced. Research in business literature has demonstrated
stereotyping of women in management positions, and women being viewed as not
possessing the expertise to lead and manage. Similar notions may exist in supervision.
Twohey and Volker (1993) discussed two different camps with regard to women in
supervision. One side argues that gender differences have no impact upon supervision
and the other side argues that these differences do have an impact upon the supervision
process and relationship. However Twohey and Volker did state that there is a
stereotyping of males as well as females regarding the supervision communication. The
male supervisors may be viewed as not being able to speak in a caring and nurturing
voice in order to encourage the supervisee; rather it is thought the male supervisor will
only focus on tasks. Women speak from a voice of care while men speak from a voice of
38
justice; however, both voices are necessary in supervision in order to have a balance of
support and yet have a voice of instruction. “It is important for supervisors to be aware
of both voice of justice and the voice of care within themselves and within their
supervisees” (Twohey & Volker, 1993, p. 196).
Gender differences are important to address within supervision, and supervisors
can do this by remaining vigilant in understanding the existence of gender bias. Nelson
et al. (2006) documented discussions among sixteen members of the Section for the
Advancement of Women conference. As a result of the discussion, the members felt that
it is up to the supervisor to approach the subject of gender and cross cultural issues within
the supervisory relationship. However, the supervisor could run the risk of alienating the
counselor if the counselor is not able to deal with a discussion about race, culture, or
gender. The group felt that in order to minimize the risk of alienation, the supervisor as
well as the counselor should explore philosophies about these issues and perspectives
regarding their impact upon the supervisory relationship.
Addressing the gender differences can make supervisors and supervisee more
aware of gender biases that can affect supervision and ultimately affect client outcome.
“Challenging our own biases, prejudices and issues is one of the most critical parts of the
process” (Paisley, 1994, p. 14). Both men and women counselors prefer the supervisor to
possess expert power during supervision, but the preference for power base does not
appear to be tied to gender, but rather to the trust of the supervisee in the supervisor not
to abuse their power (Robyak, Goodyear, Prange, & Donham, 1986).
Multicultural issues and communication. Multiculturalism looks at the
differences of race, gender, socioeconomic background, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and
39
many other areas that demonstrate differences in supervision and the counseling
relationship. “The multicultural perspective will become essential as we move into the
twenty-first century” (Fong, 1994, p. 15). It is recommended that supervisors conduct
cultural responsiveness in supervision. Garrett et al. (2001) investigated the development
of a paradigm of cultural responsiveness for supervisors. In their discussion of cultural
responsiveness, the authors stated the importance for the supervisor to be able to
communicate with the supervisee about the cultural differences not only within the
therapeutic realm but also in the supervision realm. Being able to have discussions about
the cultural differences would result in the supervisee being able to understand the impact
of culture upon the communication patterns and thus upon supervision. Nilsson and
Duan (2007) concluded in their study regarding role difficulties, counseling self-efficacy,
and prejudice for minority supervisees working with White supervisors, that if the
supervisee perceives prejudice within the supervision relationship the supervisee will not
feel the freedom to speak freely about various issues encountered in the counseling
relationship. They concluded, “these findings support the ideas that supervisory
relationships are not isolated from the social contexts in which we live and that racial and
ethnic minority students’ experiences of perceived prejudice, among other factors, are
associated with their experience in supervision” (Nilsson & Duan, 2007, p. 226).
Guanipa (2002) created an instrument to help in evaluating how multicultural
issues are addressed in supervision and promoting the discussion of multicultural issues.
The Evaluating Multicultural Issues in Supervision is a scale that scores the inclusion of
multicultural issues in marriage and family supervision. The instrument contains a 31
question Likert scale and four qualitative questions that monitor how and if multicultural
40
issues are addressed in supervision. The author utilized a broad term of multicultural by
including any differences in background between the supervisor and the supervisee,
including culture, gender, ethnicity, education, language, and any other differences that
could affect the supervisory relationship. The instrument is not meant to evaluate the
supervisor’s and supervisee’s competence as much as it is to promote discussion of
multicultural issues within the supervision process. The author recommended taking the
instrument at the end of each supervision session in order to monitor the discussions of
multicultural issues within the supervision process and to help each participant to reflect
and think about the multicultural issues that could affect the counseling relationship. The
author concluded that one instrument is not enough to address all the nuances of complex
multicultural issues, but rather is useful for initiating the processing of these issues by
both the supervisor and supervisee.
Mori, Inman, and Caskie (2009) examined the influence of acculturation and
cultural discussion in supervision and the level of satisfaction in supervision with a
population of international students. The authors wanted to see whether the influence of
acculturation and the supervisee’s cultural issues could contribute to supervision being
beneficial. The authors contended that communication has an impact in the supervision
relationship because international students may be at a disadvantage when articulating
their thoughts, since English is their second language. If the supervisee is more
acculturated he or she will be more able to speak fluently within the English language
and the supervision experience will be more supportive and helpful in their training. One
hundred and four supervisees took the electronic survey on-line. As a result, the authors
found that the level of acculturation and the discussion of cultural issues in supervision
41
did contribute to a higher level of satisfaction. However, the authors also found
satisfaction with supervision was still present for those who had lower levels of
acculturation. The authors contributed this to the fact that supervisors who are culturally
competent and initiate cultural discussion help the supervisee have a better supervision
experience. The authors offered the conclusion that supervisors should initiate and
promote discussions of cultural issues in supervision in order to result in better
supervision outcomes.
Burkard et al. (2006) explored the impact of responsiveness and unresponsiveness
in cross-cultural supervision with supervisors of color and supervisors of European
American decent. Twenty-six female doctoral students across the United States agreed to
participate in the study. The authors examined the impact of supervision satisfaction with
regard to the responsiveness and unresponsiveness of the supervisor surrounding cultural
issues. The participants were broken up into groups of supervisees with supervisors of
color and supervisees with supervisors of European American decent. The authors found
that the supervisees who had supervisors who were responsive in discussion of cultural
issues found supervision to be more satisfying. While the participants with supervisors of
color felt more growth as individuals, supervisees with European American supervisors
felt they were given the opportunity to discuss not only the topic of cross cultural issues
but the opportunity to discuss any issues in supervision. The reports of participants of
unresponsive supervisors listed dissatisfaction with supervision and reported participants
becoming emotionally upset. The result was that the responsiveness of supervisors
regarding cross cultural issues in supervision added to the trust in the supervisory
relationship.
42
The supervisor will benefit from this exchange and enhance his or her own
abilities to relate to culturally different supervisees if he or she is willing to explore and
understand the communication patterns in diverse groups of supervisees. “Supervisors
demonstrating a wide range of competencies included in the areas of cultural awareness,
knowledge and communication skills are more fully and effectively able to facilitate the
competence and continued development of the supervisees” (Garrett et al., 2001, p. 147).
The supervisor should become more culturally competent and responsive in order to help
the supervisee to become more culturally competent and responsive to clients.
Discussion of spirituality, beliefs, and values can also help to enhance the
supervisory experience (Polanski, 2003). Polanski went on to state, “…addressing the
supervisee’s professional functioning can also be viewed as including personal reflection
and values clarification” (p. 131). Discussions of the counselor’s spirituality and beliefs
will help both the counselor and the supervisor to understand the differences in their
worldviews. Berkel, Constantine, and Olson (2007) also recommended discussing
religion, spirituality, and counseling within supervision. Understanding spiritual and
religious issues helps the supervisory relationship and the counseling process. The
authors stated, “…it is, imperative that supervisors first increase their level of awareness
about their own values, related to these issues and then help supervisees recognize their
values and how these values might be expressed in therapy” (Berkel et al., 2007, p. 11).
Supervisors dedicated to understanding their own values and spiritual perspectives can
help the counselor to examine and appreciate their values and spiritual perspectives and
how this impacts both the supervision and counseling relationships.
43
While multicultural issues in supervision include language barriers, prejudice, and
bigotry, lack of knowledge of cultural differences and the counselor’s defensiveness can
add to these barriers. Supervisees who perceive prejudice in supervision will have
difficulty self-disclosing to their supervisor and will thus miss opportunities for growth
(Nilsson & Duan, 2007). Minority supervisors have reported being questioned about
their competence and acceptance of their expertise in supervision by both majority and
minority supervisees (Stoltenberg et al., 1994).
Bhat and Davis (2007) discussed the impact of race, racial identity, and the
working alliance. The authors found a strong working alliance between supervisors and
supervisees who reported high levels of racial identity and a weak alliance when the
supervisor and supervisee had low levels of racial identity. The authors felt if the
supervisor had a low level of racial identity they had an elevated sense of the working
alliance. The results of their study also demonstrated that race did not have a significant
impact upon the working alliance. The supervisee was able to freely discuss diversity
issues within supervision.
Multicultural competence addresses stereotyping not only in counseling but also
in supervision. The supervisor is charged with the importance of exploring multicultural
competence with the supervisee and helping the supervisee to enhance cultural
competency skills (Priest, 1994). “Effective supervisors are aware of the impact they
have on their supervisees’ attitudes and views and use the supervisory relationship and
supervision process to promote attention to and respect for the full range of diversity of
those they serve” (Barnett, 2007, p. 270). Discussion of diversity issues can enhance not
only the skills for the experienced counselor but also the supervision process. “In
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addition to considering multiculturalism with clients and working to increase self-
awareness in the supervisee, using the supervisory relationship itself to explore diversity
is often valuable” (Erickson, 2007, p. 273).
Erickson (2007) conducted research to address the strength of the Supervisory
Working Alliance (SWA) and satisfaction in supervision as it pertains to cultural
variables. The results were that supervisees who discussed similarities and differences
regarding ethnicity in supervision reported higher SWA with their supervisors and more
satisfaction with supervision. There were higher bond levels reported on the SWA
subscale. Gender and sexual orientation showed no difference of view between
supervisors and supervisees. Supervisees who discussed gender and sexual orientation
similarities and differences had higher levels of satisfaction in supervision. Supervisees
had no preference of similar supervisors but felt more akin to the supervisor if the
cultural issues were discussed; therefore, it was not necessary for the supervisor to have
the same cultural background for the supervisee to feel a strong alliance in supervision.
Erickson’s result demonstrated that sexual orientation appears to be the least discussed
concept in supervision, which could be due to there being less training for supervisors on
this subject matter. Supervisees did more initiation of cultural discussions, which could
be due to more emphasis being placed on diversity issues during counselor training today
than it was when many supervisors were in school (Gatmon et al., 2001).
Sue (2006) presented three concepts for cultural competency: cultural awareness,
cultural knowledge, and cultural skills. The levels of analysis are the individual, the
agency/organization, and the community for cultural competency. Cultural competency
is both a process and a content area. Parra-Cardona, Holtrop, and Cordova (2005) stated
45
that as time goes on the counselor’s cultural competency can wane, leaving it up to the
counselor to seek out support, possibly in supervision, to sustain and maintain the cultural
competencies. The authors also stated that there are problems in supervision in which the
counselor may not share their inadequacies which will result in the counselor missing out
on an opportunity to examine and re-examine their cultural competencies. While the
authors acknowledged that counselors may have good intentions to remain culturally
competent, their reluctance to talk about these issues in supervision will stagnate their
opportunities for growth.
Worthen and McNeill (2001) presented five categories to improve the cultural
competency of supervisees: didactic education; discussion of client characteristics in
supervision; exploring personal experiences with diversity; ensure a diverse caseload; and
providing diverse supervisors/consultants. An additional category labeled as “other”
included developing guidelines for multicultural supervision. The relationship of client,
counselor, and supervisor will incorporate diversity issues due to a growing number of
minorities being serviced in the mental health field. “…All counseling and supervision
contacts have cultural, racial-ethnic aspects, which shape core assumptions, attitudes and
values of the person involved and which may enhance or impede counselor effectiveness”
(Fong, 1994, p. 15). Multicultural issues should be explored in supervision early on to
understand the biases of the supervisor as well as the counselor. Challenging core
assumptions of the counselor and encouraging expression will help in promoting growth
regarding cultural issues.
Ethical issues. Professional ethics is considered to be of the utmost importance
in counselor competency (Menne, 1975). The supervisor is confronted with ethical
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dilemmas such as transference-countertransference issues, power and dependency, dual
relationships, gender-role or stereotyping other roles, and the supervisors posing their
beliefs and value systems on the counselor (Kurplus & Gibson, 1991). Other ethical and
legal issues to address in supervision include informed consent, due process, and
confidentiality (Cormier & Bernard, 1982).
Dual relationships occur when the supervisor and supervisee do not adhere to the
boundaries of their existing relationship and form another relationship. The concept of
dual relationships has two components present that make them unethical: exploitation and
objectivity. In a study by Neukrug, Healy, and Herlihy (1992) regarding ethical
complaints against counselors, one of the complaints was having sexual relationships
with clients, which is clearly an ethical violation. This type of exploitation is possible in
supervision due to the power differential. Understanding the existence of the power
differential between the supervisor and supervisee and conducting open discussions about
this imbalance can help deter this behavior. Informed consent is helpful to document
what will transpire in supervision and what the expectations are for the supervisee
regarding participation in supervision. If the supervisee is aware of what to expect they
will more freely engage in the supervision process. The supervisor informs the
supervisee of the evaluative criteria and expectations of supervision in the beginning of
supervision. Due process is a legal term, which means the rights of the supervisee are to
be protected in supervision.
Ethically, the supervisor should ensure that the rights of the supervisee are not
violated in any way. The supervisee will build trust with the supervisor if it is known the
supervisor will hold their rights as individuals in high regard. Confidentiality within
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supervision is not unlike that in the counseling process. The psychological contract
between the supervisee and the supervisor is that the supervision meetings are held in
confidence and no information will be shared with outside sources. Again, this will build
on the trust factor within supervision. Supervisors need to be prepared to discuss a
myriad of ethical and legal concerns, including the supervisor’s own liability (Bernard,
1994).
Clinical supervisors have to deal with increasing ethical issues within and about
supervision. If engaged in supervision, the counselor is more apt to adhere to ethical
guidelines (Vallance, 2005). Tarvydas (1995) stated that:
Additionally, the general climate within political, economic and technological content will place increasing pressures on supervisors for accountability in their practices. Examples of ethical issues for supervisors may include a) increasing need for knowledge and technical advancement in the profession b) increasing complexity and severity of client situations c) tightening of standards for supervision d) increased customer empowerment and self-advocacy with greater numbers of grievances and malpractice litigations e) movement toward the use of managed care and f) increased financial and business competition. (p. 295)
Ethical issues also include the problem of supervisors not having formal training in
supervision, which goes against the ACA Code of Ethics (American Counseling
Association, 2005). Supervisors are responsible for the accountability and liability with
regard to the quality of services provided by counselors to clients. Supervisors who are
able to explore ethical dilemmas and confront ethical issues are able to help the
supervisee learn the importance of conducting ethical practice. If the supervisor does not
engage in ethical practice it can only serve to demonstrate to the supervisee that ethical
behavior is of no importance. Supervisors who are able to model ethical behavior in the
supervision process are able to help the supervisee not only engage in ethical decision
48
making, but understand the importance of ethics within the counseling profession (Cobia
& Pipes, 2002).
Severinsson and Hummelvell (2001) discussed the importance of ethical behavior
in the psychiatric nursing profession regarding work stress and appropriate patient care.
The ethical behavior demonstrated by the supervising nursing staff helped the nurses not
only to achieve personal growth, but also to make sound decisions regarding patient care.
The nurses reported less stress from feeling inadequate in their duties. Psychiatric nurses
who attended supervision experienced less work-related stress and decreased
shortcomings in performing their duties. This is a result of clinical supervision bringing
about more self-awareness of moral issues and values. Due to supervision, it was shown
that the nurses did not feel the constraints of rules and ethical dilemmas. The nurses were
given the opportunity to reflect on those values and therefore make moral decisions about
patient care.
Worthen and McNeill (2001) also discussed ethical issues and client welfare as
they relate to supervision. The supervisee’s counseling competency, boundary issues,
confidentiality and informed consent; mandated reporting and multiple roles; high-risk
situations and follow-up were not as overwhelming for the supervisee if discussed in
supervision. The other category included how to teach/model corrective learning,
supervisee motivations for career, and bad supervisors. The opportunity to discuss
ethical dilemmas helped the supervisee to internalize appropriate ethical behaviors.
Cobia and Boes (2000) suggested using professional disclosure statements to
outline the supervision services and formal agenda of supervision. Supervisors are
instructed to sign an informed consent, which has the stated and agreed upon goals of
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supervision between the supervisor and the supervisee. Informed consent can also
include discussion of the supervisor’s competence in providing services not only in
supervision but also in counseling. Just as the counselor can encounter problems if they
engage in counseling techniques in which they are not well versed or trained, so too can
the supervisor encounter problems if they engage in supervision and are not well versed
and trained.
Good Supervision vs. Bad Supervision
It is important to have a supervisor who is trusted and who will stretch the
knowledge base and personal growth of a counselor. The supervisor should have the
ability to challenge the counselor and help the counselor gain insight into his or her own
competencies and inadequacies (Kahan, 2006). Each time counselors enter into
supervision the outcome could be one of good interaction or poor situations.
Worthen and McNeill (1996) conducted a qualitative phenomenological study
involving intermediate to advanced supervisees to understand the experience of “good”
supervision from the perspective of the supervisee. The authors stated that the research
approach is appropriate because the quantitative approach would miss very vital
information that could only be elicited from personal accounts. After conducting
interviews with eight different supervisees, they concluded that the supervisory alliance is
the most important factor of “good” supervision. The “good” supervision experience
factors include the relationship empathy, respect for the supervisee, and encouragement
to explore and experiment. The authors, further, stated that the outcome of good
supervision is an increase in self-confidence, an increase in the ability to see complex
issues, conceptualization, and intervention enhancement. Counselors within the study
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felt re-energized and ready to try new strategies as a result of supervision and claimed
continued professional identity growth, which further increased their commitment to
supervision. The study however, did not address the impact of diversity issues upon the
supervision process. The participants were all of Euro-American decent and therefore
could not speak to the perspective from a different cultural background. Further, the
background of the supervisors was not discussed. The impact of similar backgrounds
also had an impact on the supervisory relationship, which resulted in a perspective of
“good” supervision.
Worthen and McNeil (2001) conducted a study in which they surveyed the
“experts” in the field of counselor supervision. They purported the two main focuses of
supervision were the relationship and promoting learning, which would result in effective
client outcomes and continued counselor competency. Surveys were sent to the “experts”
in the field chosen from a list of authors of supervision articles in various journals. The
Supervision Beliefs and Practices Survey was developed specifically to elicit the data to
examine effective supervision in the study. The survey addressed supervision
effectiveness, outcomes, ethical concerns, evaluation, negative experiences, important
literature, multicultural counseling competencies, supervision as art or science, process
versus outcome orientation, and the role of theory. The study took an exploratory
approach rather than trying to confirm an all-inclusive definition of effective supervision.
The data analysis looked comparatively at training experts and literature experts. The
training experts were those who engaged in the teaching and training of counseling
students in Counselor Education and Supervision, while the literature experts were those
who engaged in research of supervision. Training experts appeared to emphasize
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procedural goals more than the literature experts. They further emphasized neglecting
authority role, and negative supervision experiences. Development of a supervisor was
noted by two important influences, course work/reading and mentors/colleagues. The
experts noted nine concepts warranting further research, supervision outcomes,
multicultural and diversity issues, process issues, ethics, measuring and evaluating
supervision, developmental issues, matching issues, relationship factors and supervision
models. An “other” category encompassed supervision limitations and options and a way
of rating supervision experiences. The literature and training experts, though slightly
different in their perspectives on supervision, for the most part believed that supervision
should be a science rather than an art. The training experts felt that increased self-
awareness was the most important factor affecting supervision outcome. Evaluating
effective supervision resulted in objective measures, self-report/evaluation, supervision
interviews/feedback, evaluating client outcomes, and evaluating video/audio sessions.
However, again, this is from the perspective of counselors in training. Worthen and
McNeil (2001) stated:
In summary, effective supervision according to the experts consists of a good working alliance, an attitude of serious commitment to supervision science informed practice, clearly articulated tasks and procedures and attention to developmental levels. There also needs to be more attention to the continual training of effective supervisors, developing multicultural counseling competence, clarity in regard to desired outcomes, effective evaluation instruments and methods to evaluate those outcomes and a commitment to informed ethical practice. (p. 21)
Magnuson, Wilcoxson, and Norem (2000) sought to identify the problem patterns
in supervision that can result in ineffective supervision and to develop a schema of the
patterns to help supervisors understand what not to do during supervision. The
uniqueness of this study was that the data collected consisted of retrospective
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observations of experienced counselors and experienced supervisors. Done as a
qualitative study, the participants were limited to only counselors who practiced for a
minimum of five years. Eleven counselors with professional experience ranging from
seven to 23 years participated in research interviews. Participants were selected to reflect
diversity with regard to geographic location, work setting, experience, and cultural
background. The data collection occurred during semi-structured interviews, which
ranged in time from 45 minutes to 75 minutes. The participants were asked questions
about exemplary supervision characteristics. The supervisory relationship emerged as the
central theme with four dimensions: preparation for supervision; participation in
supervision; demonstration; and stimulation. The participants characterized the
exemplary supervisory relationship as one in which “…supervisors’ communicating
respect for supervisees’ developmental and dynamic needs” (Magnuson, Wilcoxon and
Noreem, 2000, p. 97). A description of poor supervision included being unbalanced,
being developmentally inappropriate, participants being intolerant of differences,
modeling poor professional/personal attributes, being untrained, and being professionally
apathetic. In addition factors such as supervisors not addressing conflicts, neglect initial
assessment of developmental level, unprepared for supervision, inadequate as counselors,
rigidity in inadequate supervision. While the study asked questions of experienced
clinicians it still addressed supervision issues from a “counselor-to-be perspective.” The
study was a confirmation that trust, diversity, ethics, and communication are important
aspects of good supervision.
Hess et al. (2008) investigated the reasons for nondisclosure in supervision. The
authors conducted a qualitative study in which they queried 14 pre-doctoral interns about
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the reasons for nondisclosure in supervision. The reasons for the investigation were to
explore participants’ experiences of nondisclosure, reasons for intentional nondisclosure,
the content of nondisclosures, factors to facilitate disclosure, the impact of nondisclosure
on personal development, and satisfaction with supervision. The researchers
administered the Supervisory Styles Inventory (Friedlander & Ward, 1984) and the
Supervisory Satisfaction Questionnaire (Ladany, Hill, Corbett, & Nutt, 1996), along with
conducting 45 to 60 minute interviews with the participants. Utilizing the CQR method
of analysis the researchers divided the participants into two groups, those with good
supervisory relationships and those with problematic supervisory relationships. The
results were that both groups of participants felt an impact of nondisclosure; however, the
impact was different for each group. For the good supervisory relationship group, the
participants contributed the anxiety of nondisclosure to their own personal barriers. For
the problematic group, the participants stated that the nondisclosure was due to
difficulties within the relationship. The problematic group felt that the lack of trust due
to the supervisor’s behavior contributed to their nondisclosure. The impact of the
supervisor’s behavior was such that the participants of the problematic group dismissed
their supervision experience all together and sought out other sources for personal
growth. Both groups pinpointed the main issue of nondisclosure as having to do with the
power differential present in the supervision process. Since supervisors were evaluating
them, discussion of any issues in which the intern appeared incompetent was withheld.
The interns in both groups noted that the evaluative aspect gave the supervisor a higher
power level which made it difficult to either disappoint the supervisor, if the intern was in
the good group, or not trust the supervisor to give a good review, if the intern was in the
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problematic group. The conclusion was that the nondisclosure did have an impact upon
the supervisory relationship as well as the counseling relationship because of anxiety,
fear, and lack of confidence.
Cutting (2004), in a qualitative study, investigated the positive and negative
experiences of in-group supervision (i.e., where one supervisor does the facilitation of
participants’ groups) during Clinical Pastoral Education. The participants in the study
were designated as either part of a positive experience group or a negative experience
group. Both groups discussed the positive and negative experiences of supervision.
Oddly enough, both groups cited personal growth and learning whether the supervision
experience was reported as negative or positive. More critical incidents during
supervision were reported in the negative supervision experience group. The positive
experience group described the supervisor and supervision as competent, experienced,
knowledgeable, sharp, astute, empathic, compassionate, supportive, present, invested,
respectful, validating, and affirming. The negative experience group described
supervision and supervisors as “not present, did not listen well, arrogant, patronizing,
disrespectful, demeaning, critical, judgmental, hostile, abusive and enraged” (Cutting,
2004, p. 39). The negative experience group further discussed contributing factors with
regard to gender/cultural background issues not being addressed in supervision, which
contributed to the negative experience. The positive experience group saw growth as a
result of supervision, which fostered a need within them to receive ongoing supervision.
Nelson and Friedlander (2001) investigated conflictual relationships within
supervision that resulted in detriment to the supervisee. They conducted a qualitative
research study using 13 participants, 11 of whom were in doctoral programs. Eleven of
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the participants reported prior supervision and the average age of the participants ranged
from 29 to 52 years. Given the age and prior supervision experience, it is possible that
the participants were experienced counselors, though the study did not designate how
long they had practiced. The supervisees demonstrated a pattern of role conflict with the
supervisor particularly if the supervisee possessed more clinical expertise or was older
than the supervisor. This appeared to be of some threat to the supervisor. Some of the
reported conflicts included dual relationships where the supervisee was placed in more
than one role, and unethical behavior from the supervisor involving sexual matters. The
major conflict involved what should take place in supervision. The supervisee looked
more for a collegial relationship and if met with authoritarian supervision, saw this as a
major source of conflict. The supervisees further reported problems of inflexibility,
anger, denial of conflict in the relationship, and loss or lack of trust. The supervisees
reported extreme stress during the supervision process and found they would attempt to
address the conflict more often than the supervisor; however, some would not talk about
the experience due to fear of retaliation, as the power differential was of major concern.
The positive outcomes were that the supervisees found a sense of resiliency and they
possessed the ability to seek out support in other resources. The supervisees were
empowered for being assertive with the supervisor and attempting to address issues, and
learned what not to do during supervision should they ever find themselves in a
supervisory role. The negative outcomes resulted in some of the supervisees becoming
cynical about the counseling profession, experiencing distrust of supervisors, and
considering changing their professional plans. The study demonstrated a need for
supervisors to think about interactions with experienced counselors. Unlike the novice
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counselor, the experienced counselor has many expertise and life experiences that can
have an impact on the supervision process. Supervisors who conduct supervision with an
experienced counselor need to have insight into their relation to others, particularly with
regard to power.
Ladany and Friedlander (1995) emphasized the working alliance and minimizing
role conflict for the supervisee. If the working alliance is strong the role conflict is
weakened. Should the power differential promote role conflict, it can result in lower
levels of satisfaction with supervision (Keller, 1975). As the literature has pointed out,
the working alliance in supervision is crucial to the effectiveness of supervision. The
supervisee must feel comfortable enough to trust the supervisor. The communication
within the supervisory relationship must enhance the working alliance.
Henderson (1994) asked how a professional continues to remain competent in
their role. Clinical supervision plays a major part in addressing the continued
competence of the counselor. Supervisors must address many different factors in
supervision, including ethical issues, diversity issues, multicultural issues, and gender
issues. As the literature demonstrates, all of these factors are important, but it is unclear
which is the most important in supervising an experienced counselor. The current study
attempted to define the critical factors needed to conduct effective supervision with
experienced counselors.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Research Design
It is important to ask supervisors who have either supervised or are supervising
experienced counselors their opinions of the critical elements involved in supervision
with this population of counselors. In order to gather this information, the researcher
utilized a Delphi. The Delphi method is a technique that enables a panel of “experts” to
collectively offer their opinions on a particular subject when there is limited information
available (Dalkey & Rourke, 1971; Dalkey & Helmer, 1963). For this particular study
the Delphi was conducted electronically. The Delphi method offered an opportunity to
explore both qualitatively and quantitatively the critical elements necessary to conduct
supervision with experienced counselors. Understanding the experiences of supervisors
who conduct such supervision can help to understand the current practices and also to
create a pilot study to enhance the process of supervision.
The Delphi consisted of three rounds of questions with the panel of supervisors.
The first round consisted of four open-ended questions requesting the panel’s perspective
regarding elements of supervision with the experienced counselor. The second round
consisted of a presentation of the researcher’s interpretations of the various elements
offered by the panel, in addition a request to the panel to attempt to reach a first
consensus of the critical elements. The third round consisted of a confirmation by the
panel regarding the critical elements voted on by the panel to result in a final consensus
of the critical elements to conduct effective supervision with experienced counselors.
The researcher was interested in how the participants experienced the phenomenon of
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supervision with experienced counselors in order to pinpoint what is critical and
important to them in conducting the supervision.
According to Caelli (2001), phenomenological inquiry seeks to answer the
question “is this what the experience is really like?” (p. 274). Patton (2002) stated that
the phenomenological approach to inquiry is a way of exploring how human beings make
sense of their experiences and transform them into consciousness. He further stated, “this
requires methodologically, carefully and thoroughly capturing and describing how people
experience some phenomenon – how they perceive it, describe it, feel about it, judge it,
and remember it, make sense of it and talk about it with others” (Patton, 2002, p. 104).
Therefore, the original questions developed for the first round were designed to elicit
responses from the supervisors regarding their experiences of conducting supervision
with the experienced counselor.
Selection of subjects. The participants chosen for a Delphi study is one of the
most critical steps of the research because the criteria for choosing participants dictates
the rigor of the data collected. The panel of participants must be well chosen because the
results of the study are contingent upon their qualifications (Pollard & Pollard, 2008).
Therefore, the participants in this study consisted of a purposive sampling of supervisors
who met the following selection criteria for inclusion:
The supervisor conducts one-to-one supervision. While the other modalities of
supervision, such as group and peer are discussed in the field, the current study
was only interested in the one-to-one supervision modality.
The supervisor engaged in both clinical and administrative supervision.
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The supervisor has or does conduct supervision with experienced counselors.
Again the experienced counselor is post-licensure and is practicing independently.
The supervisor received training in supervision whether through a formal program
or through continuing education classes that included ethics, diversity issues,
administrative supervision, clinical supervision, an understanding of the feedback
process, supervision models, working alliance, and supervision style.
The supervisor is a licensed clinician who conducts direct client services. This
criterion was included in order for the supervisor to possess some understanding
of the demands upon the experienced counselor.
The supervisor currently conducts or has conducted supervision with at least two
different experienced counselors. This criterion was included in order to
demonstrate contrast in the individual demands of supervisees.
The supervisor also supervised counselors-in-training, who are pre-licensed. This
criterion was included because the supervisor was expected to give a contrasting
understanding, if any, of the supervision of an experienced counselor.
The supervisor is to at least meet the accreditation of the Center for Credentialing
and Education of a clinical supervisor with the exception of criteria 6, which was
deemed unnecessary for this research.
The Center of Credentialing and Education (CCE) “… was created in response to
ongoing requests from other organizations to the National Board for Certified
Counselors, Inc. and Affiliates (NBCC) for assistance with credentialing, assessment, and
management services” (Center for Credentialing and Education, 2009, paragraph 2).
CCE is recognized internationally for its standards in credentialing and accreditation, and
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has an accreditation of the Approved Counselor Supervisors (ACS). Counselors who
hold this accreditation meet the following criteria:
1. Licensure, certification, accreditation, or approval: Must be one of A to E:
A. National Certified Counselor
B. Licensed or Certified Mental Health Provider
C. Licensed or Certified Clinical Supervisor
D. Mental Health Related Educator
E. Mental Health Related Doctoral Candidate
2. Educational Training: Minimum of a master’s degree in a mental health field.
3. Specialized Training: Must document either A or B:
A. A graduate course in clinical supervision
B. A total of 30 contact hours of workshop training in clinical supervision
4. Mental Health Related Experience: Minimum of three years of post-master’s
degree experience in mental health services, with a minimum of 1,500 hrs direct
service with clients.
5. Supervision Experience: Must have provided a minimum of 100 hr. of clinical
supervision of mental health services with supervisees OR an endorsement from a
mental health professional attesting to the applicant's supervisory activity.
The Center for Credentialing and Education’s Approved Clinical Supervisors are
represented in all states with the exception of Alaska, District of Columbia, Hawaii, and
West Virginia. With the exception of West Virginia, the credentialing for the missing
representative states does not meet the same rigorous certification criteria.
61
In the state of West Virginia, a supervisor is designated to meet the requirements
for accreditation as an Approved Licensed Professional Supervisor (ALPS) by the West
Virginia Board of Examiners (2009) in Counseling if the individual meets the following
criteria:
Supervisors must be permanently licensed as a Counselor for at least two years.
Supervisors must have five years counseling experience, licensed or unlicensed,
that can be documented.
Supervision Experience is demonstrated by two professional endorsements from
either a former supervisor or supervisee and the endorser must have worked with
the supervisor for at least a year and acknowledged reading the Supervisor’s
Professional Disclosure and Professional Statement.
Professional Disclosure consists of counselor license number, place of business,
education, and degree date, along with counselor specialties.
Professional Statement includes categories such as education, contextual
influences, professional credentials, therapy experience, theoretical influences,
supervision experience, supervision orientation, supervision philosophy, and any
other items deemed important by the Supervisor such as supervision specialty.
Coursework or Continuing Education with LESS THAN 10 years documented
counseling experience that reflect at least 30 contact hours in clinical supervision
training. All trainings must contain the term clinical supervision in the title and
all trainings must be completed prior to being approved as a professional
Supervisor.
62
Coursework or Continuing Education with MORE THAN 10 years documented
counseling experience that reflect at least 15 contact hours in clinical supervision
training. All trainings must contain the term clinical supervision in the title and
all trainings must be completed prior to being approved as a professional
Supervisor (West Virginia Board of Examiners, 2009, paragraph 2).
The criterion for the ALPS is similar to the criteria listed for the Center of
Credentialing and Education’s ACS with only minor differences between the two
accreditations. The ACS does not state how long the supervisor should possess licensure
as a counselor, and requires two less years of counseling activity than in West Virginia.
The ALPS criteria distinguish the amount of coursework or continuing education
between supervisors with less than 10 years and supervisors with more than 10 years.
In order to find participants who could meet the Center for Credentialing and
Education criteria, this researcher posted invitations to participate on four different
groups on the LinkedIn website. The LinkedIn website was created in December 2002
and launched in May 2003, to facilitate professional networking and allow members of a
group to share ideas, share information, and exchange best practices. The four groups
chosen for posting were the American Counseling Association LinkedIn Group, Illinois
Mental Health Professionals LinkedIn Group, Psychologist-Psychotherapist-Counselors
LinkedIn Group, and the United States Mental Health Professionals LinkedIn Group. In
addition, the researcher contacted the clinical supervisors of West Virginia listed on the
Board of Examiner’s of West Virginia website. The missions of the four LinkedIn
groups are as follows:
63
American Counseling Association LinkedIn Group is for user experience design
professionals to expand our network of people and ideas (1,271 members).
Illinois Mental Health Professionals LinkedIn Group is to improve collaboration
amongst counselors, licensed clinical professional counselors (LCPC), licensed
professional counselors (LPC, LMFT), licensed clinical social workers (LCSW),
psychologists (Ph.D. or Psy.D.), in/near Illinois (counselor, counseling, therapist,
social worker, psychologist) (291 members).
Psychologist, Psychotherapist and Counselors LinkedIn Group is a community of
psychologists, psychotherapists, and counselors whose aim is to create a network
of professionals, facilitate job opportunities, and knowledge sharing
(psychologist, psychology, psychotherapist, psychotherapy, counseling,
counselor, coach, coaching, mentor, mentoring, LCSW, LICSW, PhD, Psy.D,
Psy.D) (3,914 members).
United States Mental Health Professionals LinkedIn Group is designed to improve
collaboration amongst marriage & family therapists (MFT), LCSW, psychologists
(Ph.D. & Psy.D.), & psychiatrists in the US (therapist, therapy, psychotherapy,
psychotherapists, psychotherapist, psychologist, psychology, psychiatrist,
psychiatry, social worker, counselor, counseling) (3,716 members).
Following the example of Edwards (2003), an electronic invitation was posted on
the general discussion board of each group and followed by invitations sent to individual
members of the four groups who designated their title as Clinical Supervisor, in the event
that the general post was not read by the members. Individual invitations were
electronically sent to the West Virginia clinical supervisors. The criteria for inclusion as
64
a panel member was posted as well as sent with the individual invitations. The members
were asked to respond to the researcher by private email in order to receive further
instructions regarding the study. When the members of the groups responded directly to
the researcher and agreed to participate, an electronic informed consent was sent to the
member by email.
A minimum of six and a maximum of 20 participants were anticipated for the
panel of supervisors as this is considered an appropriate number of participants for a
Delphi study (Van De Ven & Delbecq, 1974). The researcher was interested in recruiting
supervisors in service areas that included behavioral organizations, community agencies,
schools, and private practice in order to achieve a cross section of supervisors thus
enriching the data collected to give different perspectives of supervision. The researcher
also sent a request to the respondents who agreed to participate asking if they knew of
colleagues who also met the criteria for inclusion and were interested in participating in
the study. A nomination invitation was sent to those colleagues. Considered
“snowballing” in qualitative research terms, this enabled the researcher to find more
participants who met the criteria and were considered subject matter experts.
Instrumentation. The Delphi was dependent upon the participants who were
able to illuminate the experience under investigation (DeVilliers et al., 2005; Edwards,
2003; Hycner, 1985; Jenkins & Smith, 1994; Morrow, 2005; Morse, Barrett, Mayan,
Olson, & Spiers, 2002). The method is a mixture of exploratory qualitative and
confirmatory quantitative and offered an opportunity for the participants to come to a
consensus about the critical elements for conducting effective supervision with the
65
experienced counselor. Very little literature was available regarding the critical elements;
therefore this type of study was beneficial.
Pollard and Pollard (2008) presented a model for conducting an electronic Delphi
study. The electronic Delphi, like the traditional Delphi, lends itself to anonymity from
other panelists, iteration, controlled feedback, and statistical aggregation of the group
response. The participants were sent individual links to the survey inquiries and were
further notified not to forward the link as it was tied to their private email address. The
three rounds of questions consisted of with open-ended questions in round one, a four
point Likert Scale survey to rate the responses of the panelists along with any additional
comments, and a final round reviewed the results and made a request for any further
submissions or clarifications by the participants.
Assumptions. Due to electronic interactions, it was assumed the participants
would be internet savvy and able to manipulate the instrument. When the solicitation for
participants was sent, the researcher had to rely upon the respondents regarding their
meeting the criteria for inclusion. In addition, it was assumed that the participants would
not request that a colleague who was not approved to be involved in the study complete
the surveys. The researcher depended upon those who volunteered to truthfully attest to
meeting the criteria of inclusion ensuring the integrity of the data collected. The
researcher also depended upon participants to complete the entire research study in each
round of the Delphi study. The researcher expected each participant to respond from
experience rather than what the participants deemed as an appropriate answer to the
questions. In other words, the supervisors were to report what they were doing or had
done in supervision rather than what they should be doing. It was further assumed that
66
the website utilized worked properly for the participants and no technical problems were
encountered.
Procedures. The electronic invitation (See Appendix A) was posted to all
general discussion boards of the LinkedIn groups along with individual invitations sent to
the members of the groups. The individuals were chosen by searching for members with
current or previous job titles and descriptions of “Clinical Supervisor.” The member was
allowed to respond to the researcher through the LinkedIn email system. This was
helpful for the participants so as to know the researcher was not seeking any personal
information which the participant was not confident in sharing. The electronic
environment does, unfortunately, allow for unsavory characters to attempt to gain
advantage over others. If the participant met the criteria and was comfortable with the
solicitation being legitimate, a request was sent for the participant to send a private email
address to contact the participant directly. An informed consent (See Appendix B) was
then forwarded to the member. The informed consent stated that the study met approval
of the Institution Review Board and included direct contact information for the researcher
and the dissertation chairperson.
The individual invitations were sent one at a time to recipients so as to avoid the
possible security controls within the LinkedIn environment and the individual email
security environments. The emails invited participants to contact this researcher
regarding the criteria of inclusion in the study. Once it was determined that the
participant met the criteria for inclusion, an informed consent consisting of the purpose
for the research, the risk and benefits of the research, the voluntary nature of research
participation, the participant’s right to stop the research at any time, and the procedures
67
used to protect confidentiality was sent to the volunteer. In addition, the email also
included the study description (See Appendix C).
Once volunteers for the panel were obtained, the researcher forwarded an email
notifying the participants to contact this researcher to nominate a colleague for
participation. Once a nomination was received the researcher forwarded an invitation by
email to the nominee (See Appendix D) stating that a colleague felt they met the
researcher’s criteria for inclusion in the study and felt the nominee would be interested in
participation. The nominee was requested to electronically reply just as the initial
participants were requested. The researcher reviewed and printed all informed consents
in order to protect the confidentiality of the participants and emails from the participants
were then permanently deleted from the researcher’s electronic environment.
During the first round, participants were asked to complete the initial open-ended
questions and demographic questionnaire (See Appendix E & F). Participants were
requested to complete the task within a three week timeframe. Once the information was
collected, the researcher compiled and analyzed the responses by thematic analysis
(Braun & Clarke, 2006; Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). The results from the thematic
analysis were then constructed as a survey for the second round. The participants who
had not responded, a week before the conclusion of the round, were sent a reminder email
of the survey closing date. The researcher included an election statement for the
participant to opt out of the study. At the deadline date and time announced, the survey
was then closed by the researcher.
During the second round, the participants were sent an email announcing the
opening of the second round survey. The participants were given three weeks to review
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and rate the themes based upon a four point Likert scale ranging from 4-Critical element,
3-Important element, 2-Somewhat unimportant element and, 1-Not an important element.
The researcher chose an even-numbered Likert scale in order to force the participants to
give an opinion on each element. Avoiding a “neutral” response encouraged the
participants to really think about their opinion of the critical elements to conduct effective
supervision with experienced counselors. A space was provided if the participants
wanted to add additional comments forgotten during the first round. A week before the
ending of the second round survey a reminder email was sent to any participant who had
not responded, notifying them of the survey closing date.
During the third round, the consensus of the important and critical elements of
supervision ratings from round two were published for review and a request was made of
the participants to indicate their agreement or disagreement with the consensus of the
panel. A comment line was provided if a participant wanted to provide input about the
results. The researcher followed up with the participant regarding any additional
comments by email.
Data Processing and Analysis
According to Braun and Clarke (2006), “thematic analysis is a method for
identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (p. 79). The process
of thematic analysis requires the researcher to view and determine the themes one
response at a time (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). The themes can be identified
either inductively or deductively. According to Patton (2002), the inductive process is
not driven by the researcher’s theoretical interest but rather from the data; therefore the
researcher conducted inductive thematic analysis. Groenewald (2004) cautioned
69
researchers to bracket their biases while reviewing data so as not to impose their ideas
and suppositions upon the data. The themes were identified at a semantic level and coded
within a spreadsheet to keep track of the themes. Braun and Clarke (2006) stated, “the
analytic process involves a progression from description, where the data have simply
been organized to show patterns in semantic content, and summarized, to interpretation,
where there is an attempt to theorize the significance of the patterns and their broader
meanings and implications” (p. 84).
The researcher performed a review of the data by copying and pasting the
participant responses from the Excel spreadsheet. The process of “cut and paste” into the
spreadsheet provided an opportunity to begin analyzing the data. Upon completion of the
analysis of the first round data, the researcher reviewed the findings with a colleague who
was a post-licensure clinician, had practiced for over 20 years, and was a recipient of
supervision for those years. The colleague assisted with the interpretation of the open-
ended answers and then a comparison was conducted with the researchers. The review of
the themes with the colleague helped to strengthen reliability, validity, and credibility of
the initial data analysis resulting in the compilation of themes. This step also aided in
reduction of researcher bias. The website utilized to gather the data possessed a built in
program to conduct simple statistics on the ratings and generated the final report. The
participants were sent the final findings.
The Delphi method allowed the participants to do member checking on the data,
with the exception of the initial theme generation, therefore adding further validation of
the data.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The current pilot study explored what supervisors consider are the critical
elements in conducting effective supervision with experienced counselors. Utilizing an
electronic Delphi method the researcher sought to gather consensus from a panel of
“experts” regarding the question, what are the critical elements of effective supervision
with the experienced counselor?
An invitation was posted on the discussion board of 4 different counseling groups
of the professional networking site Linked In. In addition the researcher sent individual
invitations to members of the Linked In groups, which designated their current or former
job titles or specialties as Clinical Supervisors for both pre-licensed and post-licensed
counselors. The researcher also sent individual electronic invitations to a list of
Approved Licensed Professional Supervisors (ALPS) from the state of West Virginia.
The email addresses of the ALPS were posted on the Board of Examiners for the state of
West Virginia. The individual invitations were sent to the members of the Linked In
groups because the general post to the groups’ discussion boards may not have been seen
by everyone in the group and to also avoid the electronic security environments for blast
emails. The invitations were posted on the discussion boards of United States Mental
Health Professionals, Illinois Mental Health Professionals, American Counseling
Association and Psychologist, Psychotherapist and Counselors, the 4 Linked In groups.
The researcher sent 303 individual invitations to the LinkedIn group members and
the ALPS requesting participation. Thirty five individuals responded with interest to
participate in the study, resulting in an 11.55% rate of return. While 35 responded to the
request, only 14 met the criteria for inclusion as an “expert” panel member. Several
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ALPS from West Virginia expressed interest in participating; however, the individuals
who responded were only experienced in conducting supervision with pre-licensed
counselors. Some individuals did not meet various aspects of the inclusion criteria.
Reasons for exclusion from the panel included conducting supervision with experienced
counselors, the length of time of conducting supervision with experienced counselors,
supervision training whether through continuing education units or a formal university
program, geographically not from the United States, or did not adhere to the deadline for
participating in the first round. Interestingly, the researcher was contacted several times
by some individuals interested in participating but who had been excluded from
participation. The individuals wanted to understand the reasons for exclusion by the
researcher. After discussion with the individuals it was understood that the researcher
was specifically looking for those individuals who met the criteria in order to sustain
reliability and validity of the study. The reliability and validity of the Delphi study is
heavily reliant upon the criteria of the panel.
A study description, schedule for the study, and an informed consent were
forwarded to the 14 individuals who met the criteria and showed interest in participation.
All 14 informed consents were returned electronically to the researcher, which were then
reviewed and secured. Of the 14 respondents, four did not respond to requests to
complete the first round of study. Two of the remaining 10 respondents did not complete
all the questions of the first round survey, leaving eight respondents who completed all
three rounds of the Delphi.
The panel members were geographically located on the East coast, the Midwest,
and the West coast of the United States. Demographic information was gathered from
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the panel members requesting highest educational degree, professional title, and work
setting. Panel members were also asked about their counseling and supervision
theoretical approaches. All of the participants were Masters Level with either an MA or
MS degree. Some of the panelists listed more than one degree. Some of the panel
members listed more than one professional title, more than one work setting, more than
one counseling theoretical approach, and more than one supervision theoretical approach.
Table 1 presents the demographic information gathered on each of the panel members
with regard to education, professional title, work setting, counseling theoretical approach,
and supervision theoretical approach. For the purposes of this study, the panel members
are identified as Panelist 1-8.
Fifty percent of the panelists reported supervisor/supervising in their professional
title. Sixty-two and a half percent of the panel members worked in private practice, while
an additional 25% worked in hospitals and 37.5% worked in social agencies. Twenty
five percent of the panel members were Art Therapists, while another 37.5% obtained
degrees in psychology or clinical psychology. Fifty percent of the panel members noted
cognitive or cognitive behavioral theory as one of their counseling theoretical
approaches, while 50% of the panel members noted their supervision theoretical approach
as developmental. Three of the panelists had conducted supervision for 3-5 years, three
panelists had conducted supervision for 6-10 years, and two panelists had conducted
supervision for 16-20 years. Five of the panelists had conducted supervision with
experienced counselors for 2-5 years. One panelist had conducted supervision with
experienced counselors for 6-10 years, one panelist for 11-15 years, and one panelist for
16-20 years.
73
Table 1
Panel Members by Education Degrees, Professional Title, Work Setting,Counseling Theoretical Approaches, Supervision Theoretical Approaches
Panel Member
Education Degrees
ProfessionalTitle
WorkSetting
CounselingTheory
SupervisionTheory
1 Social Work
Supervising Clinician
Hospital Structural Family
Task-Centered
2 Psychology Clinical Supervisor
Private Practice
Object Relations
Integrated
3 Counseling Education
Counselor Agency;Private Practice
Cognitive;Humanistic
Competency Based; Developmental*
4 Art Therapy; Clinical Pastoral; Ph.D. Student
Art Therapist; LICDC; Private Practitioner; Teaching Fellow
Hospital;Private Practice; University
Art Therapy; Dialectical Behavioral; Person-Centered
AlternativeTherapies;Competency Based; Developmental
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued)
Panel Members by Education Degrees, Professional Title, Work Setting, Counseling Theoretical Approach, Supervision Theoretical Approach
Panel Member
Education Degrees
ProfessionalTitles
WorkSettings
CounselingTheories
SupervisionTheories
5 Social Science; 4-year Clinical Training
Clinical Supervisor
Agency Infant Mental Health; Psychoanalytic
Developmental
6 Clinical Psychology
Clinical Supervisor
Agency Cognitive Behavioral; Systems;Trauma-Informed
Integrated;Systems
7 Art Therapy
Art Therapist; Supervisor Rehabilitation
Hospital; Private Practice; University
Cognitive Behavioral; Eclectic; Humanistic; Person-Centered; Psychodynamic
Humanistic;Person-Centered;Psychodynamic
8 Psychology;Social Work
Private Practitioner
Private Practice
Choice; Cognitive; Psychodynamic; Systems
Developmental
Note. *Researcher labeled categories according to panel member’s description of theoretical approach.
75
Two of the panel members stated formal training or coursework while the other six
panelists obtained training through continuing education units (CEU). One of the
panelists listed informal training and self-study in addition to CEUs, and another panelist
listed yearly online CEUs.
The panel members reported conducting supervision for 3-8 individuals with an
average caseload of five individuals. The panel members reported a range of 25% -
100% of their caseloads being spent supervising experienced counselors. The panel
members further reported that the frequency of conducting supervision was daily,
weekly, bi-weekly, and monthly, with the range of 60-120 minutes for a supervision
session. The average length of time panel members spent in supervision was 68.75
minutes per session.
Each panel member was sent an individual survey link for the first round of the
study, which was tied to their email address. The panel members were instructed not to
forward the link to colleagues since it was tied to their email address. Panel members
were sent a separate nomination invitation for any colleague the panel member felt would
be interested in participating in the study. This was sent under separate email. The first
round consisted of 4 open-ended questions. The panel members were instructed the
survey would be available for 3 weeks and if there was no response from the members a
week before the survey closed, the researcher sent out a reminder e-mail, which prompted
panel members to complete the survey. Appendix G lists the responses of each panelist
during the first round of the study.
The researcher applied thematic analysis to the responses by the panel members.
Each response was analyzed and themes were recorded in a Word document. The
76
researcher reviewed the response of each panelist and then reviewed the response again
after waiting 24 hours for any additional themes not noted in the first review. Each
panelist’s response was then cross tabbed with the responses of the other panelists for any
redundant themes.
The researcher requested a colleague who is a long time recipient of supervision
to review the data and record any themes which emerged from the colleague’s
perspective. Comparison of the researcher’s themes and the colleague’s theme was then
conducted. Any themes which appeared on both lists were documented for inclusion in
the second round survey. Discussion took place regarding the discrepancies between the
researcher and the colleague. As a result if the researcher and colleague came to an
agreement the theme was included in the list if no agreement was reached the theme was
then eliminated. In addition the interpretation of the meanings of the themes was also
discussed and agreed upon between researcher and colleague. As a result of the thematic
analysis, the researcher noted four elements as being critical to supervision of the
experienced counselor, which were the characteristics of the supervisor, characteristics of
the supervisee/experienced counselor, characteristics of the supervision process, and
characteristics of the supervision relationship.
During the second round, the researcher listed the characteristics in a four point
Likert scale for rating by the panelists. A four point Likert scale was purposely utilized
so the panelist had to make a forced choice on the characteristics. The panelists were
asked to vote on the characteristics and indicate whether the researcher had the correct
interpretation of the characteristic. In addition, the panelists were asked to include any
77
comments or characteristics not listed by the researcher (See Appendix H). Results from
the second round voting for each of the critical elements are listed in Tables 2-5.
Round three of the Delphi consisted of the panelist voting on the list of
characteristics based upon the consensus criteria of Green (1982). The purpose of the
final round was to confirm the consensus of the panelists and again to allow any
additional comments. The consensus criterion was greater than or equal to 75% of the
panelists with a mean score of greater than or equal to 3.25. A definition followed each
characteristic and represented this researcher's interpretation of the panel's discussions in
the first round. If panelists disagreed with the interpretation they were to include
additional comments. The panelists had 3 weeks to complete the survey and submit any
additional comments. A reminder e-mail was sent a week before the closing of the
survey. The panelists voted to keep the remaining characteristics of the critical elements
on the lists and added additional comments.
The consensus of the panel regarding the characteristics of the supervisor, in rank
order, included:
1 ability to promote trust
2 sets boundaries in the supervision session
3 promotes respect in the supervision session
4 being supportive in the supervision session
5 possessing credibility as a supervisor
6 personally comfortable in the role of supervisor
7 competent in the practice of supervision
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Table 2
Supervisor Characteristics Panel Rating
Themes Not Important
Somewhat Important
Important
Critical
Rating Average
Percentage Agreement
Broad Theoretical Counseling Base
1 2 5 0 2.50 62.5
Broad Theoretical Supervision Base
1 4 3 2.25 37.5
Set Boundaries
0 0 3 5 3.63 100
Promote Trust
0 0 2 6 3.75 100
Promote Respect
0 0 4 4 3.50 100
Supportive 0 0 4 4 3.50 100
Empathic 0 2 5 1 2.88 75
Continued Training
0 4 3 1 2.63 50
Receptive to Criticism
0 1 6 1 3.00 87.5
Appropriate Interventions
0 3 4 1 2.75 62.5
(continued)
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Table 2 (continued)
Supervisor Characteristics Panel Rating
Themes Not Important
Somewhat Important
Important
Critical
Rating Average
Percentage Agreement
Competent 0 1 4 3 3.25 87.5
Confident 0 1 6 1 3.00 87.5
Credible 0 1 3 4 3.38 87.5
Comfortable in Supervisor role
0 1 3 4 3.38 87.5
Available 0 3 3 2 2.88 62.5
Teacher/Educator
0 5 2 1 2.50 37.5
Patient 0 0 7 1 3.13 100
Role Model 0 1 5 2 3.13 87.5
Empower 1 1 5 1 2.75 75
80
Table 3
Supervisee Characteristics Panel Rating
Themes Not Important
Somewhat Important
Important
Critical
Rating Average
Percentage Agreement
Open to Supervision
0 0 4 4 3.50 100
Understand Supervision Expectations
0 2 4 2 3.00 75
Understands Goals of supervision
0 1 5 2 3.13 87.5
High Standard Client Care
0 0 4 4 3.50 100
Receptive to Corrective Feedback
0 0 2 6 3.75 100
Confident in Counselor Identity
0 5 3 0 2.38 37.5
Open to Suggestions
0 0 6 2 3.25 100
Integrates Information Quickly
1 3 4 0 2.38 50
Self-Reflective
0 1 4 3 3.25 87.5
81
(continued)
82
Table 3 (continued)
Supervisee Characteristics Panel Rating
Themes Not Important
Somewhat Important
Important Critical
Rating Average
Percentage Agreement
Self-Directive 0 2 3 3 3.13 75
Self-Motivated 0 3 2 3 3.00 62.5
Challenge supervisor
0 2 4 2 3.00 75
Continual Counselor Training/Education
0 2 5 1 2.88 87.5
Empathic 0 2 4 2 3.00 75
Broad Theoretical Base
1 4 3 0 2.25 37.5
Professional Development
0 4 4 0 2.5 50
Vulnerable with Supervisor
0 2 1 5 3.38 75
83
Table 4
Supervision Process Characteristics Panel Rating
Themes Not Important
Somewhat Important
Important Critical
Rating Average
Percentage Agreement
Protect the Client’s Best Interest
0 1 1 6 3.63 87.5
Monitoring Case Progression
0 5 2 1 2.50 37.5
Address Ethical Guidelines
0 1 4 3 3.25 87.5
Providing Effective Feedback
0 1 3 4 3.38 87.5
Model Appropriate Counselor Behavior
0 2 4 2 3.00 75
Setting Boundaries 0 0 3 5 3.63 100
Setting Goals 0 1 5 2 3.13 87.5
Setting Expectations 0 2 5 1 2.88 75
Assessing Counselor Developmental Level
0 1 6 1 3.00 87.5
Tailoring Supervision to Meet Developmental Level
0 1 4 3 3.25 87.5
Education of Various Theoretical Methods/Approaches
1 4 3 0 2.25 37.5
(continued)
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Table 4 (continued)
Supervision Process Characteristics Panel Rating
Themes Not Important
Somewhat Important
Important Critical
Rating Average
Percentage Agreement
Adherence to Ethical Guidelines
0 0 4 4 3.50 100
Transference-Countertransference Issues
0 0 5 3 3.38 100
Expand Supervisee's Knowledge base
0 1 5 2 3.13 87.5
Refining skills of the Supervisee
0 0 5 3 3.38 100
Beneficial for Supervisor/Supervisee
0 2 5 1 2.88 75
Case Conceptualization
0 1 5 2 3.13 87.5
Addressing Role Conflict
0 2 2 4 3.25 75
Addressing Safety Concerns
0 1 2 5 3.50 87.5
Explore Counselor Complacency
0 2 3 3 3.13 75
Challenge Supervisee Assumptions
0 1 2 5 3.50 75
Creating Structure for Supervisee
0 3 3 2 2.88 62.5
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Table 5
Supervision Relationship Characteristics Panel Rating
Themes Not Important
Somewhat Important
Important
Critical
Rating Average
Percentage Agreement
Collegial 0 3 4 1 2.75 62.5
Collaborative
0 0 3 5 3.63 100
Empowering 0 0 6 2 3.25 100
Supportive 0 0 3 5 3.63 100
Trustworthy 0 0 1 7 3.88 100
Encouraging 0 0 6 2 3.25 100
Challenging 0 2 2 4 3.25 75
Growth 0 0 1 7 3.88 100
Respectful 0 0 3 5 3.63 100
Open 0 0 5 3 3.38 100
Reciprocal 0 2 4 2 3.00 75
Inspiring 0 2 6 0 2.75 75
The consensus of the panel regarding the characteristics of the supervisee/experienced
counselor, in rank order, included:
1 being receptive to corrective feedback
2 open to supervision
3 committed to high standards of client care
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4 willing to be vulnerable in supervision
5 open to suggestions
6 self-reflective
The consensus of the panel regarding the characteristics of the effective supervision
process included:
1 protecting the client’s best interest
2 setting boundaries
3 adhering to ethical guidelines
4 addressing safety concerns for both the supervisee and the client
5 challenging the supervisee’s assumptions
6 providing effective feedback
7 exploring transference-countertransference issues
8 refining the supervisee’s skills
9 tailor the supervision process to match the developmental level of the supervisee
10 addressing ethical guidelines
11 addressing role conflict
Finally, the consensus of the panel regarding the characteristics of the supervision
relationship included:
1 being trustworthy
2 enabling growth
3 collaborative
4 supportive
5 respectful
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6 open
7 empowering
8 encouraging
9 challenging
The researcher applied thematic analysis to qualitative information provided by
the panel in the first round and developed interpretations for each of the elements.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
The panel of eight clinical supervisors submitted their ideas in an electronic
Delphi study exploring what are the critical elements of conducting supervision with an
experienced counselor. As the study unfolded, the panel pinpointed four critical elements
that were considered necessary for effective supervision with this population. The
critical elements focused upon characteristics of the supervisor, characteristics of the
supervisee/experienced counselor, characteristics of the supervision process, and the
supervision relationship. In Campbell’s (2000) discussion of conducting effective
supervision it was noted that the supervisor should include models of supervision,
methods and techniques of clinical supervision, role of the relationship in supervision,
methods and techniques to help the supervisee grow, legal and ethical issues in
supervision, multicultural issues in supervision, administrative tasks in supervision, and
the role of personal development in supervision. The four elements discussed by the
Delphi panel coincided with Campbell’s definitions of effective supervision.
Characteristics of the Supervisor
To promote trust was interpreted by this researcher as the supervisor’s ability to
relay reassurance to the supervisee/experienced counselor regarding the supervisor's
knowledge, skills, and abilities in supervision. However, one of the panelists gave an
addendum to the definition of promoting trust that addressed the interpersonal issues
between the supervisor and the supervisee/experienced counselor. The
supervisee/experienced counselor needs to know that the supervisor cares about him or
her. Understanding the interpersonal aspects of the relationship, Panelist 7 stated that the
supervisor should possess “a personal comfort and sense of competence, knowledge of a
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variety of theories and methods, and a personality that means that experienced counselors
respect your opinion”. Promoting trust sets the tone of supervision if the
supervisee/experienced counselor know the supervisor cares about their wellbeing.
Just as the supervisor should possess the ability to promote trust, the panel stated
that the supervisor should possess the ability to promote respect. The researcher
interpreted this characteristic to be the ability to recognize and appreciate the
supervisee's/experienced counselor’s knowledge, skills, and abilities in counseling. This
characteristic, like promoting trust, is a part of the supervisor’s interpersonal skills. The
supervisor’s ability to acknowledge the supervisee’s/experienced counselor’s expertise
promotes a feeling of mutual respect. As Panelist 3 stated, the supervisor needs to have
“trust as well as respect” in order to have effective supervision. The characteristics of
trust and respect were also discussed in the supervision relationship. The panel was in
complete agreement that it is important for the supervisor to have appreciation for the
supervisee's/experienced counselor’s viewpoints and vice versa; the relationship is
trustworthy because the relationship is authentic, dependable, and ethically conducted.
Respect for one another changes the relationship to one of collegial rather than teacher-
pupil. Panelist 3, in discussing the difference between a novice counselor and an
experienced counselor, stated “the relationship between novice and supervisor is more
teacher/pupil, whereas the supervisor/experience counselor relationship is more
collegial.”
Setting boundaries and remembering their role as supervisor was a characteristic
frequently mentioned by more than one panelist for both the novice and experienced
counselor supervisees. The researcher interpreted this characteristic as one in which the
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supervisor understands his/her role as the supervisor and adheres to the role during
supervision. Campbell (2000) concurred that the supervisor must, in order to be
effective, decide upon a role and adhere to that role in supervision. Panelists 2, 3, and 6
all discussed the characteristic of setting boundaries. The panelists stated the supervisor
needs “the ability to have strong boundaries,” “a clear understanding of the boundaries,
expectations and roles of the supervisor and counselor,” and “a clear understanding of
what is expected, required,” respectively. Panelist 3 further pointed out, not setting
boundaries, results in a drawback to supervising experienced counselors. “A drawback
might be remembering your role as the supervisor. It feels great to have experienced
counselors to speak with about cases and if the boundaries aren't clear it could become
merely peer supervision.” Interestingly enough, one of the panelists, while agreeing the
supervisor should possess this characteristic felt it is a more critical element for the
supervision process, rather than for the supervisor.
The panel unanimously agreed about the importance of setting boundaries within
the supervision process. The researcher interpreted this characteristic as a formal
structure within the supervision sessions, which follows supervision policy and
procedures. Panelist 2 stated, “the ability to have strong boundaries and to have the
ability to provide input and feedback to the supervisee to assure that the case is
progressing,” is an important aspect of the supervision process. In addition, Panelist 8
added that setting boundaries is a way to model for the counselor on how to set
boundaries in counseling, stating “more than the formal supervision structure,
[supervision] role models interpersonal limits and respect, to be reflected in the
counseling provided by the supervisee.”
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Not unlike the novice counselor, the panel stated that the experienced counselor
also needed to feel supported; therefore, the supervisor needs to have the ability to be
supportive. The researcher interpreted this characteristic as the supervisor’s ability to
attend to the needs of the supervisee/experienced counselor during supervision.
According to Panelist 7, the supervisor needs to be supportive within the supervision
environment because “supportive environments enable clinicians to do their best work.”
Panelist 8 added that being supportive also includes the supervisor's ability to encourage
the supervisee's/experienced counselor’s “ability to make sound clinical decisions.” The
panel was in agreement that the supervisor as well as the supervision relationship should
be supportive. The researcher interpreted the characteristic of supportive within the
supervision relationship as a complimentary alliance between supervisor and
supervisee/experienced counselor. However, while there was a general consensus that
the supervisor should be supportive, two of the panelists did not agree that it was
necessary for the supervision relationship. Seventy five percent of the panel still agreed
it is an important and critical characteristic of the supervision relationship.
Credibility was the next characteristic noted by the panel; however, only 87.5% of
the panel agreed that it was critical. A panelist felt it necessary to add an addendum that
the supervisor must be able to leave room for differing opinions and points of view. The
researcher interpreted the idea of being credible to mean that the supervisor’s information
is both dependable and reliable and the interpretation appeared to be supported by
comments from the panelists. Panelist 4 stated, “I believe it is critical for the supervisor
to be available and intentional about supervision,” while Panelist 7 stated “ongoing
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training and updates on research and effective methodologies” are needed to conduct
effect supervision.
Personal comfort was the next supervisor characteristic that the panel felt was
important for effective supervision with the experienced counselor. The researcher
interpreted this characteristic to mean that the supervisor is not intimidated by the
demands and duties of supervision; 85% of the panel agreed that this was necessary for
the supervisor. The panelists made reference to the fact that an experienced counselor
may have expertise which is beyond that of the supervisor, therefore causing discomfort
for the supervisor. The supervisor should be able to deal with this in supervision and not
allow this to influence interactions with the supervisee/experienced counselor. Panelist 2
stated the supervisor should have “a clear understanding of role of the supervisor along
with a personal comfort and sense of competence.” Panelist 7 stated the supervisor
should possess a “personality that means that experienced counselors respect your
opinion.” If the supervisor is to appear credible to the experienced counselor, it is
expected that the supervisor is personally comfortable in the role of supervisor. Panelist
8 discussed the fact that experienced counselors are much more interactive and
challenging to the supervisor and the supervisor must be able to handle his or her own
feelings when challenged by this population. The supervisor should have the “ability to
allow for the experienced counselor to advance beyond the supervisor's expertise.” The
panelist went on to state that the supervisor will meet professional and personal
challenges with the experienced counselor but must “set aside their expertise in order to
learn from the experienced counselor.” Panelist 1 concurred with Panelist 8, stating the
supervisor needs to “be comfortable with discomfort and be able to handle intense
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moments and differences in supervision.” The experienced counselor already possesses
expertise from practicing and the supervisor will be challenged more regarding opinions.
The supervisor must be comfortable with his or her abilities in order to meet the
challenges. Panelist 8 did point out that there is a level of discomfort for supervisors who
are just starting out with this population, stating “you have to become a new supervisor at
some point, and you would not be fully comfortable at that point.” Therefore, one must
make allowance for new supervisors.
The final characteristic deemed important and critical to supervision with the
experienced counselor was that the supervisor must be competent. Competent was
interpreted as being adequate, appropriate, and effective in supervision. Panelist 5 stated
that supervision presents “the opportunity to put your own knowledge into words and see
how much you know.” The supervisor must have a broad theoretical base regarding
supervision approaches in order to accommodate the many different learning styles of the
supervisees/experienced counselors. Panelist 2 stipulated that the supervisor must
possess “the ability to have a theoretical knowledge base that is broad enough to support
many different areas of learning.” Campbell (2000) concurred, stating “effective
supervisors need a broad range of competencies in a variety of areas” (p. 5).
Two of the panelists noted additional comments regarding the characteristics of
the supervisor. Panelist 4 felt that the supervisor should have the ability to provide
structure in supervision and be accepting of diverse thinking, while Panelist 1 included
the importance of the supervisor being able to “understand personality differences (i.e.,
supervisor is extroverted vs. introverted supervisee, etc.).” The additional comments
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made by the panelists were included in the last round to determine whether the other
panelists would agree with the inclusion of the characteristics.
Characteristics of the Supervisee
The panel concluded that the characteristics of the supervisee/experienced
counselor are a major contributory factor of effective supervision. Along with some of
the characteristics mentioned above, the panel discussed other characteristics that are
important or critical to effective supervision. The characteristics listed by the researcher
as a result of analyzing the first round of the Delphi resulted in total agreement on all of
the characteristics of the supervisee.
The panel felt the most important characteristic of the supervisee/experienced
counselor is the ability to be receptive to corrective feedback, which was interpreted as
the supervisee being amenable to adjusting his or her counseling approach or techniques
in order to better serve the client. Panelist 2 stated, “some experienced counselors also
enter supervision as if they are fully trained and don't need case consultation,” though
Panelist 5 stated that it is expected in any supervision realm to encounter resistance and
obstacles with the supervisee/experienced counselor. However, as Panelist 4 stated, the
supervisor must “be able to provide both supportive and challenging feedback at well-
timed moments in supervision.” This will nurture the growth of the supervisee.
Campbell (2000) stated, “challenging and giving corrective feedback can be a positive
experience, helping supervisees to explore what they’re saying or doing, to discover their
own resources and personal strengths” (p. 95).
In order for the supervisee to grow, he or she needs to be open to supervision.
Being open to supervision was interpreted as being receptive and appreciative of the
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benefits of supervision. The supervisee/experienced counselor must see the benefits of
supervision, again to enhance personal and professional growth. If the
supervisee/experienced counselor struggled with supervision, they can benefit from the
information shared within the process. Panelist 6 contributes this to “greater tendency
for clinicians to become ‘set’ in their style and methods, and some experienced
counselors struggle with supervision, especially if from a less experienced counselor.”
While the experienced counselor does possess the expertise to practice independently,
they are not as experienced within the first year of practice as they are in the tenth year of
practicing. The experiences of counseling continue to change the experienced
counselor’s perspective on counseling as they encounter different types of clients and
situations (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003).
The next characteristic the panel felt was of importance or critical for effective
supervision was that the supervisee/experienced counselor be committed to high
standards of client care, which was interpreted as the supervisee/experienced counselor
engaging in best practices to provide efficient and effective services and interventions to
their clients. Panelist 7 agreed there should be a discussion of best practice but indicated
that this could come later; rather, the most important idea is for the
supervisee/experienced counselor to be invested and value the importance of high
standards of client care. Panelist 4 discussed the importance of the
supervisee’s/experienced counselor’s behavior in supervision, stating “I also believe the
supervisee’s openness, ability to initiate and collaborate and values regarding high
standards of client care are critical.” Panelist 5 concurred by stating the
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supervisee/experienced counselor should have the “ability to hold the best interest of the
client as a very important aspect of supervision.”
In order to commit to high client care standards, the supervisee/experienced
counselor must be willing to discuss his or her deficiencies, and to be vulnerable in
supervision. This was interpreted as the supervisee/experienced counselor being able to
expose deficits and weaknesses even though considered an expert professional. Panelist
5 stated that while it is necessary for the experienced counselor to be vulnerable in
supervision, this may be a lot to “expect from those new to the process of supervision.”
The experienced counselor needs to feel comfortable in the supervision process in order
to expose vulnerabilities. Panelist 3 stated that supervision has to afford the novice
counselor the “freedom for the counselor to process counter-transference and fears,”
which appears to be the same for the experienced counselor. Panelist 7 noted that the
experienced counselor, unlike the novice counselor, is often more open to discussing
some of the more difficult subjects in supervision. Panelist 7 stated “experienced
counselors are able to integrate more quickly and are more open to bringing issues to
supervision.” Therefore, the experienced counselor needs to be “open to sharing their
insecurities, vulnerabilities or transference issues.”
The experienced counselor also must be open to suggestions from the supervisor.
The researcher interpreted this characteristic as the willingness to learn new and different
approaches to the counseling process. Panelists mentioned that while the experienced
counselor is open to suggestions, problems can arise if the experienced counselor is “set”
in his or her ways and does not hear the suggestions made by the supervisor. Panelist 1
mentioned “the know-it-all attitude that sometimes pervades or they are stuck in a certain
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modality and have difficult time adapting to new ideas.” Panelist 1 further discussed that
there are times when the novice counselor “outshines” the experienced counselor.
Panelist 5 discussed this difficulty of dealing with the experienced counselor as the
“potential drawback is that they think they know things, which they do, but have not yet
made it a part of who they are.” Panelist 1, however, stated the advantage of supervising
the experienced counselor is that “they GET IT more quickly without the need for
repeating oneself.”
The experienced counselor, due to independent practice, will likely have engaged
in self-reflection regarding interactions with the client, approach to helping the client, and
many other aspects of the counseling sessions. The final characteristic that emerged as a
theme was the ability to self-reflect, interpreted as the supervisee’s/experienced
counselor’s willingness to be introspective and studious regarding his or her own
behaviors in supervision as well as counseling. Panelist 3 stated that the experienced
counselor possesses “a clear understanding of the role of the counselor.” The panelist
went on to say “an experienced counselor has had prior supervision and is intuitively
more aware of what they might need from their supervisor.” Knowing their role as
counselor rather than having to develop their counselor identity appears to contribute to
the panel agreeing that this is an advantage of supervising this population. Panelist 7
stated that the experienced counselor is “quicker at integration and understanding of
concepts- a thirst for understanding of self and patient relationships,” which is unlike
novice counselors who are developing their counselor identities. As an additional
comment, Panelist 2 stated that self-reflection is “more than just with behaviors; self-
reflective should include, by definition, how one is affected on a cognitive, affective and
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somatic level.” Panelist 4 included an additional comment regarding the importance of
the experienced counselor following up immediately with safety issues and ethical issues
by addressing them in counseling and in supervision. The next element of focus for the
panelists was on the characteristics of the supervision process itself. This element
generated the most discussion and themes from the panelists.
Characteristics of the Supervision Process
The characteristics of the supervision process were the most discussed area by the
panel. The panelists were in total agreement with regard to all the characteristics and
provided the most additional comments in this area.
The number one characteristic the panel felt important and critical to supervision
of the experienced counselor was protection of the client, which is also a goal with novice
counselors. This characteristic was interpreted as ensuring the wellbeing of the client and
committing to high standards of client care. Panelist 5 discussed this as a primary focus
in supervision and noted that the supervisee should have the “ability to hold the best
interest of the client.” Panelist 2 stated that supervision and the focus within supervision
should address “areas of clinical development…greater with regard to diagnosing and
assessing clients.” In addition, Panelist 2 further stated “an experienced counselor will
have an idea of case progression and intervention strategies that are more sophisticated
than the trainee.” Therefore, supervision needs to focus on protecting the client.
Campbell (2000) discussed the fact that the supervisor is the gatekeeper of the profession
and protection of the client is a gate keeping function.
Two other characteristics of the supervision process are adherence to ethical
issues as well as addressing ethical issues in supervision. Adherence to ethical issues was
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interpreted as the ability to address the appearance of dual relationships, manipulation of
the supervisee/experienced counselor by the supervisor, and manipulation of the
supervisor by the supervisee/experienced counselor, as well as adherence to appropriate
behaviors in supervision. Addressing ethical issues refers to the ethical behaviors of the
counselor with the in the counseling session. Panelist 8 stated that adherence to ethical
guidelines also “encourages the supervisee's use of professional ethics as an integral part
of clinical decision-making.” “The ethical guidelines to practice as a clinician and to
educate and guide the supervisee within these parameters” was mentioned by Panelist 6
regarding the integral part of addressing ethical guidelines in the counseling realm. The
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) (March 1993) as well as
Campbell (2000) emphasized the importance of ethical behavior in supervision as well as
monitoring ethical behavior in the counseling relationship.
Addressing safety concerns in supervision is yet another characteristic the panel
felt was a goal of the supervision process. This characteristic was interpreted as
exploring a client’s risk issues and implementing procedures to ensure the client’s safety.
Panelist 4 stated this is imperative particularly with regard to “assessing for risk issues as
well as substance abuse issues.” Panelist 5 mentioned it is critical to “assess for risk
issues and act upon those issues.” Ensuring the safety of the client is important, but the
panel members also addressed safety for the supervisee. Panelist 2 talked about the fact
that the experienced counselor could practice in an area which endangers their wellbeing,
stating that the need is to address “the safety of the supervisee, i.e., some are in
communities and schools that have safety concerns for the counselor themselves.”
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The ability to challenge the experienced counselor’s assumptions drew a lot of
comments from the panel. The researcher interpreted this characteristic as being able to
address presumptions regarding counseling philosophies. Panelist 1 mentioned that it
helps if the experienced counselor and the supervisor share the same model, though it is
not critical in order to conduct supervision. However, having the same model could still
result in challenging the experienced counselor regarding their interpretation of the
model. If the supervisor and the experienced counselor do not have the same philosophy
or model of how to deal with the issue, Panelist 8 stated that “possible clinical and
professional impasses due to difference in philosophy/approach could occur in the
supervision process.” Additionally, this panelist stated that there is a “degree of
responsibility for the supervisor’s decisions and ability/willingness/necessity to override
supervisee’s decisions,” particularly with regard to case conceptualization. Panelist 5
gave credit to the experienced counselor for having a great deal of clinical knowledge,
but stipulated “for the experienced counselor, they know things intellectually, but have
not yet made clinical thinking part of who they are.” Panelist 7 concurred, stating the
experienced counselor “may feel that they have mastered certain areas that still need
improvement.”
Challenging the experienced counselor results in providing the experienced counselor
with critical and corrective feedback which was discussed as a characteristic the
supervisee/experienced counselor should possess for effective supervision.
Another goal of the supervision process is a discussion of transference and
countertransference issues. This characteristic was interpreted by the researcher to mean
monitoring the experienced counselor to ensure they are addressing the client’s issues
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rather than their own personal issues during counseling. Panelist 6 stated “as a counselor
progresses, discussions move to more of an overview of the case, discussions about
dynamic and system issues and countertransference issues.” Within the supervision
process, the supervisor is called upon to examine the case presentations to bring forth
discussions of countertransference issues. Panelist 7 stated that a goal in supervision is to
have “the ability to look beyond the counselor’s report of their work with their clients and
catch any countertransference that may be impacting their clinical relationships.”
Panelist 5 also stated that transference and countertransference issues need to be
examined not only in the counseling relationship but also in the supervision relationship.
Campbell (2000) discussed that transference and countertransference issues can indicate
problems with supervisees in supervision as well as the supervisor having to explore this
concept with the supervisee in the counseling session with the client. Helping the
experienced counselor to discuss these issues will help enhance their skills.
Refining the skills of the experienced counselor was the next characteristic
discussed by the panel. The researcher interpreted this to mean the ability of the
supervision process to enhance the counseling skills of the supervisee. The supervision
of the experienced counselor does not have to be directive, provide technical assistance,
nurture passion for the work, provide crisis management, review basic counseling
techniques, help to develop their own style of counseling, or support the counselor’s
identity like the novice counselor, but rather is utilized as a means to address case
conceptualization. Panelist 2 stated “an experienced counselor will have an idea of case
progression and intervention strategies that are more sophisticated than the trainee. Areas
of clinical development will be greater with regard to diagnosing and assessing clients.”
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Panelist 8 stated that refining skills is “the ability to provide less technical expertise and
instruction and more eliciting the experienced counselor’s self-determination and self
directedness.” Unlike the novice, the experienced counselor is “refining skills and
becoming an expert.” Refining the counselor’s skills is the goal not only with novice
counselors, but also experienced counselors.
Some of the panelists mentioned that though the counselor is experienced it does
not necessarily mean that the counselor is proficient in all areas of counseling. Therefore,
the panel felt that supervision still needed to be tailored to meet the needs of the
experienced counselor. Tailoring supervision was interpreted as addressing the needs of
the supervisee based upon their professional experience level. Panelist 2 noted that the
experienced counselor could have “limited exposure to certain areas in their traineeship
and may actually be at a very beginning stage.” Panelist 8 further stated that there is a
need in supervision to allow “the ability to accurately assess the degree of professional
development of the experienced counselor” because the supervisor “cannot assume the
same degree of competency, skill implementation, critical thinking, ability to think on
one’s feet, intervention creativity, and attention to details.” Assessing for the
experienced counselor’s developmental level will help “to be receptive to working with
the supervisee’s style.” Campbell (2000) stated that it is not only the supervisee who
must be assessed for their developmental level, but that the supervisor needs assessment
as well.
The experienced counselor may have difficulty being treated as a “beginning
counselor” because of needing guidance in an area in which they are not proficient. This
could set up role conflict for the experienced counselor. Role conflict was interpreted as
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the ability to discuss and resolve any confusion which arises with regard to knowledge
and experience of both supervisor and supervisee. The experienced counselor is post-
licensed and practicing independently, but supervision may cause the counselor to feel
inadequate at times. This could cause conflict for the counselor and therefore conflict
within the supervision process. Panelist 2 stated “some experienced counselors also enter
supervision as if they are fully trained and don’t need case consultation.” Both the
supervisor and the experienced counselor have many demands within their roles and the
difficulty of fitting supervision into this schedule can contribute to more role conflict.
Panelist 4 stated, “there can be moments when both the supervisor and the supervisee
wonder whether the service is fully needed in the context of a challenging work schedule.
However, typically both see the overall value in that it is such a rewarding experience.”
The experienced counselor is able to talk in the counseling jargon and the discussions can
be more in-depth with an experienced counselor. Panelist 3 stated, “…remembering your
role as supervisor. It feels great to have experienced counselors to speak with about
cases…” The experienced counselor is then viewed as a colleague rather than a
supervisee. The panel agreed that the experienced counselor and the supervisor can both
experience role conflict within supervision. It is important to keep the relationship within
the boundaries of supervision. The relationship is considered an important and critical
element to perform effective supervision with the experienced counselor.
Characteristics of the Supervision Relationship
The panel discussed characteristics of the supervision relationship that are
considered a critical element of supervision. As discussed previously, the relationship
needs to foster trust and the participants need to be authentic, dependable, ethical,
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supportive, and respectful in the relationship, and the supervisor and the
supervisee/experienced counselor need to have an appreciation for the other’s opinions,
thoughts, and ideas. However, the panel discussed other characteristics of the
relationship that they deemed important or critical to the supervision relationship.
Supervision must enable growth for the experienced counselor. This
characteristic was interpreted as allowing the supervisee/experienced counselor the
opportunity for advancement and improvement in their counseling skills. The entire
panel agreed that growth is an essential component of the supervision relationship.
Panelist 5 stated that enabling growth is the “ability to teach so the counselor develops
professionally; capacity to allow the counselor to develop their own way of working; you
can help people get to the next level in their work.” So not unlike the novice counselor,
the panel felt it is important for the counselor to achieve growth and enhancement
through supervision.
Collaboration was the next characteristic reviewed by the panel. Eighty seven
and half percent agreed this was an important characteristic in the supervision
relationship. Twelve and a half percent did not agree this was a critical characteristic to
the supervision relationship. The researcher interpreted the characteristic as a concerted
effort by the supervisor and the supervisee/experienced counselor to work jointly on
issues with equal responsibility. The supervisor and the counselor should have a give and
take communication about issues, rather than a unidirectional conversation in which the
supervisor holds the only opinion that counts in the supervision relationship. Panelist 5
stated that the relationship is “the ability to make supervision more of collaboration and
less teaching/oversight/directives” when it comes to the interaction with the experienced
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counselor. In previous statements, this panelist alluded to the characteristic of
collaboration in the supervision process and that it was a necessary to have effective
supervision.
Another characteristic the panel agreed was important to the supervision
relationship was that of being open. The supervisor and counselor must be flexible and
non-judgmental toward one another in the supervision relationship. Again, only 87.5%
of the panel agreed this was a critical characteristic for the supervision relationship.
Twelve and half percent did not feel it was a critical part of the supervision relationship.
Panelist 8 discussed the openness of the supervision relationship as “the ability to remain
flexible in setting the supervision agenda and focus.” The relationship being open will
allow both the supervisor and the counselor to address what is important to them at that
moment rather than sticking to a rigid agenda. This will allow the opportunity for growth
for the counselor.
The final characteristics of the supervision relationship were that it must be
empowering, encouraging, and challenging for both the supervisor and the counselor.
Empowerment enables the counselor to make decisions about the counseling process.
Encouragement enables the supervisor and the counselor to strengthen their bond in the
supervision relationship. Being challenging, as discussed in the supervision process,
means that the supervisor and the counselor investigate assumptions of the supervisor and
the experienced counselor in supervision. Inclusion of the characteristics appeared to
allow the counselor to have autonomy in the supervision process. Panelist 5 stated that
supervision is the “capacity to allow the counselor to develop their own way of working.”
Panelist 4 discussed the ability to have challenge in the relationship, stating “be ready to
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be challenged, allow for questioning and experimentation. It is important for the
supervisor to be able to allow the supervisee to challenge the supervisor and to
experiment with new ideas.” This in turn will help the counselor to grow and enhance
their counseling skills and techniques.
As a final opportunity for the panel to include any characteristics that were not
mentioned in the previous rounds the researcher asked for input about comments made
during the initial and second round. The panel was requested to answer whether the
additional characteristics listed by various members should be included as a characteristic
for the critical elements of supervision. One of the additional characteristics listed was
the importance of the supervisor providing structure in supervision. Seventy five percent
of the panel felt this was critical while 25% did not. The panel was asked if the
supervision process needed to embrace diverse thinking and the panel was in total
agreement. The panel was also in 100% agreement with the characteristic that the
supervisor accepts different viewpoints and is tolerant of personality differences. Eighty
seven and a half percent of the panel stated it is not necessary for the experienced
counselor to implement suggestions made in supervision quickly. Therefore, they felt
this characteristic was not critical to effective supervision with the experienced counselor.
The panel concluded the critical elements of effective supervision with an experienced
counselor are the supervisor, the counselor, the supervision process, and the relationship.
Since four of the supervisors preferred the developmental model of supervision
and a fifth preferred a developmental type model, it would seem logical that the panel
would develop characteristics for the supervisor, supervisee, the supervision process, and
the supervision relationship. The developmental model places focus upon these areas of
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supervision. One of the panelists preferred a psychodynamic approach which coincides
with the developmental model regarding the supervisee. The task-centered approach
espoused by another panelist added to the focus of the supervision process.
Limitations of the Study
Due to the small sample of participants for the study, its generalizability across
various supervisor populations is limited. While the participants were from different
work areas of supervision, the panel only represented a very small portion of the
supervising population. If a larger sample were accessed the outcome may have been
different. The panel reported from their experiences and if there were more participants
more experiences could have contributed to the outcome. The Delphi study outcome is
reliant upon a representative panel of experts within the field of study. The researcher
was reliant upon the self-report of the participants, and while this researcher did not
doubt the credentials of the participants, the study was done electronically and the
researcher could not validate the backgrounds of the participants.
The researcher is a novice in conducting research studies, particularly the Delphi
study, and while many articles and books regarding the Delphi study were read and
reviewed by the researcher, there is still novice error to contend with in the study. The
researcher is also a novice in thematic analysis and though many resources were also
reviewed in this area, the study may have had a different outcome if the researcher were
more experienced in the technique. The interpretation of the data was based upon the
researcher’s perspective and background, and therefore biased towards the researcher’s
experiences of supervision and counseling even though the interpretations were also
reviewed by a colleague.
108
Future Research
The pilot study explored supervisors’ perspectives of the critical elements of
effective supervision with the experienced counselor. However this is their perspective
of the process. The process could be viewed very differently from the counselor
regarding the critical elements of conducting effective supervision. Therefore, it is
important to explore this area with the recipients of the supervision to see if the outcome
of the present study is confirmed or refuted.
According to Campbell’s (2000) model of effective supervision, diversity is an
important issue to deal with in supervision; however, the panel did not mention this as a
critical element of supervision. It is not clear if the panelists were from different cultural
dimensions whether the responses would have been different responses. While one of the
panelists did mention the phrase “diverse thinking,” the panelist was not referring
specifically to diversity issues within the supervision realm, nor giving attention to
diversity in the counseling process for the experienced counselor. It is possible that
supervisors assume that the experienced counselor is aware of exploring diversity issues;
however, the experienced counselor may not be proficient in addressing diversity issues
nor the supervisor. This area needs further exploration.
The current instruments to explore supervision are geared more towards the
supervision of the novice counselor rather than the experienced counselor. The
instruments do not include some of the characteristics addressed by the panel. Some of
the panelists mentioned assessment of the experienced counselor in order to determine
their familiarity with different theoretical approaches. An assessment tool that can
determine the developmental level of the counselor with regard to certain theoretical
109
approaches and theoretical skills may be of help in pinpointing where to begin in the
supervision process.
Some of the panelists had more than one degree, held more than one professional
title, and worked in more than one setting. The question arises as to whether the panelists
found it necessary to have more than one degree in order to enhance their supervision
expertise. Research into whether more than one degree could help the supervisor to have
a broader perspective on supervision is another area which needs further exploration.
One of the last areas to explore in future research is the outcome of supervision
with experienced counselors. The benefits of supervision for the experienced counselor
have not been widely explored. Given the discussion about counselor burn-out and
continued education, supervision may be a way to help the experienced counselor to
remain vibrant within the profession. Supervision could also be a deterrent to
improprieties within the counseling profession. Is supervision a way to help deal with
ethical issues, so the counselor does not blur the lines in counseling services or
supervision services? Research has stated that the experienced counselor seeks out
supervision if not offered. This is an area which needs further exploration along with the
reasons that experienced counselors seek out supervision. The goal of the study was to
provide a starting point of exploration within this area of supervision since there scant
literature regarding this population. The critical elements needed to conduct effective
supervision with experienced counselors are an area that warrants further exploration.
110
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A
Electronic Invitation
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Experienced supervisors are being considered for participation as panelist on an
electronic three-round Delphi forum to explore the critical elements necessary to conduct
effective supervision with experienced counselors. Experienced counselors are
considered post-licensure and practicing independently for at least two years. The Delphi
forum will enable the expert panelists to name and prioritize critical elements they
believe necessary to effectively supervise experienced counselors based upon the group’s
consensus.
In order to be considered for participation on the panel the supervisor must meet
the following criteria:
The supervisor conducts supervision with experienced counselors. Again the
experienced counselor is post-licensure and is practicing independently for at least
two years.
The supervisor must conduct one-to-one supervision with the experienced
counselor.
The supervisor engages in both Clinical and Administrative Supervision.
The supervisor has received training in supervision whether through a formal
program or through continuing education classes specifically in the areas of
ethics, diversity issues, administrative supervision, and clinical supervision, an
understanding of the feedback process, supervision models, working alliance and
supervision style.
The supervisor is a licensed clinician who currently conducts direct client
services.
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The supervisor has conducted supervision with at least 2 different experienced
counselors. The greater the number of supervision events with experienced
counselors will improve chances for the supervisor to be considered a part of the
panel.
The supervisor has experience with supervising counselors-in-training, who are
pre-licensed.
Licensure, certification, accreditation or approval: Must be one of A to E:
A. National Certified Counselor
B. Licensed or Certified Mental Health Provider
C. Licensed or Certified Clinical Supervisor
D. Mental Health Related Educator
E. Mental Health Related Doctoral Candidate
Educational Training: Minimum of a master’s degree in a mental health field
Specialized Training: Must document either A or B
A. A graduate course in clinical supervision
B. A total of 30 contact hours of workshop training in clinical supervision
Mental Health Related Experience: Minimum of 3 years of post-master’s degree
experience in mental health services, with a minimum of 1,500 hrs direct service
with clients.
If you meet the above criteria, have access to a computer, can provide an email
address for contact, and would like to be considered for possible participation you are
asked to copy and paste the informed consent (listed below) with your name typed in
the blank provided in an email to this investigator. After review of the informed
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consent the researcher will provide a web link to the invited participants. Please
contact the investigator by email at [email protected]. Participants may
withdraw from the study at any time. If you have any questions regarding the
research or concerns regarding the investigator you may contact me by telephone at
630-670-3168 or the Dissertation Chairperson, Dr. Katherine Miley of Argosy
University- Schaumburg 999 Plaza Dr. Schaumburg, IL 60195, at
[email protected]. Thank you for your consideration.
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APPENDIX B
Informed Consent
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Informed Consent
I understand I am being asked to participate as a panelist for a research study to
investigate supervision practices with experienced counselors and I was selected as a
possible participant because I meet the criteria stipulated above for inclusion. The study
will be conducted using a Delphi Method with the purpose of this study being to explore
supervisors’ perception of critical elements for conducting supervision with experienced
counselors.
If I participate, I will be requested to complete a demographic form, in addition to
three rounds of query in the Delphi study. The investigator will send me a web link to a
secure website in which I will answer open-ended questions in the first round, rating of
responses from all participants in the second round, and a final review of the outcome and
any additional comments made by the participants in the third round. The risks
associated with this study are extremely marginal and if risk is present it is only in the
likelihood of my disagreement with the outcome of the study. The benefits of
participation are nominal.
I understand I will receive no monetary gains for participation in the study, that it
is anonymous, and will be accomplished by posting answers to a secure website. The
investigator will have an email address to contact me and will only be utilized for follow-
up during the study. The records of this study will be kept private. No identifiers linking
me to the study will be included in the published report. Research records will be stored
securely by the investigator and in addition the investigator will permanently delete any
electronic transmissions from participants in the investigator’s electronic environment.
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My decision, whether or not to participate, will not affect my current or future
relations with Argosy University. If I decide to participate, I am free to refuse to answer
any of the questions that may make me uncomfortable. I can withdraw at any time with
out my relations with the university, job, benefits, etc., being affected. I can contact
Alice Crawford at [email protected] and Dr. Katie Miley at
[email protected] with any questions about this study.
I understand that this research study has been reviewed and certified by the
Institutional Review Board, Argosy University–Schaumburg. For research-related
problems or questions regarding participants' rights, I can contact the Institutional
Review Board through the IRB Chair at Argosy University-Schaumburg 999 Plaza Dr.
Schaumburg, IL 60195.
I have read and understand the explanation provided to me. I have had all my
questions answered to my satisfaction, and I voluntarily agree to participate in this study.
I have been given a copy of this consent form. By signing this document, I consent to
participate in the study.
Signature: __________________________________ Date: __________________
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APPENDIX C
Study Description
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Study Description
The Delphi Method, which was first implemented in the 1960s by the Rand
Corporation, will be utilized to obtain supervisors’ opinions of the critical elements
necessary to conduct supervision with experienced counselors.
Experienced counselors are considered post-licensure and practicing
independently for at least 2 years. The Delphi study will consist of three rounds which
will enable the participants to list the critical elements believed to be necessary to
supervise experienced counselors and prioritize those elements based upon the group’s
consensus.
The first round questions will request a narrative of your supervision experiences
along with demographic questions. The second round will consist of a compilation of the
generated responses and a request to review and rate the responses based upon a 4 point
Likert Scale. The third round will consist of participants reviewing the outcome of their
ratings and an opportunity to add additional comments for any issues which may have
been overlooked. The researcher may also contact you by telephone for further
clarification of your additional comments.
Each round will have a three week period for participants to respond. The
researcher will send a reminder email a week before the ending of each round to request
responses if participants have not responded by that time. It is hoped the results of the
study will generate areas of discussion, study, and future research in the field of
Counselor Supervision. Thank you for your participation.
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APPENDIX D
Nominee Invitation
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I am contacting you because a colleague has nominated you as a possible panelist
on an electronic three-round Delphi forum to explore critical elements necessary to
conduct effective supervision with experienced counselors. Experienced counselors are
considered post-licensure and practicing independently for at least two years. The Delphi
forum will enable the expert panelists to name and prioritize critical elements they
believe necessary to effectively supervise experienced counselors based upon the group’s
consensus.
In order to be considered for participation on the panel the supervisor must meet
the following criteria:
The supervisor conducts supervision with experienced counselors. Again the
experienced counselor is post-licensure and is practicing independently for at least
two years.
The supervisor must conduct one-to-one supervision with the experienced
counselor.
The supervisor engages in both Clinical and Administrative Supervision.
The supervisor has received training in supervision whether through a formal
program or through continuing education classes specifically in the areas of
ethics, diversity issues, administrative supervision, and clinical supervision, an
understanding of the feedback process, supervision models, working alliance and
supervision style.
The supervisor is a licensed clinician who currently conducts direct client
services.
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The supervisor has conducted supervision with at least 2 different experienced
counselors. The greater the number of supervision events with experienced
counselors will improve chances for the supervisor to be considered a part of the
panel.
The supervisor has experience with supervising counselors-in-training, who are
pre-licensed.
Licensure, certification, accreditation or approval: Must be one of A to E:
A. National Certified Counselor
B. Licensed or Certified Mental Health Provider
C. Licensed or Certified Clinical Supervisor
D. Mental Health Related Educator
E. Mental Health Related Doctoral Candidate
Educational Training: Minimum of a master’s degree in a mental health field
Specialized Training: Must document either A or B
A. A graduate course in clinical supervision
B. A total of 30 contact hours of workshop training in clinical supervision
Mental Health Related Experience: Minimum of 3 years of post-master’s degree
experience in mental health services, with a minimum of 1,500 hrs direct service
with clients.
If you meet the above criteria, have access to a computer, can provide an email
address for contact, and would like to be considered for possible participation you are
asked to copy and paste the informed consent (listed below) with your name typed in
the blank provided in an email to this investigator. After review of the informed
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consent the researcher will provide a web link will to the invited participants. Please
contact the investigator by email at [email protected]. Participants may
withdraw from the study at any time. If you have any questions regarding the research
or concerns regarding the investigator you may contact me by telephone at 630-670-
3168 or the Dissertation Chairperson, Dr. Katherine Miley of Argosy University-
Schaumburg 999 Plaza Dr. Schaumburg, IL 60195 at [email protected].
Thank you for your consideration.
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APPENDIX E
Round One Questionnaire and Demographics
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Round One Questionnaire:
1) An experienced counselor is considered a counselor who is post-licensure and has
practiced independently for at least two years. Reflecting on your supervision
experiences, what do you consider to be the most critical elements necessary to conduct
supervision with an experienced counselor?
2) A novice counselor is considered a counselor who is pre-licensure and practicing
under supervision. Reflecting on your supervision experiences, what do you consider to
be the most critical elements necessary to conduct supervision with a novice counselor?
3) What do you consider to be the major differences in conducting supervision with an
experienced counselor as opposed to a novice counselor?
4) What are the major benefits of supervising an experienced counselor? What are the
major drawbacks of supervising an experienced counselor?
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Demographic Information
1) Highest education degree
2) Professional position
3) Work setting (i.e., agency, EAP, Hospital, School, etc.)
4) Supervision theoretical Approach
5) Length of time in the counseling field
6) Length of time conducting supervision
7) Length of time conducting supervision with experienced counselors
8) Number of counselors supervised in a typical caseload
9) Ratio of experienced counselors supervised compared to novice counselors supervised in a typical caseload
10) Type of supervision training received (i.e., formal program or CEUs)
11) Frequency of conducting supervision (i.e., daily, weekly, monthly)
12) Average length of supervision sessions
13) Gender
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APPENDIX F
Application for IRB Review and Certification of Compliance
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Application for IRB Review and Certification of Compliance:Expedited Application Form Checklist
Expedited Review (Level 2) Application, Moderate Risk
(Review by the designated IRB member or the IRB Chair).
Application Form Checklist
To the Principal Investigator of a research project:
1. Please review the documents listed below that pertain to your research project. In the event that your project does require the use of any of the listed documents, attach a copy of that document to the application submitted for IRB review.
2. Please be advised that research projects involving interaction with human participants must have an Informed Consent Form(s) attached. If a minor or incapacitated individual of any age is involved, parent/guardian permission must be included.
3. Parental permission does not negate the child’s right to chose to not participate.
4. If you are conducting a research project in another institution (e.g., a hospital or school), you must attach a signed permission letter from a supervisor/administrator who is in a position to grant you permission to conduct the research at that site. The letter must be on institutional letterhead and must have an original signature.
5. If that institution also has a Human Subjects Review Committee--often referred to as the Institutional Review Board (IRB)-- then written permission from the participating institution’s IRB must be attached to your IRB application.
6. If you are conducting the research outside of the United States, attach a letter of assurance that where the research is being conducted.
Please check: The attached Application for Certification of Compliance contains
Institutional Permission Letter (where research is taking place)
Assurance of Adherence to Governmental Regulations concerning Human Subjects (if research project is conducted outside the US)Letter(s) of Informed Consent
Parent/guardian Permission Letter (must have provision for written signature)
Oral statement of Assurance (used with minors)
Data-gathering instruments(s): Observation, Interview, Survey
Conflict of Interest Disclosure Statement
Also required on your application:
CRP or Dissertation Chairperson/Research Supervisor’s signature
Principal Investigator’s signature (2 places)
Packet reviewed by CRP or Dissertation Chairperson/Research Supervisor Initials ______
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Application for IRB Review and Certification of ComplianceExpedited Cover Sheet
IRB# ________
Date Logged: _______
Expedited Review (Level 2) Application, Moderate Risk
(Review by one or more IRB Members—May lead to Full IRB Review)
Principal Investigator/Researcher’s Name: Alice H CrawfordStudent ID Number: 00047452
Type of Research Project (CRP, Dissertation, describe other) Dissertation
Title of Research Project: Critical Elements of Supervision with Experienced Counselors-A Delphi Study
Principal Investigator/Researcher’s Address: 832 McCormick Lane West Chicago, IL 60185
Telephone Number: 630-670-3168
Dissertation Committee Chair’s Name: Dr. Katherine Miley
College: BUS PBS EDUC
HS OTHER
Program of Study: Counseling Psychology Degree Ed. D.
Project Proposed Start Date: December 1, 2009 Project Proposed Completion Date: May 1, 2009
Signature of Principal Investigator/Researcher __________________________/_______ Date
Signature of Dissertation Committee Chair: ____________________________________________________/_____________
Date
IRB Certification Signatures:
__________________________________________________________/_____________ Date
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The above named research project is certified for compliance with Argosy University’s requirements for the protection of human research participants with the following conditions:
1. Research must be conducted according to the research project that was certified by the IRB.
2. Any changes to the research project, such as procedures, consent or assent forms, addition of participants, or study design must be reported to and certified by the IRB.
3. Any adverse events or reactions must be reported to the IRB immediately.
4. The research project is certified for the specific time period noted in this application; any collection of data from human participants after this time period is in violation of IRB policy.
5. When the study is complete, the investigator must complete a Completion of Research form.
6. Any future correspondence should be through the principal investigator’s research supervisor and include the assigned IRB research project number and the project title.
**************************************************************************************************
NOTES: Please complete this cover and the Petition in detail. Every question must be
answered. Please type your answers. Attach the appropriate documents and submit the entire application materials
under the cover of a completed Application Checklist to the CRP or Dissertation Chairperson.
Do not proceed with any research work with participants until IRB Certification is obtained.
If any change occurs in the procedure, sample size, research focus, or other element of the project impacts participants, the IRB must be notified in writing with the appropriate form (see ancillary forms).
Please allow 30 days for processing.
DO NOT COLLECT DATA PRIOR TO RECEIVING IRB CERTIFICATION
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Application for IRB Certification of ComplianceExpedited Application
Expedited Review (Level 2) Application, Moderate Risk
(Review by one or more IRB Members—
May lead to Full Review)
Research with minors, prisoners, mentally/emotionally/physically challenged persons, pregnant women, fetuses, in vitro fertilization, and/or individual or group studies where the investigator manipulates the participants/ behavior or the subject is exposed to stressful or invasive experiences do(es) not qualify for Expedited status.
Please completely answer the requested information (NA is not acceptable for any question). Begin typing in the gray boxes.
1. Purpose of the Study:The investigator is interested in what Counselors Supervisors deem the critical elements of conducting Counselor Supervision with an Experienced Counselor. An Experienced Counselor is considered post-licensure and practicing independently for at least 2 years.
2. Summary of the Study. Methodology (Be Specific--attach extra page if needed).The project is going to approach the West Virginia Board of Examiners Approved Certified Supervisors. In addition this researcher is requesting to invite members of the following Linked In Groups to participate in the research project:
American Counseling AssociationIllinois Mental Health Professionals
Psychologist, Psychotherapist and CounselorsUnited States Mental Health Professionals
The researcher currently subscribes to the aforementioned groups purely as a member and does not gain any monetary or professional assets as a part of the groups. The groups are made up of mental health professionals and a description of the groups is as follow:
American Counseling Association Linked-In GroupThis is a group for User Experience Design professionals to expand our network of people and ideas (1,271 members)
Illinois Mental Health Professionals Linked-In Group
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To improve collaboration amongst counselors, licensed clinical professional counselors(LCPC), licensed professional counselors(LPC),(LMFT),licensed clinical social workers(LCSW), psychologists(PhD.&Psy.D., PsyD), in/near Illinois (counselor, counseling, therapist, social worker, psychologist) (291 members)
Psychologist, Psychotherapist and Counselors Linked-In GroupThis community of psychologists, psychotherapists, and counselors aims to create a network of professionals, facilitating job opportunities and knowledge sharing (psychologist, psychology, psychotherapist, psychotherapy, counseling, counselor, coach, coaching, mentor, mentoring, LCSW, LICSW, PhD, Psy.D, PsyD) (3,914 members)
United States Mental Health Professionals Linked-In GroupTo improve collaboration amongst marriage & family therapists (MFT), LCSW, psychologists (PhD &Psy.D., PsyD), & psychiatrists in the US (therapist, therapy, psychotherapy, psychotherapists, psychotherapist, psychologist, psychology, psychiatrist, psychiatry, social worker, counselor, counseling) (3,716 members)
I am requesting participation of Counselor Supervisors who meet the following criteria: The supervisor conducts supervision with experienced counselors. Again the
experienced counselor is post-licensure and is practicing independently.
The supervisor conducts one-to-one supervision. While the other modalities of supervision, such as group and peer are discussed in the field of supervision, the current study is only interested in the one-to-one supervision modality.
The supervisor engages in both Clinical and Administrative Supervision.
The supervisor has received training in supervision whether through a formal program or through continuing education classes.
The supervisor has received training in the areas as they pertain to supervision, which include ethics, diversity issues, administrative supervision, and clinical supervision, an understanding of the feedback process, supervision models, working alliance and supervision style.
The supervisor is a licensed clinician who conducts direct client services. This criterion is included in order for the supervisor to possess some understanding of the demands upon the experienced counselor.
The supervisor has conducted supervision with at least 2 different experienced counselors. This criterion is included in order to possess some contrast in individual demands of supervisees. The greater the number of supervision events with experienced counselors will improve chances for the supervisor to be considered a part of the panel.
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The supervisor has experience with supervising counselors-in-training, who are pre-licensed. This criterion is included because the supervisor is expected to give a contrasting understanding, if any, of the supervision of an experienced counselor.
The supervisor is to at least meet the accreditation of the Center for Credentialing and Education of a clinical supervisor with the exception of criteria 6, which is deemed unnecessary for this research.
6. Licensure, certification, accreditation or approval: Must be one of A to E:A. National Certified Counselor B. Licensed or Certified Mental Health ProviderC. Licensed or Certified Clinical Supervisor D. Mental Health Related Educator E. Mental Health Related Doctoral Candidate
7. Educational Training: Minimum of a master’s degree in a mental health field 8. Specialized Training: Must document either A or B
A. A graduate course in clinical supervision, Or B. A total of 30 contact hours of workshop training in clinical supervision
9. Mental Health Related Experience: Minimum of 3 years of post-master’s degree experience in mental health services, with a minimum of 1,500 hrs direct service with clients.
10. Supervision Experience: Must have provided a minimum of 100 hr. of clinical supervision of mental health services with supervisees OR an endorsement from a mental health professional attesting to the applicant's supervisory activity.
11. Self-Assessment and Professional Disclosure: Submit a Professional Disclosure statement which assesses the understanding of multiple responsibilities of clinical supervision. The invitations will be sent in small groupings of recipients so as to avoid the
possible security controls each participant may have on their electronic environment, resulting in the email solicitation being sequestered as “spam”. Spam is considered unsolicited advertisement sent electronically. Many email filters can be built into email servers, email software, antivirus software or internet service providers to protect the recipient from unwanted emails.
The initial email will invite participation in the study along with the informed consent consisting of the purpose for the research, the risk and benefits of the research, the voluntary nature of research participation, the participant’s right to stop the research at any time and the procedures used to protect confidentiality in addition the email will describe how the study will be conducted and include instructions in the email explaining to send a reply email to the researcher, which includes a “cut and paste” of the informed consent with their name placed in the agreement, along with an email address to contact the participant during the study. Participants must respond by a deadline date.
The invitee will be informed if they are willing to participate the researcher will send a link to the website of the study in a later email. In addition the email will state, the study meets approval of the Institution Review Board, direct contact information for the researcher, and direct contact information for the dissertation chairperson (See Appendix
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A). If participants do not have an email address listed for initial contact, a printed invitation will be sent to the ALPS and ACS by the researcher using United States Postal Service. The invitation will include all elements mentioned in the electronic invitation. The participants will be notified the study is to be conducted electronically and ask if they have access to a computer and an email address in order to participate. The researcher will include an email address for the researcher so invitees can send this information.
Once volunteers for the panel are obtained, the researcher will send the information regarding the procedures for the study, the schedule of the rounds of questions and the link to the study website (See Appendix B). As stated above, should the researcher not receive enough responses from participants solicited, the request will be made of participants to nominate other supervisors who may not be listed with the Center of Credentialing and Education or West Virginia Board of Examiners but meet the criteria of inclusion. The researcher will send nominees a secondary email or hardcopy of the email invite stating they were nominated by a colleague, who felt the supervisor meets the researcher’s criteria for inclusion and ask their consent for participation along with the same information included in the initial participants’ invite (See Appendix C). The nominee will be requested to electronically reply as the initial participants. Once the returned emails and envelopes are received from the participants, all informed consents will be printed or reviewed and will be kept by the researcher in order to protect the confidentiality of all participants’ identity. The emails will then be permanently deleted from the researcher’s electronic environment.First Round
Participants will be asked to complete a demographic information questionnaire along with the initial open-ended questions (See Appendix D). Participants will be requested to complete the task within a three week period. Once the information is collected the researcher will compile and analyze the responses by qualitative means. The results will then be constructed as a survey for the second round. The participants will be given 3 weeks to respond to the initial questionnaire and as the participants respond the researcher will compare against a master list of participants who agreed to be in the study to tally the response rate. After two weeks of the initial round opening, a reminder email will be sent to participants who have not responded. After three weeks an email announcing the website will be closed will be sent by the researcher. The themes which emerge from round one will then be placed in survey formSecond Round
The participants will be sent an email stating the second round has begun. The participants will be given three weeks, again, to review and rate the themes based upon a 4 point Likert scale ranging from 1-Critically important, 2-Important, 3-Unimportant and 4-Definetly unimportant. The researcher has chosen an even-numbered Likert scale in order to avoid neutral responses. The researcher wants to avoid a neutral response in order to make the participants really think about the elements presented and choose which are critical. A space will also be provided in which the participants may add any additional comments forgotten during the first round. The researcher will compare the respondents to the master list of participants and will send reminder emails to participants who have not responded a week before the ending of the second round. The researcher will close the survey after three weeks.
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Third RoundThe results of the ratings will then be published for the participants to review and
a request will be made if the participants are in agreement with the outcome. If participants are not in agreement a comment line will be provided for any last minute comments about the results. The researcher will follow up with the participant regarding any additional comments by telephone.
3. Subject/participant Demographics:
a. Anticipated Sample Size: 20
b. Special Ethnic Groups (describe): Requesting Diverse Population of Participants
c. Institutionalized Y N Protected Group (describe): No
d. Age group: 18 years and above
e. General State of Health: Participants possess general good health
f. Other details to describe sample group. Counselor Supervisors either accredited or approved certification as a Counselor Supervisor
4. Will deception be used in the study? Y N (please describe) No
5. Will audio or videotapes be used in the study? Y N (please explain) No
6. Confidentiality protection issues (pertains to audio and video as well as written documents.)
a. What precautions will be taken to insure the privacy and anonymity of the participants? (i.e. closed doors, private rooms, handling of materials where participant’s identify could be discovered, etc.). Participants will be able to complete the inquiry on a specifically specified website, which is only accessed by a website link provided by the investigator. The investigator requests email addresses of participants merely for follow-up. Once
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follow-up is completed the email addresses will be permanently deleted from the investigators electronic environment.
b. What specific precautions will be taken to safeguard and protect subject’s confidentiality while handling the data (audio/video/paper) both in researcher’s possession and in reporting the findings? (i.e. coding, removal of identifying data) Participants will respond to an on-line environment. The on-line environment is secured by individual usage to access the electronic surveys. The on-line environment utilized will be Survey Monkey, which is a highly utilized and dependable research tool.
c. Describe procedures where confidentiality may be broken by law (e.g., child abuse, suicidal intent). Participants are addressing professional relationships and not involved in any area in which confidentiality has to be broken by law.
7. Review by institutions outside of Argosy University/XX Y N (Attach copies of permission letters, IRB certifications, and any other relevant documents). Application to Center for Credentialing and Education requesting permission to access the database of Accredited Counselor Supervisors (see attached)
8. Informed Consent and Assent (Attach copies of all relevant forms). If consent is not necessary (e.g., anonymous interview), describe how you will inform all participants of the elements of consent (see instructions). See attached
9. If written or oral informed consent is required, describe the manner in which consent and/or assent was obtained for each category).
(a) Adult Participants (18 years and older – written consent required). Participants will copy and paste an electronic copy of the informed consent with participants’ name typed in blank which stipulates the participant is in agreement with participation in the study. The informed consent is to be sent to the investigator by email or Postal Service to demonstrate agreement.
(b) Child Participants (under 18 – parent/guardian permission and participant assent required). There are no child participants in the study
a. Institutionalized participants (parent/guardian/conservator permission with appropriate participant assent). There are no Institutionalized participants in the study
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10. Describe any possible physical, psychological, social, legal, economic or other risks to participants (Attach another page if needed).
a. Describe the precautions taken to minimize risk to participants. The investigator will ensure there is no risk to participants, as the participants will only be asked their opinions to open-ended questions and rating their responses to the questions.
b. Describe procedures implemented for correcting harm caused by participating in the study (e.g., follow up calls, referral to appropriate agencies). The investigator will publish contact information for should participants have any questions regarding the study and if any participant feels the study has caused harm the investigator will do follow-up calls to the participant affected to make appropriate referrals to any resources necessary to address the issues.
11. Potential benefit of the study:
a. Assess the potential benefit(s) of the study for the participants: The study is constructed such there are moo individual benefits for participation.
b. Assess the potential benefits(s) to the professional audience in the study: The results of the study will eliminate areas of Counselor Supervision which have limited exploration and therefore promote healthy discussion of the subject matter.
As the principal investigator, I attest that all of the information on this form is accurate, and that every effort has been made to provide the reviewers with complete information related to the nature and procedures to be followed in the research project. Additional forms will be immediately filed with the IRB to report any change in participant(s), selection process, principal investigator, or faculty dissertation chair, as well as notification of any adverse incidents and final completion date of project. I also attest to treat human participants ethically and in compliance with all applicable state and federal rules and regulations that apply to this study, particularly as they apply to research work conducted in countries other than the United States.
Signature Principal Investigator Date
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Signature of Research Supervisor/Committee Chair Date
Attach any other forms, tests, institutional permission slips, etc., relative to this study. Failure to do so will result in delayed processing of the certification form.
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Conflict of Interest (Disclosure) Statement
To the Institutional Review Board:
I have reviewed the EDMC Code of Business Ethics and Conduct Statement found in SECTION 5.0 of the Argosy University Intuitional Review Board Handbook and wish to disclose the following potential conflict of interest related to my research study:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
or
I have reviewed the EDMC Code of Business Ethics and Conduct Statement found in SECTION 5.0 of the Argosy University Intuitional Review Board Handbook and state that I have no potential conflicting interests that might influence or be perceived to influence how I professionally conduct my research study.
Signed and Dated (under printed name).
Alice Crawford Date
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APPENDIX G
Round One Response
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Round One Response
Responses to question one
Panelist 1 The supervisee should have had post grad training in a focused area – it
helps is the supervisor and supervisee share the same model, but not
crucial.
Panelist 2 The ability to have a theoretical knowledge base that is broad enough to
support many different areas of learning.
The ability to have strong boundaries and to have the ability to provide
input and feedback to the supervisee to assure that the case is progressing.
Panelist 3 1 A clear understanding of the boundaries, expectations and roles of the
supervisor and counselor
2 Mutual trust and respect
3 A willingness to collaborate.
Panelist 4 I believe it is critical for the supervisor to be available and intentional
about supervision, to be receptive to working with the supervisee's style,
and to be able to provide both supportive and challenging feedback at
well-timed moments in supervision.
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I also believe the supervisee's openness, ability to initiate and collaborate,
and values regarding high standards of client care are critical.
Panelist 5 Critical elements are:
capacity to put oneself in the place of the counselor
ability to assess and act upon risk
ability to teach so the counselor develops professionally
ability to hold the best interest of the client
capacity to allow the counselor to develop their own way of working
Panelist 6 The most critical elements necessary to conduct effective supervision is
training in supervision and a clear understanding of what is expected,
required and the ethical guidelines to practice as a clinician and to educate
and guide the supervisee within these parameters.
Panelist 7 1 The ability to look beyond the counselor's report of their work with their
clients and catch any countertransference that may be impacting their
clinical relationships
2 A personal comfort and sense of competence, knowledge of a variety of
theories and methods, and a personality that means that experienced
counselors respect your opinion
3 A supportive environment to enable clinicians to do their best work
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4 Ongoing training and updates on research and effective methodologies
Panelist 8 1 The ability to accurately assess the degree of professional development
of the experienced counselor
2 The ability to engage an experienced counselor in tailoring supervision
of his/her self-identified professional goals and areas of interest.
3 The ability to remain flexible in setting the supervision agenda and
focus.
4 The ability to allow for the experienced counselor to advance beyond the
supervisor's expertise.
5 The ability to treat the experienced counselor as a colleague.
6 The ability to make supervision more of a collaboration, and less
teaching/oversight/directives.
7 The ability to provide less technical expertise and instruction, and more
eliciting the experienced counselor's self-determination and self-
directedness.
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Responses to question 2
Panelist 1 Similar to question above the supervisee should have had post grad
training in a focused area – it helps is the supervisor and supervisee share
the same model, but not crucial. Novice could sit in on others’ sessions
and/or video tape their own sessions for best practice.
Panelist 2 The ability to assess strengths and areas for growth for the trainee to
assure that learning is tailored to the trainee's needs
Making sure that client's are matched to an area where the trainee will feel
confident while still working on growing edges.
The ability to provide support and guidance to the trainee during this
initiatory phase of their development as a therapist
Panelist 3 1 Clear understanding of the boundaries, expectations and roles of the
supervisor and counselor
2 Structure for the counselor
3 Education
4 Freedom for the counselor to process countertransference and fears
Panelist 4 I think it is critical for the supervisor to be aware of when supervisees
need concrete direction and when they need time to find their own way. I
think it is very important for supervisors to be able to give lots of
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encouragement and when needed to provide corrective feedback. Early on
in supervision, it is even more important to be sure to cover safety and
ethical issues, workplace concerns, supervisee professional development,
diagnosis, documentation, and to be a stable connection for the supervisee.
As the supervisee develops his or her style, it is important for the
supervisor to be able to allow the supervisee to challenge the supervisor
and to experiment with new ideas. Later in supervision, the efforts become
more collaborative and there is greater emphasis on abstract thinking
including transference and countertransference concerns.
Panelist 5 teaching basic principles of treatment
letting them talk about the case and helping them to think though the
meaning of the material
supporting their sense of themselves professionally
Panelist 6 An open and trusting relationship with the supervisor, ability to self reflect
and observe- with the supervisee, and a clear understanding of boundaries
within relationships.
Panelist 7 1 Patience
2 Ability to review basic counseling techniques and assist new counselors
in developing their own style and theories of change
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3 Knowledge of the levels of counselor development and ability to utilize
to assess counselor level and guide to greater levels of competence
Panelist 8 1 The ability to accurately assess the novice counselor's development
level.
2 The ability to be directive when needed.
3 The ability to teach and instruct, and to provide technical
assistance/expertise.
4 The ability to nurture passion for the work.
5 The ability to effectively and appropriately role model.
6 The ability to be patient as the novice counselor learns.
7 The ability to be available outside of formal supervision appointments
for questions, brainstorming, checking in, and crisis management.
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Responses to question 3
Panelist 1 Truthfully I have found there are “novices” that have the post grad training
who outshine the experiences counselors without the post grad training.
Panelist 2 An experienced counselor will have an idea of case progression and
intervention strategies that are more sophisticated than the trainee.
Areas of clinical development will be greater with regard to diagnosing
and assessing clients.
Panelist 3 The relationship between novice and supervisor is more "teacher/pupil",
whereas the supervisor/experienced counselor relationship is more
collegial.
With a novice there is a more tangible focus on practical issues, theoretical
issues, legal issues.
An experienced counselor has had prior supervision and is intuitively
more aware of what they might need from their supervisor.
More "hand holding" with a novice
Panelist 4 I answered this in # 2.
For the novice counselor, provide direction, structure, and lots of support.
For the counselor who has been in supervision for a moderate amount of
time, be ready t be challenged, allow for questioning and experimentation.
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For the experienced counselor, support discussion of abstract concepts,
meaning in one's professional development, transference and
countertransference.
Panelist 5 for the novice, you are teaching them things they do not already know, or
know solidly.
for the experienced counselor, they know things intellectually, but have
not yet made clinical thinking part of who they are. The knowledge is
assumed and referred to, but as something they already know about.
Panelist 6 With a very novice counselor, there is more need to review counseling
theory and methodologies, how the counselor is conceptualizing the case,
and hearing more detail about sessions and interactions. As a counselor
progresses, discussions more to more of an overview of the case,
discussions about dynamic and system issues, and countertransference
issues.
Panelist 7 Experienced counselors are able to integrate more quickly and are more
open to bringing issues to supervision, a novice counselor often has this
feeling of needing to prove themselves and aren't as open to sharing their
insecurities, vulnerabilities or transference issues.
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Panelist 8 1 Cannot assume the same degrees of competency, confidence, skill
implementation, critical thinking, ability to think on one's feet,
intervention creativity, attention to details.
2 The role of a supervisor is significantly different between the two,
coaching vs. teaching, collaboration vs. direction, developing therapy
skills vs. refining existing skills, emphasis on becoming a therapist vs.
becoming an expert.
3 Degree of responsibility for the supervisee's decisions, and
ability/willingness/necessity to override the supervisee's decisions
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Responses to question 4
Panelist 1 Benefits are that they GET IT more quickly without the need for repeating
oneself. Drawbacks are the know-it-all attitude that sometimes pervades,
or they are stuck in a certain modality and have difficult time adapting to
new ideas.
Panelist 2 Benefits are that the experienced counselor will have a working
knowledge of what it's like to be with clients, where to potentially start
with a client and how to build rapport.
Drawbacks may be that the counselor had limited exposure to certain areas
in their traineeship and may actually be at a very beginning stage.
Some experienced counselors also enter supervision as if they are fully
trained and don't need case consultation.
Panelist 3 Supervising experienced counselors allows the supervisor to work on a
deeper level with the counselor; to look at nuance, to be freer in the
direction they go with their work.
A drawback might be remembering your role as the supervisor. It feels
great to have experienced counselors to speak with about cases and if the
boundaries aren't clear it could become merely peer supervision.
Panelist 4 The major benefits of supervising an experienced counselor are the more
mutual collaboration, the exchange of exciting ideas, and the discussion of
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transference and countertransference. One downfall to supervising an
experienced counselor is that there can be moments when both the
supervisor and supervisee wonder whether the service is fully needed in
the context of a challenging work schedule. However, typically both see
the overall value in that it is such a rewarding experience.
Panelist 5 benefits are that you have the opportunity to put your own knowledge into
words and see how much you know.
you can help people get to the next level in their work
potential drawback is that they think they know things, which they do, but
have not yet made it a part of who they are.
Panelist 6 Major benefits include being able to discuss cases at a deeper clinical level
and a greater trust for the clinicians abilities in handling a variety of
situations. Major drawbacks include the possibility of overlooking a major
issue due to trusting the clinician more, a greater tendency for clinicians to
become "set" in their style and methods, and some experienced counselor's
struggle with supervision, especially if from a less experienced counselor.
Panelist 7 Benefits- quicker integration and understanding of concepts- a thirst for
understanding of self and patient relationships
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Drawbacks- may feel that they have mastered certain areas that still need
improvement, not as open to feedback
Panelist 8 Benefits: more intellectual and professional challenge, more personal
challenge to set aside one's expertise, ability to learn more from an
experienced counselor, less responsibility and more collaboration.
Drawbacks: at times can become more administrative than clinical,
possible clinical and professional impasses due to differences in
philosophy/approach
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APPENDIX H
Additional Comments Round 2
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Additional Comments Round 2
Round 2
Additional comments Supervisor Characteristics
Panelist 1 1 Be comfortable with discomfort (be able to handle intense moments and
differences in supervision)
2.Understand personality differences (i.e. supervisor is extroverted vs.
introverted supervisee)
Panelist 4 ability to provide structure
ability to accept diverse thinking
Additional comments Supervisee Characteristics
Panelist 4 follows up immediately with recommendations regarding safety and
ethical issues
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APPENDIX I
Additional Comments Round 3
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Additional Comments Round 3
Additional comments on Supervisor Characteristics
Promotes Trust
Panelist 5 Your definition seems to be about confidence, but trust is interpersonal,
about the supervisor's concern for supervisee and trustworthiness as well.
Credible
Panelist 5 Although there should be room for differing opinions or points of view
Comfortable in Supervisor Role
Panelist 5 Yes, but the ones above are more important. You have to become a new
supervisor at some point, and you would not be fully comfortable at that
point.
Competent
Panelist 5 Yes, but as above, newer supervisors would differ from seasoned ones.
Supportive
Panelist 8 I would add that "Supportive" also includes the supervisor's ability to
encourage the supervisee's ability to make sound clinical decisions.
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Additional comments on Supervisee Characteristics
Self-Reflective
Panelist 2 More than just with behaviors; self-reflective should include, by
definition, how one is affected on a cognitive, affective and somatic level.
Corrective Feedback
Panelist 5 But it would be expected that there are obstacles/resistance as well, to be
understood in the supervision.
Yes, but this may be a lot to expect for newer supervisees. Another quality
to develop over time
High Standards Client Care
Panelist 7 The Supervisee is invested and values the importance of high standards of
client care. Knowledge and use of best practices can be taught.
Additional comments on Supervision Process
Protect the client
Panelist 5 Although the supervisee really is the primary focus of supervision, and the
supervisor develops the supervisee's capacity to put client first.
Setting Boundaries
Panelist 4 This also includes boundaries regarding protecting one's time and the level
of self-disclosure each person is expected to provide
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Panelist 8 More that the formal supervision structure role models interpersonal limits
and respect, to be reflected in the counseling provided by the supervisee
Panelist 7 I would not focus so much on formal structure in this arena, but more on
the roles of supervisor and supervisee demonstrating appropriate
boundaries.
Adherence to Ethical Issues
Panelist 8 I would add that this encourages the supervisee's use of professional ethics
as an integral part of clinical decision-making.
Addressing Safety Concerns
Panelist 2 And also with the safety of the supervisee, i.e., some are in communities
and schools that have safety concerns for the counselor themselves
Panelist 4 Especially related to suicide, homicide, self-harm behavior, substance
Tailoring Supervision
Panelist 5 Also, transference and ct would also arise in the supervision itself, not just
the treatment with the patient.
Additional Comments on Supervision Relationship Characteristics
Empower
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Panelist 2 Or to encourage supervisee to think of 'next steps' or interventions in the
counseling process
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