Indexed in: • UGC list of Journals • Ebsco Database • Ulrichsweb • Proquest A Web-Based E-Tool for Monitoring Urban Water Supply System Demographic Dividend and Political Branding: The New-Age Amalgamation in Indian Politics Digital India – The Way Forward Human Development in Bihar and Impact of Liquor Prohibition Policy: An Analysis Industrial Development Induced Climate Change and its Impact on Various Segment of Rural Society: A Case of Hajira Village of South Gujarat, India Performance of Planning Boards in India: Evidence from Southern States Political Awareness of Dalit: Selected Villages in Karnataka Revealing Cavities in India’s Groundwater Management Volume 7, No 2, July-December 2017 ISSN 2231-0924
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Aims and ScopeJournal of Governance & Public Policy isabi-annual refereed journalpublishedby the InstituteofPublicEnterprisetoprovideaforumfordiscussionandexchangeof ideasonGovernance(localto global) and Public Policy (including foreign policy and international relations) by policymakers,practitionersandacademicians.
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Members
Dr Jack Czaputowicz, Director,NationalSchoolofPublicAdministration,Warsaw,Poland
Prof Wolfgang Drechsler, ChairofGovernance,RagnarNurkseSchoolofInnovationandGovernance,TallinnUniversityofTechnology(TUT),Estonia
Dr Harold Gould, VisitingScholar,CenterforSouthAsianStudies,UniversityofVirginia,Charlottesville,USA
Dr John Halligan, ProfessorofPublicAdministration,UniversityofCanberra,Australia
Dr HJ Kroukamp, ActingDean,Economic&ManagementSciences,ProfessorofPublicManagement,UniversityoftheFreeState,SouthAfrica
Dr I Ramabrahmam, DepartmentofPoliticalScience&HonoraryDirector,AcademicStaffCollege,UniversityofHyderabad
Dr Bhanoji Rao, AdjunctProfessor,InstituteofWaterPolicy,LKYSchoolofPublicPolicy,NationalUniversityofSingapore
Dr Purshottama Sivanarain Reddy, Management,ITandGovernance,UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Durban
Dr Allan Rosenbaum, PresidentElect,AmericanSocietyforPublicAdministration,Professor,PublicAdministration,Director,InstituteforPublicManagementandCommunityService,FloridaInternationalUniversity
Dr Reto Steiner, Professor,KompetenzzentrumfürPublicManagement,Bern,Switzerland
Dr Dhirendra Kumar Vajpeyi, Professor,DepartmentofPoliticalScience,UniversityofNorthernIowa,CedarFalls,USA
Dr Blue E Wooldridge, DepartmentofPoliticalScienceandPublicAdministration,CollegeofHumanitiesandSciences,
VirginiaCommonwealthUniversity,RichmondUSA
Dr Eugenia Vanina, CentreforIndianStudies,InstituteofOrientalStudies,Moscow,Russia
Prof Alexander Lukin, Head,DepartmentofInternationalRelations,NationalResearchUniversityHigherSchoolofEconomics,Director,CenterforEastAsianandShanghaiCooperationOrganizationStudies,MoscowStateInstituteofInternationalRelations(MGIMO–University),Moscow,Russia
Dr Tatiana Shaumyan, Head,CenterforIndianStudies,InstituteofOrientalStudies,RussianAcademyofSciences,Moscow,Russia
ThearticleshouldbeinEnglishlanguage,Britishstyle.Forspelling,grammarandsyntax,theOxfordDictionaryandHWFowler’sDictionaryofModernEnglishUsageare to be followed. The suggested length is 5,000 to8,000 words. The article should be typed in doublespaceononly one side ofA-4 size paper and sent inhardcopyandalsobyemailinMSWordformat.An abstract, not exceeding 300 words, typed on aseparatesheetshouldaccompanythearticle.Three/fourKeywordsshouldalsobegiventofacilitateInternet access. These should be placed immediatelybelowtheabstract.Please include a resume of the author(s) in about 10lines for inclusion in the section entitled ‘About theAuthors’. This should include the latest designation, abit about the academic and professional experiencerelevant to the article, complete postal address andemail.TheTelephonenumber(s)mayalsobefurnished.Articles sent for publication are processed through ablindreferralsystembyexpertsinthesubjectareas.
Levels of HeadingsThetitleofthearticleshouldbeincapitals,boldletters,andplacedinthecentreofthepage,asindicatedbelow:
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ReferencesReferences should be embedded in the text asfollows: (Laski1960:19). Ifmore thanone referenceistobegiven,theyshouldbefirstinalphabeticalandtheninchronologicalorder,asfollows:(Babu2006:51;Rosenau2006:29;Wagner1960:34).Footnotes should be used only for explanation orrelevantcomment;andshouldbekepttotheminimum;placedatthebottomonthecorrespondingpage;andnumberedsequentially.A consolidated list of all books, articles, theses,monographs, documents and all other materialsreferred to should be typed in double space andplaced at the end of the article. They should belistedinalphabeticalorderbytheauthor’slastnamefollowedbythefirstnameorinitials,etc.,asusedbytheauthor.If,therearetwoormorereferencestothesameauthor, theyshouldbeplacedinchronologicalorderwiththelatestfirstandsoon.Thedetailedstyleofreferencingisasfollows:
For booksLaski,HaroldJ.1960GrammarofPolitics,London:AllenandUnwin
For articles in periodicalsLaski,HaroldJ.1954.“PoliticalPartiesinEngland,”PoliticalStudies,Vol.56,no.4,pp:29-44
For chapters in an edited bookRosenau,JamesN.1988.“NewDimensionsofSecurity:TurbulenceinInternationalPolitics,”inGeorgeRoss,ed.SecurityinaGlobalisingWorld,NewYork:Macmillan
For article in a newspaperSubramanyam,K.2008.“IndiaHasNoNuclearStrategy,”TimesofIndia,September6,p.11
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TheEditorJournal of Governance & Public PolicyInstituteofPublicEnterpriseOUCampus,Hyderabad-500007
1
a Web-Based E-tool for Monitoring Urban Water supply system
Ramakrishna Nallathiga* and Maadhavi Sriram**
Water supply is an important function of urban local governments in cities. The cities organize and collect water supply information so that they can check whether the water supply service is as planned and as assured of delivery. However, monitoring water supply across the cities in a State is difficult task as they are far from each other as well as district and state headquarters. It takes several days and weeks by the time the information reaches headquarters. This can at times result in a difficulty in water supply planning, especially sourcing schedule of water during summer, as well as exercise controls in the outbreak of water borne diseases. A web-based system can reduce the shortfalls of such manual monitoring and can give quick but cheap data to the users at headquarters for appropriate decision making. This paper show cases the features of one such web-based monitoring system for water supply designed for Andhra Pradesh that can be used to generate the MIS for the headquarters for the decisions on water resource planning, reservoir/storage outflow scheduling and control of water quality (physical and bacteriological). It can be observed that the e-tool of web-based monitoring system gives information useful to planners, decision makers, researchers and operations personnel. This potential of such e-tool can be tapped when it is made fully functional and used regularly by the concerned departments for the routine as well as non-routine decisions and planning.
With the advent of internet, web-based systems are providing solution to such gap in monitoringoperationsanddataat remoteend.Aweb-basedsystemcan reduce theshortfallsofsuchmanualmonitoringandcangivequickbutcheapdatatotheusersatheadquartersforappropriatedecisionmaking.This paper show cases the features of one suchweb-basedmonitoring system forwatersupplydesignedforAndhraPradeshthatcanbeusedtogeneratetheMISfortheheadquartersforthedecisionsonwaterresourceplanning,reservoir/storageoutflowschedulingandcontrolofwaterquality(physicalandbacteriological).Itcanbeobservedthatthee-toolofweb-basedmonitoringsystemgivesinformationusefultoplanners,decisionmakers,researchersandoperationspersonnel.Thispotentialofsuche-toolcanbe tappedwhen it ismade fully functionalandused regularlyby theconcerneddepartmentsfortheroutineaswellasnon-routinedecisionsandplanning.
Need of UWSIS UrbanWater Supply Information System (UWSIS) is a monitoring tool to track theWater Supplypositions across the municipalities in the State of Andhra Pradesh. This application is an MIS(Management InformationSystem)application thatwas created soas to facilitatemonitoringof allwatersupplyinallurbanlocalbodies(ULBs)intheState.Currently,thereare110Municipalitiesand12MunicipalCorporationsinthestate.Thise-toolwasprimarilydevelopedfortheuseofthePublicHealth Engineering (PHE) department officials of the Government ofAndhra Pradesh. The PublicHealthEngineeringdepartmentiscurrentlydoingthemonitoringinawaythatisnotusefultoplanningandpreventiveaction,forwhichmoreofrealtimedataisrequired.
Hardware, Software and Data GenerationHardware & Software Requirements Thesystemworksthroughanetworkofcomputersandsoftwareapplicationdeveloped.DesktopPCsystemsarerequiredwithaninternetfacilityinLAN/individualconnectionenvironment.BrowserslikeInternetExplorer,MozillaFirefoxetcare required tobe installedso that theapplicationcanbe runonlineandaccessismadetothedatabase.Theyalsoneedtobeloadedwithappropriateoperatingsystemandothersupportsoftwaresothatthewebapplicationscanberunwithoutanyproblem.
Data Generation and Transfer Process TheULBs are the first points of data generation, which they do on regular basiswith the help ofpersonnelandequipmentdeployedfrothesame.Theperiodicityofreportingofdatadependsuponthespecificparameterofwatersupplysystem.ThedatarecordedattheULBlevelistransferredtotheheadquartersonafortnightlybasis.Figure1showsthedatagenerationandtransmissionprocessofwatersupplyfromaULBtotheheadquarters.
Figure 1: Data Generation and Transfer Process of Water Supply
4 Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Volume 7, No 2, July-December 2017
Work Flow of the ApplicationBasedonthedatagenerationprocessandkeystakeholdersinvolved,theclassificationofthestakeholder/userrolesareassumedasgiveninthefollowingtable.
Table 1: User Roles and Privileges in Urban Water supply information systemFigure 2: Login Screen of application
SupplyStatusinformationMasters: 1)BasicDataDetails2)SummerStorageTanksDetails3)BorewellDetails4)PumpingStationsDetailsDaily Status Transaction: 1)WaterSupplyDailyStatus2)BoreWellDailyStatus3)SSTanksDailyStatus4)TankersDailyStatus5)PipeLinesDailyStatus6)QualityTestingDailyStatus7)PowerFailuresDailyStatus8)WaterBornDiseasesDailyStatus
Once theuser inputsusernameandpassword in thespecificfieldsand thenclickson the “Login”button,thesystemfirstchecksif thelogin idandpasswordtypedbytheuserarematchedwiththeprovidedone,thentherespectivefunctionaryformwillbeopenorelseitwilldisplaytheerrormessage
5
like “InvalidUsername or Password.” For security reasons, the password entered by the userwilldisplayedintermsofspecialcharacterslike‘*’.Afterenteringtheusernameandpassword,theuserhastoclickonLoginbutton,toaccesstheservicesprovidedtotheuser.Forexample,fortheCircleofficeuser,thefollowingscreenwillbedisplayedwithwelcomemessage(Figure3).
Reports UsercanviewtheconsolidatedsummaryreportsofoneULBorsomeorallULBsdependingupontherequirement.Forexample, if theuserwantsaDailyStatusReport, thesystemgivesaDailyStatusReportcomprisingofthefollowingreportsunderit:
8 Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Volume 7, No 2, July-December 2017
demographic dividend and Political Branding: the new-age amalgamation in indian Politics
Amit Kumar* and Somesh Dhamija**
Indian politics is going through a phase of major change. The combinations which have arose in the past few years, especially after the last general election, have made the psephologists take note of various trends, most noticeable among them being demographic in nature, which have shaped up hence. The Indian population is the youngest in the world (two-thirds of it is below 35 years of age) and have been at the helm of political choices. Apart from it, another phenomenon which has taken Indian political scene by storm is that of political branding which projects political parties and leaders on the lines of brands. This research paper is an attempt with regard to exploring the twin phenomena of demographic dividend and political branding in the Indian realms and how one leads to the other. This study would be of seminal importance to those who intend to view politics from a different angle.
In thepresentglobalscenariowhensuchdevelopednations likeJapanandmostof theEuropeannationsarewitnessingageingaswellasdeclineoftheirrespectivepopulation,theabove-mentionedpopulationcharacteristicshaveaddedmuchcredence to theclaimof Indiaofbeingoneof the fewpromisingcountriesinthenearfutureasfarasthisaspectofdemographicisconcernedthankstotheyouthphenomenonwhichhascometobeassociatedwithmorethanhalfofherpopulation.
Journal of Governance & Public PolicyISSN2231-0924 Volume7,No2,July-December2017 pp.8-21
* AssistantProfessor,InstituteofBusinessManagement,GLAUniversity,Mathura,UPandcanbereachedat:[email protected]** Head-Management (UG), Institute of Business Management, GLA University, Mathura, UP, and can be reached at:
Tobe labeledas oneof the fastest growingeconomies in theworld, amidst either decelerating orstagnating/near-zerogrowthreports inmajorityof thenations isabigfeatachievedbyIndia.Whenone talksabout theeconomicgrowthaswitnessedby theworld, theonce-shiningexamplesof theBRICS fairytale:Brazil,RussiaandSAfrica, lie inashambles.Evendevelopednationsacross theworld,Japan,USA,Germany,UK,Australia,SouthKoreadon’tpaintaveryreassuringpictureeither.India,alongwithChina(6.9%,theweakestsince1990),remainthefewpromisingbignationswhichessentially drove the economic growth. India is poised to growat around 7.6%p.a. in the currentfiscalyear. Itgrewby7.8%in2015.This is insharpcontrasttotimeswhenChineseeconomywaszoomingbyclockingdouble-digitgrowthratesforanumberofyearswhereasIndiaeconomytrailedher.Notanymore.Alongwiththeeconomicgrowth,thetagofbeingthe‘youngest’nationintheworld(approximatelyhalfofIndia’s1.2billionpeopleareundertheageof26,andby2020,itisforecasttobetheyoungestcountryintheworld,withamedianageof29,asperareportpublishedbyThomsonReutersdatedJuly7,2016)withthelargestwork-readypool(howmuchemployablethispoolisanotheraspectandisbeyondthescopeofthepresentwork)issomethingwhichmakesforacompellingcasefor India,a reallypromisingprospect tobehailedas thenext force to reckonwithaspera reportpublishedinTheHindudatedSeptember7,2013,intheleadingmonthstotheGeneralElection,India’sworkingagepopulation(15-64years)stoodat63.4%ofthetotal,asagainstjustshortof60%in2001.Thenumbersalsoshowedthatthe‘dependencyratio’–theratioofchildren(0-14)andtheelderly(65-100)tothoseintheworkingage–shrunkfurtherto0.55.Thesenumbershighlightthefactthatamidstanageingworld,theIndianpopulationisquiteyoungandraringtogo.“250millionpeoplearesettojoinIndia’sworkforceby2030.Asabigchunkofthepopulationshiftsintotheworkingagegroup,theoffshootofthatisanincreaseindisposableincomesandconspicuousconsumption.ThisisthemostexcitingaspectofIndia’sdemographicdividend,”–observationofSunilDevmurari,countrymanagerforIndiaatEuromonitor.ThisfurtherprovesthepointthattheIndiandemographicdividendisabouttogetbetterwithtimeandasmentionedelsewhereinthepaper,wouldkeeponaddingvaluetotheoverallworkforceofthecountry.
*The reason for using age-related data of 2014 here and elsewhere in the paper is that in the present study the authors would be focusing on the last General Election which took place in 2014.
Last General Election and the Present Study: The RationaleThelastGeneralElectionwhichtookplacein2014,toelecttheFifteenthPrimeMinisterandSixteenthLokSabha,sawtheformationofmanytrendswhichwerehistoricforalltherightreasons.Thesewereunprecedentedanddeservementioningfor thereasonthat theyredefinedtheway inwhichpoliticshadbeenviewed in the country.The riseof individual-drivenpolitics (on the linesof theUSA), asagainsttheparty-drivenmodelwhichhadbeenthenormuntilthen,wasamajorcharacteristicofthelastGeneralElection.TherehavebeeninstancesinpastintheIndianpoliticalscenariowhenastateorlocal-levelelectionhadbeenfoughtandwonridingonindividualcharismabutitwasforthefirsttimeinawhilethatthe‘candidate’tookprecedenceoverthe‘party’atthenational-levelsomuchsothatittranscendedsuccessfullyasmuchoverinner-partydifferencesasitdidwithouterresistance.Allthiswasdonemethodically,inaplannedmannerandnotinthespurofthemoment,thecharacteristicsofasuccessfulbrand.
Many psephologists and experts observed that the campaign style of brandModi resembled, to agreatextent,tothatofbrandObama,whichinitsownregardwashugesuccessfirstin2008andthenagainin2012.Itreliedheavilyontheusageofsocialmediatodevelopan‘instant’connectwiththenet-savvy Indian populace.This hasmuch to dowith the second-largest internet-using population,onlybehindChina(in2014,itwasthethird-largesttrailingChinaandUSA)andthe‘always-on’,‘greatleveler’aspectofinternetwhichhavebroughtthepoliticiansclosertothevotersthaneverbefore.While
10 Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Volume 7, No 2, July-December 2017
Theauthorshavefocusedonthiselectionexercisealthoughitbeingmorethanthreeyearssinceithappenedforthesimplereasonthatitwasthebiggestpoliticalexerciseinthehistoryofmankindwhichbroughtforthmanytrendsandactedasthesteppingstoneforallthecontendingpartieswithregardtodevising their futurecourseofaction.Theemergenceof thebrandedpoliticianwasmuch talkedaboutanddebatedacrossplatforms,questioningandresponding to thevariousaspectsofpoliticalbrandingandhowitinfluencedthewholeelectoralexercise,specificallyduringthecampaigning.ThesubsequentelectionswhichtookplaceforvariousstateassembliesbeitHaryana,Jammu&KashmirandJharkhandin2014;DelhiandBiharin2015;Assam,TamilNadu,KeralaandWestBengalin2016,UttarPradeshin2017aswellastheupcomingelectionsinthekeystateofGujaratin2017havebeen/wouldbelargelyinfluencedbytheoutcomeofthelastGeneralElectionasithasactedasthereferencepointforthesubsequentelectionswhichhavetakenplacesince.ThemightofbrandModiwasonceagainevidentintheoutcomeoftheUttarPradeshassemblyelectionwhereBJPwonahistoricmandateridingonhischarismadespitenotnamingaCMfaceandintheaftermathofthemammothexerciseofDemonetisationwhichhisdetractorsbelieveddentedhisimageinthestate.Farfromit,itstrengthenedandreinforcedthesameaswasevidentfromtheresult.
*The authors would like to point out that only those assembly elections have been mentioned above which were influenced by the phenomenon of political branding (with brand Modi being at the helm of affairs) after the General Election of 2014 thereby highlighting its significance in the overall scheme of things.
WhenoneconsidersthestatisticsasrelatedtothelastGeneralElectiontheywereunprecedentedandphenomenal.Someofthemwere:Thelargest-evereligibleelectorate(834.1million)andthehighest-everturnout(stoodatalmost67%oftheeligibleelectorateroughlytranslatinginto550+millionvoters,againanall-timehigh).Thisassumesevenmoresignificancewhenoneconsidersthatoutofthe714millioneligibleelectorate in the2009GeneralElection,only57.6%turnedup forvoting.Hence theriseinvotingpercentageasrecordedinthelastGeneralElectionwasalmost10%ascomparedtoitspredecessor(2009election).WhenoneconsidersthechangeinthevoteshareofBJPduringthesetwoelections,itstoodatalmost12percentmore(from19%to31%),afigurecommensuratewiththeriseinvotingpercentage.Ontheotherhand,INCsufferedamajorblowasitsvotershareshrunkfrom29%to19%duringthesameperiodoftime.WhatisoffurthersignificancehereisthefactthatBJPbrokefreshgroundsandaddedtoitsvoteshareinsuchstatesasTamilNadu,Bihar,J&KandAssam,winningmoreseatsintheprocessthaneverbefore,whichwerenotknowntobeBJP-friendlystates.AsperanastutereportpublishedbyTheHindudatedMay18,2014;BJPgot64.7millionmorevotesthanthepartythatcameclosestattheall-Indialevel,theincumbentCongressparty.With172millionvotes,theBJPmorethandoubledthenumberofvotesitreceivedin2009.Thewinningpartyneededonaveragejustover6lakhvotestowinaseat;whiletheCongressneededover24lakhvotestodeliveritoneseat.Thewinningparty’sgainsince2009wasalmostexactlywhattheCongress’losswas.TheBJP’swinswerecomprehensiverightdowntotheseatlevel.Thepartywononlytwoseatsbylessthan5,000votesandwon195seatsbyover1lakhvotes.TheaverageBJPcandidatewonbyover1.69lakhvotes,agood1lakhhigherthanthevictorymarginoftheaverageCongresscandidate.1
Ironyofthematteristhattheverdictof2014reducedIndianNationalCongress(henceforthINC)todouble-digitperformance,thefirsttimesinceGeneralElectionshappenedin1952,adebaclewhichthepartyhasfoundhardtoovercomesincedespiterepeatedattempts.Suchwastheplightofitthatitdidn’tqualifytoberecognizedasthePartyofOppositionattheLowerHouseasitlackedtheQuorum(minimumnumber required for the samewhich is 10%of the total seats) as itwon only 45 seatswhereastheQuorumis55asthenumberofseatsinLokSabhais543andwasleftatthemercyoftheSpeakeroftheHouseforthesame.
Further,itwasalsoforthefirsttimethatanon-CongresspartyhadformedamajoritygovernmentonitsownatthecentersincethefirstGeneralElection.Theamazingnumbersdon’tstopthere.Thefirst-timevoterswhoparticipated in theLokSabhaelectionof2014wereastaggering140+million, thehighest-everinIndianelectoralhistory,ashighlightedbefore.23millionvotersbelongedtothe18-19age-groupbracketand43,000+ofelectorateineachofthe543constituencieswereregisteredfromthisagebracket,againanunprecedentednumber.Tounderstandthesignificanceofthisnumber,oneneedstoknowthatpercentage-wiseitroughlytranslatesintoapprox.fourteenpercentoftheeligibleelectorate,anumbersignificantenoughnottobeoverlookedbyanyparty.Inabout226oftheseatswhichwentintopolls,outofthe543seatsduringthe2009election,thevictorydifferencewaslesserthanit(TheIndianExpress,Feb26,2014).Hence,anypartyorleaderwhounderstoodwellthefactthatitisthefirst-timevoters(asthoseintheage-group18-19werenoteligibletovotein2009)whowillplaythedecidingroleinalmost40%oftheseatswouldhavedonewell.Astheresultsshowed,itwasbrandModiwhichharnessedthisdemographicdividendinthebestpossiblemannerthananyotherpoliticalbrand.Aboutone-fifthoftheeligibleelectoratewasinthe18-25agebracket.Recordnumberoffemalevoters(260+million,anall-timehigh)turnedupforvotingduringthenine-phaseelection(morethan22statesrecordedthehighest-everfemalevotingrate).ThesearesomeofthenumberswhichmadethelastGeneralElectionworthobservinginmanyways.All the above data have been taken from the archives of the Election Commission of India (otherwise stated if taken from somewhere else), the foremost authority for conducting elections in India. Election Commission of India. (2014) Archive of General Election 2014 Highlights.
The concept of political branding has come to assume significance in the wake of technologicaladvancesbeingmadeandtheprevalenceofmobile telephony.Onefeatureofsuchadevelopmenthas been the presence of social networking, incessant and uninterrupted, which has brought theelectorate closer to the leader and party than ever before.At the same time, the phenomenon ofpoliticalbrandinghasgainedlotofcredencethankstothereinforcingeffectwhichresultsfromsocialnetworking. The inter-connectedness between political branding and demographic dividend is at the core of this research paper.
The Power of the Youth – A Formidable Vote BankTheprominenceoftheyouthsegmentwithregardtodecidingthenextrulingparty/combinationwasneverashighasitwasduringthelastGeneralElection.AsperareportpublishedinTheNationdatedOctober19,2014;asmanyas90,000votersofage22werenoteligibletovoteinthe2009GeneralElectionineachofthe543constituencies.ThisisnosmallnumberbyanymeansandwaswellnoticedbythetwomajorpartiesBJPandINC.However,aswasevidentfromtheresultoftheGeneralElection,onlyoneofthemwasabletoharnessittoitsliking.
Whenitcomestothemajorstatesofthecountryhavingaformidableyouthbase,tenofthelargeststatesofthecountry(Bihar,Chhattisgarh,UttarPradesh,Assam,Jharkhand,Delhi,Rajasthan,MadhyaPradesh andAndhra Pradesh), withWest Bengal being the only notable exception, saw its youthbrigadegivingitsnodtothesaffronparty(namelyBJP)oritsallieswhichtogetherformedtheNationalDemocraticAlliance(henceforth,NDA).Thestateswhichwerehometoanincreasedbaseoffirst-timevoterswere thestateswhichsawanupswing in thevoteshareofBJP in2014ascompared to itsperformancein2009therebyhighlightingtheabilityoftheBJPintermsofconnectingwiththefirst-timevotersinabetterwaythananyotherpoliticaloutfit.Further,brandModiresonatedinamuchbetterwaywiththeyouth(andasanextensionwiththefirst-timevoters)thankstoitstech-savvyimageandtheagendaofdevelopment,growthandemploymentopportunitieswhichwasawelcomechangeoverrhetoricandemptypromisesinthepast(towhatextentthesepromiseswerefulfilledisanotheraspectandbeyondthescopeofthepresentwork).Ontheotherhand,theageingstatesofTamilNaduandKeralaweresuccessfulinwardingofftheeffectofModiwave,asreportedbyTheHindu,theformidableSouth-basednewspapertherebygivingadistinctimpressionaboutthecoresupporterbaseofbrandModiandthosewhowerenotmuchimpressedbyit.
Tofurthergaugethesignificanceoftheyouthbrigade,oneneedsnotlookbeyondthemost-populousstateof India,UttarPradesh,whichalsosends thehighestnumberofMPs (80) to theLokSabha.IntheGeneralElectionof2014,73ofthe80seats(awhopping90%)inthestateweregrabbedbyBJPanditsallies.BahujanSamajwadiParty,thepartywiththethird-largestvote-share(4.19%)inthecountryafterBJP(31%)andINC(20%),failedtowinevenasingleseatgivingafairideaoftheimpactofbrandModiwhichpreventedtheBSP-candidatestowinevenasingleseatdespiteputtingupabove-averageperformances(33ofitscandidatesfinishedsecondinthe80seats).FiveseatswerewonbySamajwadiParty,allofthembeingstrongholdsoftheparty,sendingoneortheothermemberoftheextended familyofpartysupremoMulayamSinghYadav to theLokSabha,a factwhichsaddenedpartysupremosomuchthatheopenlyproclaimed,‘WithwhomIamgoingtoseatintheLokSabha?’.TwoseatswerewonINC,onebythepartySupremoandLeaderoftheUnitedProgressiveAlliance(henceforthUPA),SoniaGandhiandtheotherbyRahulGandhi,thepartyvice-president.Thesamegotrepeatedduringthestateassemblyelectionof2017whenBJPgot325seatsoutof403seats,much
Nowcomingtotheyouthangleoftheelectorateofthestatewhichstoodat12.9croresinitsentiretyoutofwhich2.3crore(or17.6%)wereof18yearsofagewhentheelectionhappened,asignificantnumberindeed.TounderstandthemagnitudeoflosssufferedbytherivalsofBJP,BSPwasreducedtozerofromitstallyof21seatsinthe2009election.(rediff.com,May17,2014).TounderstandthedrasticchangeinthefortuneofBJPinthestate,itcamefourthinthe2009GeneralElection(havingwononly10ofthe80seats),trailingevenINC(firstpost.com,May16,2014).Itdoestakeamiracletogofrom10to73withinashortspanof5yearsinoneofthemostcasteandcommunity-drivenstatesofIndiaanditcameintheformofgalvanizingforceofbrandModi.Thesamegotrepeatedintheassemblyelectionof2017.All these data have been taken from the archives of the Election Commission of India (otherwise stated if taken from somewhere else), the foremost authority for conducting elections in India. Election Commission of India. (2014) Archive of General Election 2014 Highlights.
It is in this regard that the last General Election assumes significance because apparently it wasthe unanimous choice ofNarendraModi by the principal ally ofNDA, namelyBJP, for the post ofPMandhis timelyandpopularprojectionthat ledto the landslidevictory for thepartyandalliance.Thedetractorsmightarguethatitwasmoreofananti-incumbencyeffectratherthantheModiwavewhichultimatelyledtotheundoingoftheINC-ledUPAregime,thedemographicdataandthepoliticalbrandingaspectof the lastGeneralElectiondomake foracompellingreason for theeffectivenessof brandModi over andabove its rival brands.Also, there is this very pertinent observationmadebyMrSanjayKumar,DirectoroftheCentrefortheStudyofDevelopingSocieties(CSDS),whohas
Other Demographic Indicators and the 2014 General ElectionAsperareportpublishedbytheNewstatesmandatedNovember17,2011concerningtheurbanversusruraldivide,anotherimportantdemographicindicatorwithregardtothepopulationofacountry;thoselivinginthecountrysideofIndiastoodatanall-timelowof69.9%asin2010againstahighof82.1%of1960.Thishighlightsthecontinuousshiftofruralpopulationtowardsthecities.Simultaneously,theurbanpopulationhasundergonedrasticchangeduringthesametimeperiodfromalowof17.9%toanall-timehighof30.1%.This isbynomeansan insignificantdevelopmentandcertainlyplayedaroleintheGeneralElectionof2014.ItwasobservedthattheBJP-ledNDAdidbetterthanitsrivalsintheurbanconstituenciesandtheriseofsocialmediaplayedanimportantroleinthesame.Also,city-dwellersarebetterconnectedoninternetthantheirruralcounterparts.AsperareportpublishedbytheInternetandMobileAssociationofIndia(IAMAI),datedOctober4,2013;basedonasurveyconductedalongwithaleadingresearchagencyIMRBintheleaduptotheelectionof2014,4outof10urbanvoterswereactiveonsocialmedia.Thereportfurtherstatedthatasmanyas30%ofthetotalseatsin the2014LokSabhaelectioncouldhavebeen influencedby thesocialnetworkingphenomenon.Thoughtheeffectivenessofthesamewasquestionedbythenaysayerswhowerenotconvincedbytheimpactfacebook,twitter,etc.couldhavehadontheoutcomeofanelection,thiswasutilizedbyBJPbetterthananyotherparty.ItsPM-nomineeNarendraModiconnectedwiththeurbanyouththroughfacebook, twitter and youtube in amajorway, in the process becoming the second-most followedandsociallyactivepoliticalfiguregloballybetteredonlybybrandObama,thepioneerofusingsocialnetworkingtowardsbuildingapoliticalbrandasdonefamouslyduringtheUSPresidentialelectionsof2008andthenagain2012.
Ashighlightedpreviously in thepaper, 260+million femaleelectorateexercised their franchisee in2014,againanall-timehigh.
Demographic Dividend: The PhenomenonAspertheUnitedNationsPopulationFund(UNFPA),demographicdividendis“theeconomicgrowthpotentialthatcanresultfromshiftsinapopulation’sagestructure,mainlywhentheshareoftheworking-agepopulation(15to64)islargerthanthenon-working-ageshareofthepopulation(14andyounger,and65andolder).”Inotherwords,itis“aboostineconomicproductivitythatoccurswhentherearegrowingnumbersofpeopleintheworkforcerelativetothenumberofdependents.”UNFPAstatesthat,“Acountrywithbothincreasingnumbersofyoungpeopleanddecliningfertilityhasthepotentialtoreapademographicdividend”.(Wikipedia.org/wiki/demographic_dividend).Thegapwhichexistsbetweentheoldandyounghasthepotentialtoskewtheworkforcebalance.ItisinthiscontextthatIndiastands‘gifted’overothernations.Hereitwouldbepertinenttopointoutthatasperthecensusof2011(thelast timewhencensushappened),120millionyoungsters, in theagebracketof15-18years,didn’tmakethecuttovotein2009astheyweretooyoung.However,theybecameeligibleforexercisingtheirfranchiseein2014thusmakingalmost14.5%oftheeligibleelectorate(whichstoodat834million).Tounderstandthesignificanceofit,oneneedstoconsiderthatthevoterturnoutstoodatapprox.66.6%(550+million)andthevotesharedifferencebetweenthatofBJP(31%)andINC(19.3%)wasaround11% (60millionapprox.)whichwasnotmore thanhalfof thenumberof first time-voters.Hence itbecomesobviousthatthewinningchancesrestedwiththatpartywhichcapturedtheimaginationofthefirst-timeelectoratesbetterthantherestandastheresultproved,itwastheBJPwhichtickedthatboxridingonthecharismaofbrandModi.Thisfactmentionedaboveregardingfirst-timevotersrepresentsthehighofIndia’sdemographicdividendbecauseofthedipinfertilityandageingofpopulation.AsperareportpublishedbyUN,thoseIndiansintheage-bracket15-19hitahighin2015andithasalreadystarteddecliningincommensuratewiththeoverallpopulationofthecountry.
Due to thedividebetweenyoungandold,manyargue that there isagreatpotential foreconomicgains,whichhasbeentermedthe“demographicgift”.InareportpublishedbyUnitedNationsaroundthesametimeframewhenthelastGeneralElectionhappened(November18,2014),itwasmentionedthat10-24yearolds in thecountryare356million innumber.Thereport furthersaid thatby2020,abouttwo-thirdofIndianpopulationwouldclassifyastheworking-agepopulation.Thisinitselfisanimpressivenumberandcouldverywellbeadecidingfactorintermsofcountriesbeingbenchmarkedwithregardtoworkingpopulation.AnotherobservationasmadebyBostonConsultingGroupisabouttheattractivenessofIndianlabourmarketowingtoitscheapness.Chinesemanufacturinglaborcostsnearlyfourtimesasmuch,atanaverageofUS$3.52anhour,asitdoesinIndia,at92centsanhourforacompanycontemplatingtosetupplantineitherofthetwo.PwCfurtherobservesthattheworking-agepopulationaveragesat39yearswhereasitis42yearsinChina.Moreimportantly,itcommentsthatinaspanof15years,IndianworkforcewillovertakeChinaand,intheprocess,willstayyounger.
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butalsoincludedsuchonlineactivitieswhichhavegainedprominenceinthepastfewyears.The‘new’votersamountedforalmosttenpercentofthepopulationthusshowcasingthepeakofdemographicdividend.As per a report published in EconomicTimes datedMay 14, 2014; India’s demographicdividendwouldpeakin2030withayouthpopulationof430millionagedbetween15and34(ofatotalpopulationof1.5billion).Thefirstvotersfromthisdividendgenerationbegantovotein2014.
Understanding Political BrandingComingtotheotherimportantconceptdealtwithinthispaper,politicalbrandingisthemanifestationoftheprinciplesofbranding,themostpopularandcommonly-usedconceptrelatedtothedomainofmarketing.Traditionally, branding as a phenomenon has been associatedwith products.However,westernthinkershaveexploredtheutilizationofitstime-testedtenetsintheparadigmofpoliticsandhavecameupwiththeirownexplanationforthecomingtogetherofthetwoconcepts,namelypoliticsandbranding.Ontheotherhandarethepuritans,thepoliticalscientists,whoarenotmuchconvincedwiththerolewhichbrandingcouldplayinthepoliticalaffairsthereby,questioningtheconceptofpoliticalbrandingaltogether.
Jevons(2005) isof thesimilarviewashighlightedabove.Heopines thatbrandingasaconcept isquiteabroadoneandapartfromtheregularcommoditiescouldwellaccommodatesuchphenomenonlikepoliticswhere theconsumer-citizen isout there in thesupermarket (politicalexercisessuchaselection),shoppingforthebest(atleastaspertheirownperception)product(politicalpartyorleader),buys(votesfor)itbasedonthepromises(manifesto)madebyaspecificbrand.
Emotionsplayacrucialroleintheareaofbrandingthusleadingtotheconceptofemotionalbrandingand the same finds place of prominence in the field of politics. This phenomenon has been welldeliberateduponbyDean,Croft,&Pich(2014)whoareoftheopinionthatmarketinghasmuchtoofferwithregardtobringingtotheforthemotionalaspectofthepoliticalparties.
Thenthereistheculturalandsocialaspectrelatedtobrandswhichisofmuchrelevanceinthecaseofpoliticians,especially incountries like Indiawheresocietalnormsandculturalbackgroundsplayasignificantrole in termsofshapingthevotingtendenciesofelectorate. In thisregard,Chandler&Owen(2002)areoftheviewthatbrands,beitaproductorapoliticalleader,needtostayrelevanttothesocio-culturalparadigmthereby leading to the formationofastrongemotionalconnect.Furtherthey talkedaboutacharismatic leaderalwaysappeals to theconscienceofvotersbetter than theircontemporaries.
SmithandFrench(2011)talkaboutaninterestingaspectofbrandingwhichcouldbefoundinpoliticsand has come to make its significance felt. The trait of simplicity which is characteristic of everypowerfulbrandisbestsuitedinthepoliticalarenawhatwiththemyriadchoiceswhichtheelectoratehas(particularlyinacountrylikeIndiawhere1800+partiescontestedthelastGeneralElectionaspertherecordoftheElectionCommissionofIndia).Politicalbrandshelpthevoterstochooseinaneasier
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way.Thisbecomepossibleduetothementalshort-cutsknownasheuristicswhichhelptheconsumer-citizenstoavoidanynewlearningandsticktotheir triedandtestedchoices.Thisdoesexplainthevote-bankpoliticswhichIndianpoliticiansandpartieshavecometobe identifiedwithbasedonthestrong affiliationswhich they developwith a certain section of the society whom they couldn’t rileunderstandingitwellthatupsettingthemwouldleadtoelectorallosses.
Scammell (2007) is of the view that apolitical outfit or leaderhavinga crediblenameadds to thebrandingaspectofitthusbecominganessentialaspectintermsofdifferentiatingonepoliticalbrandfromtheother.Thisisgainingsignificanceinthelightofvariouspublicrelationstrategieswhicharebeing formed so as to ensure that political leaders are treated as brands in the domain of publicappearances.Carefullycraftedimagesarecirculatedtherebyaddingtothecharismaandauraofthepoliticalbrand.Scammell(2015)furtheraddsthatbrandingasaconceptisapowerfultooltounderstandthevariousaspectsofpoliticsandassuchcouldbeappliedtothesametherebycreatingsuchastrongpropositionwhich,iffollowedjudiciously,couldleadtobetterperformanceofpoliticalentitiesprovidedtheirfundamentalsarestrong.
Thus,itbecomesevidentthatpoliticianscouldbebrandedonthesamelinesascommodities.Also,brandingaleaderiseasierthanapartybecausealeader,onthevirtueoftheiraffiliation,representthe political outfit automatically. Plus, themobility and universalitywhich define the political leaderareverymuchon linewithbeingabrand.Globally, therehavebeensuchbrandsasbrandObama(inUSA),brandBlair(inUK),brandTrudeau(inCanada),brandMerkel(inGermany),brandAbe(inJapan),brandAbbott(inAustralia)andthelikes.Closerhome,brandModimadeitspresencefeltfirstasaregionalpoliticalbrandduringhistenureasoneofthelongest-servingchiefministers(2001-2014)beingelectedfourtimesintheprocess,tobeingsuccessfullyprojectedasanationalpoliticalbrandandthePM-in-waitingduringthecampaignofBJP-ledNDAwhichsuccessfullycontestedthelastGeneralElection winning 282 seats on its own riding on the charisma, humility, relatedness, experience,connectivity,imageofbrandModiwhichtriumphedoveralltherivalbrands,nationalorregional.SostrongwastheModiwave,thattheBJPmanagedhugevictoriesinstateswherecontestingwithoutallieshasbeenunthinkablewiththeriseofregionalparties,pickingup22seatsinBihardespitegoingwithoutitsmajorformerally,theJD(U),andahugetallyinUttarPradeshdespitegoingnearlysolo.TheCongress lost37seatsbetweenTamilNadu (brandAmmaeffect)andAndhraPradesh (brandModiandbrandChandrababueffect)alone,twostatesthatithaddonewellin2009.Atthesametime,thereweresuchpowerfulregionalpoliticalbrandssuchastheLateJJayalalithainTamilNadu,MamataBanerjeeinWestBengalandNaveenPatnaik inOdishawho,despitetheModi juggernaut,heldontheirownandwonmajorityoftheLokSabhaseatsduringthe2014election.KCRaoofTRS(11)andYSJaganReddyofYSR-Congress(9)tooshared20seatsbetweenthemwithouttakingsideswitheitherNDAorUPA.
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Bringing Demographic Dividend and Political Branding Together Basedonthediscussionabove,explanationspertainingtodemographicdividendandpoliticalbrandingand more importantly highlighting certain elements of the last General Election, it is not hard tounderstandtheroleplayedbythetwophenomenaintheriseofonepoliticalbrand(brandModi)overitsrivalbrands.
Throughoutthecourseoftheresearchpaper,theauthorshavebroughttotheforethesalientfeaturesas associatedwith demographic dividend and political branding and how thinkers, think-tanks andworldorganizationslikeIMF,UNhavedefined,explainedandhighlightedthevariousaspectsrelatedtothetwocoreconcepts.
What found prominence in this research paper is the fact that branding as a phenomenon hastranscendedinthearenaofpoliticsforquitesometimenowinthewesterndemocracieswhereithasbeenpracticedbypoliticiansfordecades.However,theefficacyofthesameintheIndiandemocraticperspectivewas felt during the lastGeneralElection inwhichbrandModiemergedvictoriousoverothersandthattoohandsomely.
Contrasting thiswith the unprecedented turnout during the lastGeneral Election, the authors tookintoconsiderationthevariousfactswhichcontributedtowardsthesame,withspecificfocusbeingondemographicdividendandpoliticalbranding.They talkedabouthow the lastGeneralElectionwasuniqueandone-of-its-kindsincethefirstGeneralElectiontookplacemorethan60yearsagoin1952.Thevarioustrends,assummarizedfromthearchivesoftheElectionCommissionofIndiarelatedtothiselection,weremorethanenoughtohighlighthowthiselectionbrokevariousprecedents(oneofitbeingtheeraofcoalitionpoliticswhichhadbeenaregularfeatureinthepast20yearsorso)andestablishedsomenoticeabletrends.
When talking about the phenomenon of political branding and the rise of brandModi, the authorsbroughttotheforetwosignificantaspectsrelatedtotheoutcome–first,theformationofasingle-partymajoritygovernmentforthefirsttimeinthepast30yearsandsecond,themoredistinctofthetwo,formationofamajoritynon-Congressgovernmentatthecentreforthefirsttimesince1952.Thus,theroleplayedbybrandModicouldnotbeunderstatedevenbyitsdetractors.TowhatextentbrandModihasbeensuccessfulintermsoflivinguptothepre-pollhypeandexpectationsoftheelectoratearebeyondthescopeofthisresearchpaper.
Another surveyconductedbyPewResearchCentre,oneof the foremostauthorities in conducting
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researchespeciallyrelatedtoelection-likepoliticalexercises(unlikemajorityoftheexperts,theyrightlypredictedalandslidevictoryforModiin2014.TheyhavebeenaccuratelypredictingtheoutcomeoftheUSPresidentialElection for thepast twodecades),andsubsequentlypublishedonSeptember19,2016;brandModihasnotlostitssheeninthepast2years.Anoverwhelming81%ofIndiansstillholdafavourableviewofModi,including57%whohaveaveryfavourableopinionofhim.Just16%ofthosesurveyedairednegativeviewsabouthim.Thus,oneoftheparametersofbeingagoodbrand,consistentperformance,isverymuchvisibleinthecaseofbrandModi.Trust,whichisthehallmarkofeverywinningbrand,issomethingwhichIndiansstillreposeonbrandModiandexpectittodeliverbigtimeinthecomingyears.Moreimportantly,heisseenveryfavourablyacrossdemographicgroups(thepointofdiscussioninthepresentpaper)whatwiththefollowingapprovalratingsamongvariousdemographicgroups:men(61%),women(53%),age-group18-34(60%),35-49(58%),50+(53%),primaryschoolor less (54%),secondaryschool (64%),somecollegeormore (70%),urban (57%),rural(57%),BJPsupporters(82%),INCsupporters(24%).The above mentioned ratings are of those who had a very favourable view about PM Modi.Asexpected,heisseenfavourablyby94%ofBJPfollowers.Whatissurprisingisthefactthateven61%ofINCsupportershaveafavourableviewabouthim.Notably,despitetheCongressparty’straditionalstrengthinruralareas,Indiansincitiesandthecountrysidehaveasimilarlypositiveassessmentoftheprimeminister.
Also,thisresearchpaperwouldbeofsignificanceintermsofunderstandingotherdemographicfactorswhich influenceapolitical exercise likeelection.Thishasbeendone in thepresentworkby citingthevarious trendswhich formedduring the lastGeneralElectionof thecountry.The readerwouldunderstand how,when taken together, these demographic indicators could result in synergy affecttherebyreinforcingtheimpactofeachotherandmakingthepoliticalpartiesandleadersunderstandthesignificanceofeachofthem.
Further, thereaderwouldgain insights into thephenomenonofpoliticalbrandingwhichwouldhelpthemintermsofunderstandingpoliticsfromadifferentperspectiveandmoreimportantlyhowitcouldbeusedforensuringbetterperformancebypoliticalpartiesandleadersifusedjudiciously.Thevariousthought processes, as propounded over period of time, in this regard would enable the reader tocomprehendhowpoliticscanbeviewedasabranding-drivenphenomenon.Also, thereaderwouldcomeacrosshowthephenomenonhasbeenpracticedintheIndiancontextalongwithsuchconceptsasanationalpoliticalbrandversusaregionalpoliticalbrandandhowthevotersdistinguishbetweenthemdependingupontheelectoralexercise(centralelectionorstateelection).
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Lastly,theresearchpaperbroughttogetherthetwophenomenaofdemographicdividendandpoliticalbranding therebyunderlining themonumental roleplayedbyyouthduring the lastGeneralElectionandhowbrandModiwasmosteffectiveamongthecompetingpoliticalbrandsintermsofdevelopingarapportwiththemresultinginthelandslidevictoryforhispartyandalliance.SuchwasthemagnitudeofthisvictorythattheGrandOldPartyofIndia,namelyCongress,wasdecimatedtoatwo-digitnumber,itsworstperformancesincethefirstGeneralElectiontookplacein1952.
Theresearchpaperhighlightedhowthejudicioususeofsuchdemographicindicatorsasage,gender,incomeanddwellingplayedcrucialrolesduringtheelectionandhow,alongwiththem,socialnetworkingemergedasagreatinfluencer.Towardstheend,theresearchpaperhighlightedtherelevanceofbrandModievenaftercompletingtwoyearsattheofficeandhowtheelectoratestilltrustsitoverothers.ThefuturecourseofactionandtheappealofbrandModi,intermsofstayingoncourseoflosingitssheen,wouldemanatefromtheresultsofthe2017stateassemblyelectionsdueinthehomestateofPMModi,GujarataswellasinthemostpopulousandpoliticallymostsignificantstateofIndia,UttarPradesh(MrModiisanMPfromVaranasi,soarevariousministersfromvariousseatsofthisstate),Punjab,Goa,HimachalPradesh,ManipurandUttarakhandwhich, in turn,wouldpave theway for theLokSabhaelectionof2019.
ReferencesChandler, J. & Owen, M. (2002). Introduction: The Nature of Brands 2-24, Developing Brandswith
Clifton, R. et al. (2009). Brands and Branding. New York: Bloomberg Press.
Dean, D., Croft, R. & Pich, C. (2015). Toward a Conceptual Framework of Emotional Relationship Marketing: An Examination of Two UK Political Parties, Journal of Political Marketing, 14(1-2), PP:19-34.
Jevons, C. (2005). Names, Brands, Branding: Beyond the Signs, Symbols, Products and Services, Journal of Product & Brand Management, 14(2), pp:117-118
Lees-Marshment, J. (2009). Political Marketing: Principles and Applications. New York: Routledge.
Needham, C. (2006). Brands and Political Loyalty, Journal of Brand Management, 13(3), pp:178-187.
Scammell, M. (2007). Political Brands and Consumer Citizens: The Rebranding of Tony Blair, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 611 (1), pp:176-192.
Scammell, M. (2015). Politics and Image : The Conceptual Value of Branding Politics and Image : The Conceptual Value of Branding, Journal of Political Marketing, Vol.14, April, pp:7–18.
Smith, G. & French, A. (2011). The Political Brand: A Consumer Perspective. In: P.R. Baines (Ed.), Political Marketing,Vol. 1-3, pp: 1-18, London: SAGE.
Williams, G. (2000). Branded?, London: V&A Publications.
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http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-05-14/news/49846727_1_exit-poll-2014-election-16th-lok-sabha-election [Accessed June 13, 2014]
https://blogs.thomsonreuters.com/answerson/indias-demographic-dividend/. [Accessed September 30, 2016]
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Election Commission of India. (2014). Archive of General Election 2014 Highlights. [Available at:
http://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2014/2%20-%20HIGHLIGHTS_04122014.pdf ] [ Accessed April 5, 2015]
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/indias-gdp-projected-to-grow-at-7-6-in-fy16/articleshow/50905066.cms [Accessed October 2, 2016]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_real_GDP_growth_rate [Accessed October 1, 2016]
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22 Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Volume 7, No 2, July-December 2017
digital india – the Way Forward
Ramya Emandi*
The Digital India programme is one of the most ambitious programmes of the Government of India with a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy by 2019. When introduced, the programme was highly criticized by experts and general public. It was told that the country is not ready for the same, rather it is not possible in the country like India where more than 68% population belongs to rural part with very limited infrastructure support, 26% population is illiterate, 68% transactions are in cash and about 80% population does not have access to internet facilities. But as the time is passing by, the reality of Digital India is catching up. The recent demonetisation has completely given a new outlook to Indian citizens with Digital Payments. What could be the way forward for Digitalisation in an Indian Scenario?
IntroductionTheDigital Indiaprogramme isoneof themostambitiousprogrammesof theGovernmentof IndiawithavisiontotransformIndiaintoadigitallyempoweredsocietyandknowledgeeconomyby2019.Whenintroduced,theprogrammewashighlycriticizedbyexpertsandgeneralpublic.Itwastoldthatthecountryisnotreadyforthesame,ratheritisnotpossibleinthecountrylikeIndiawheremorethan68%populationbelongstoruralpartwithverylimitedinfrastructuresupport,26%populationisilliterate,68%transactionsare incashandabout80%populationdoesnothaveaccessto internet facilities.Butasthetimeispassingby,therealityofDigitalIndiaiscatchingup.TherecentdemonetisationhascompletelygivenanewoutlooktoIndiancitizenswithDigitalPayments.
A 2013 survey and report by IAMAI found that 69% of Indian survey respondents cited a lack ofawarenessoftheInternetasareasontheyweren’tonline.InIndia,thereareOneBillionofflineusers,out of which 27% are urban population, 46% are young and 57% are literate. Such demographicprofilesofofflineusers canbe readily converted intoonlineusers.However,Digital Literacy is theneedofthehour.“TheneedfordigitalliteracyinacountryaspopulousanddiverseasIndiaiscritical.Withaconstanttug-of-warbetweenresourcesandrequirements,technologyistheonlywaytoscaleup solutions and bridge the gaps between them.” said Debjani Ghosh, Managing Director, - IntelCorporationforSouthAsia.Awarenessandengagementispickingup.Forexample,in2014,politicalparties in IndiausedFacebookandTwitterextensively forcampaigningandtogatherdonations. In2015,socialmediaplayedagreatroleduringChennaicityfloods,incommunicatingsafeareasandinprovidingfoodandamenitiestostrandedcitizens.AsurveyofInternetusersinIndiaheldin2013found
Journal of Governance & Public PolicyISSN2231-0924 Volume7,No2,July-December2017 pp.22-26
* Assistant Manager (Sustainable Development), Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Mumbai and can be reached at:[email protected]
AnanalyticalreportbyMckinseyandFacebook,titled‘OfflineandFallingBehind:BarrierstoInternetAdoption’ has comeupwithan Index– ‘InternetBarrier Index’ assessing theobstacles to Internetaccess in25countries. Indiafinishes20thon that list. It hadgrouped Indiaunder ‘Medium toHighBarriers’,thegreatestchallengesbeinginfrastructure,userincapabilityandnoincentivestoenterthisfield.However,thepercentageofnewusersadoptinginternetviamobile,insteadofPCsandfixed-linebroadbandarelargeandgrowing.Indiaisamongstthetop5countriesthatshowedhighincreaseininternetuserssince2004.Itshowed22%yearonyeargrowthsince2012andCAGRof27%between2004to2013.Thisisthehighestgrowthamongthetop5countries.However,thepenetrationisonly15%,thelowestamongthefive.Thetrendsthathavefuelledthegrowthintheonlinepopulationareurbanization,expansionofmobilenetworkcoverageandincreasingmobileInternetadoption,shrinkingdeviceanddataplanprices,increasingutilityoftheInternet,andtheagrowingmiddleclass.
GovernmentaimedtoprovidethrusttotheninepillarsofgrowthareasthroughDigitalIndia.TheyareBroadbandHighways,Public InternetAccessProgramme,UniversalAccess toMobileConnectivity,e-Kranti–ElectronicDeliveryofServices,e-Governance–reforminggovernmentthroughtechnology,ElectronicsManufacturing, IT forJobs, Information forAll,andEarlyHarvestProgrammes.Eachoftheseareas isacomplexprogrammein itselfandcutsacrossmultipleDepartmentsandMinistries.Digital India is to be implemented by completeGovernment with overall coordination done by theDepartmentofElectronicsandInformationTechnology(DeitY).Therefore, itenvisionsfacilitatinganumbrellaprogramacrossallthesectors.Theprogrammehasthreebasicvision:
3. Digital empowerment – digital resources like documents etc, to access information faster andeasier,empoweringthecitizens
One of the nine pillars and the programme’s basic prerequisite is quality broadband highwaywithextensivecoverageinurbanaswellasruralareas.Aspartoftheinitiative,connectivityhastobeprovidedandimprovedtoallvillagesinIndiainordertoachievecompleteadministrativeimplementation.Theconstructionofthatnetworkwillhelpleadersprovideawiderangeofgovernmentserviceselectronicallytoitscitizensandmakehigh-speedInternetserviceavailable.Withthisview,GovernmentofIndiahadlaiddowntheBroadbandPolicy,2004inordertorealizethepotentialofbroadbandservices.Ithadaimedatenhancingthequalityoflifebyimplementationoftele-medicine,tele-education,e-governance,entertainment, web-based communication and also to generate employment. Further, governmentapprovedanaggressiveexpansionproject forNationalOpticalFiberNetwork in2011 forprovidingbroadbandconnectivitytoall2.5lakhGramPanchayats(localgovernments).TheplanistoextendtheexistingopticalfibernetworktothePanchayats.Thenetworkwillprovideahighwayfortransmissionofvoice,dataandvideoinruralareas.Itwillenablethebroadbandconnectivityupto2Mbps,capableofprovidingvariousserviceslikee-health,e-education,e-commerce,e-governance,e-entertainment,etc.tocitizensandbusinesses.Citizensespecially,fromruralareas,students,entrepreneursandvariousGovernmentdepartmentsprovidingservicesundere-governancewillbebenefited.Governmenthasalsoprogrammed100 “SmartCities” tohandle rapidurbanization in India.Oneof thekey featuresof thisprogram is touse technologyextensively tomanagecomplexity, reduceexpenses, increaseefficiency,andimproveoverallqualityoflife.Thegoalistouse“informationanddigitalinfrastructuretoconstructgreenbuildingsandintelligenttransportnetworkstominimizecongestion.
DigitalIndia-Thewayforward
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Many good programmes have been started by Government, but they need to be executed withactionableinitiatives.Withthisview,followinginitiativeswereplannedtoexpandthereachofDigitalIndia,consideringthelimitationofavailabilityofhighspeedbroadbandconnectivity.
(a)Common Services Centres (CSC) are being setup at all 2.5 Lakh Gram Panchayats. Thesecentreswillprovideinternetconnectivitytoofferelectronicservicesclosertohomeinruralareas.Approximately twoLakhCSCsaremadeoperational in2016.Each local government caters toabout3villages.Innutshell,about3villageshaveoneservicecentre.
(b)Aadhaar Card enrolment (Universal Identification linked to biometrics all over the country) ofall residents above the age of 18 years, which is being linked withmajor databases of socialprogrammes like Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), IndiraAwaas Yojana (IAY), Electoral Cards,NationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct(NREGA),PradhanMantriJanDhanYojana(PMJDY),PublicDistributionSystem (PDS),NationalSocialAssistanceProgramme (NSAP),etc.Thiswillhelptoeliminateghostbeneficiariesfromgovernmentdatabasesandwillproviderealtimeonlineauthentication.Thiswillenablefacilitatingdirectbenefittransfertobankaccountsreducingleakagesoftaxmoneyandleadingtoenhancedconvenienceforbeneficiaries.
In education, there is growing interest in massive online open courses, mobile learning and
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personalized education, which will enhance India’s poorly resourced education infrastructure.Technology represents a bridge to overcome rural/urban disparities and connect content-richresourcestodeprivedareas.
Solutions like digital locker, e-hospital, e-sign, and MyGov have proved their usefulness but theirspreadandreachneedstoberapidlyrampedup.Thereareinnumerableapplicationsandbenefitstodigitalisationplatform.ThebasicelementtoproceedforwardisInfrastructure.Firstly,oneoftheeasiestsolutionsistoleverageBSNL&MTNL(Govt.TelecommunicationCompanies)infrastructureof33MnfixedcopperlinesacrossthecountrybypartneringwithCableTV,InternetServiceProviderorotherserviceproviders.Thiswillearn revenue in70:30 ratiowithout incurringanycapexbyGovernmenti.e.BSNL&MTNL.This idleinfrasharingmodelbyBSNLwillenableVoice,DataandVideo/TVtoreacheveryhouseonthesameTelephoneline.Secondly,the110MnCableTVconnectionscanoffertheVoice,DataandVideo/TVusingproperModemsandSetTopBoxes(STB)throughLocalCableOperatorsandMultiServiceOperators(byobtainingVirtualNetworkOperatorlicence)whocanreachtheremoteplacesisthecountry.Third,forthewireless800Millionconnectivity,thespectrumpriceisthekey.Alowcostofspectrumwillleadtohighdemandandelasticityforthedata,voiceandvideoservicesandspecificallyinthe700,800and900MHzspectrumbandwhicharethebestbandwidththatenableshighspeedconnectivity.ThepresentReservePrice/MHzareonthehighersidewhichwillmaketheservicecostlyandaffordabilitywillbeanissuefortheruralandsub-urbancitizens.Hence,lowcostspectrum,modemsandSTB’sareneedofthehour.Thiswill
AspertheWorldBankreport,a10%increaseinmobileandbroadbandpenetrationincreasesthepercapitaGDPby0.81%and1.38%respectivelyindevelopingcountries.GoogleannounceditspartnershipinDigitalIndiabypromisingtoofferfreeWi-Fiofhigh-speedinternetserviceovertwophasesin500railwaysstationsinthecountry.GoogleCEOSundarPichaibelievesthatasmartphonelessthan$30,alongwithconnectivityinruralareas,abilitytousetheinternetinlocallanguagesandbringingwomenfolk on board are the key requirements for digitalisation. Facebook alongwith Samsung, Ericsson,
DigitalIndia-Thewayforward
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ReferencesGovernment of India’s Digital India, www.digitalindia.gov.in
Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) and IMRB International (2013). Internet in India 2013.
McKinsey & Company (2014). Offline & falling Behind: Barriers to Internet Adoption.
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Human development in Bihar and impact of liquor Prohibition Policy: an analysis
Debabrata Samanta* and Shivani Narayan**
Though Bihar is one of the poorest states in India, but, in last one decade it has grown very fast and is considered to be one of the fastest growing states in India. However, there exist high amount of inequality among districts in different aspects of human development. The human development attainment is very low and inequality is argued to be one of the main reasons for it. The present study attempts to explore condition of human development in districts and identify high inequality in human development components and argues how inequality affects growth negatively. The liquor prohibition policy, though criticised for its impact on exchequer, is argued to enhance human development situation in Bihar. The present study attempts an Ex-ante analysis of the liquor prohibition policy. The policy is supposed to give impetus to sustained growth of Bihar through the route of human development, as the prohibition expected to empower the women and cause more disposable income in their hand to be spent on human development inputs. The policy requires to be complemented with special emphasis on women empowerment. The outcome of the policy can be measured through increase demand for education and health services from the marginal community hitherto stay away.
KeywordsBihar,HumanDevelopment,LiquorProhibition
IntroductionBiharisIndia’soneofthepooreststateinIndia,characterisedbylowliteracyrate,highgendergapinliteracyrate,lowsexratioandlowlevelofpercapitaincomeaswelllowHumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)valueasperIndiaHumanDevelopmentReport,2011.However,therehasbeenaremarkablechangeinlastfewyearsintheeconomyofBihar.AsreportedintheBiharEconomicSurvey,thepercapitaGSDPatfactorcost(atconstantprice)hasincreasedfromRs.8773toRs.25074during2004-05to2012-13.TheeconomyofBiharhasgrownattherateof12%during2006-2013comparedto5.7%during1999to2006andthisgrowthrate isoneof thehighest in thecountry(GovernmentofBihar, 2014).The incomedistribution pattern, however, is highly unequal across districts. InBihar,morethan89%ofthepopulationliveinruralareas(CensusIndia,2011)withagriculturebeingakeyeconomicactivity.However, theshareofprimarysector instateGSDPhasshownadecline in lastfew years and it camedown to 22.4 percent for the trienniumending 2012-13;whereas, share ofincomefromservicesectorhasincreasedsubstantially.Giventhissituation,thechallengeistosustain
Journal of Governance & Public PolicyISSN2231-0924 Volume7,No2,July-December2017 pp.27-38
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the growth of the state.As in one hand, economic growth provides resources to permit sustainedimprovements in human development, on the other hand equitable income distribution, resourceallocation,expansionofimprovementsinthequalityofthelabourforceareimportantcontributorstoeconomicgrowthandtheeconomicgrowthitselfwillnotbesustainedunlessprecededoraccompaniedbyimprovementsinhumandevelopment(Ranis,Stewart,&Ramirez,2000).Thehumandevelopment(HD)paradigmtakestheviewthatgrowthisnotendofeconomicdevelopment,ratherarguestofullyexploittheopportunitiesforimprovedwell-beingthatthegrowthoffersbyemphasisingoninvestmentontheeducation,healthandskillsofthepeople(Haq,2009).Sochannelizingbenefitsofgrowthinterms of capability enhancement appears to be a challenge for the state to sustain the economicgrowth.Anotherriskisthat,highgrowthandlowHDsituationmayleadtoaviciouscycleandpushtheeconomybackintotitsoriginalposition(Ranis,Stewart,&Ramirez,2000).
Inthissituation,thenewlyelectedgovernmentunderMrNitishKumar,hasbroughtoutamilestonepolicychange in2016 in the formofcompleteprohibitionof liquor in thestate,aspromisedbeforetheelection.Therearemixreactionsonthispolicychange.Thoughthenewpolicyisbeingcriticisedfor its stringency, loss of exchequer, however, there are expected social benefits out of this policyadoption.ThepresentpaperattemptstoanalysethecurrentsituationofhumandevelopmentinBiharandhowthenewpolicyparadigmimpactonhumandevelopment.Thepresentpaperhastwomainsections,inthefirsttheconceptandmeasurementissueshavebeenexploredanddistrictwisehumandevelopmentindexcalculatedtocompare.Inthesecondpart,thepolicyparadigmofliquorprohibitionhasbeendiscussedalongwithitsexpectedimpactonhumandevelopmentinBihar.
Human Development: Concept and Measurement Thetraditionalapproachofviewingeconomicgrowthaseconomicdevelopmenthadbeencriticisedheavilyastheapproachmissevolutionofotherfactors,suchasinequality,povertyorsocialwell-beingandpresumethat thebenefitofgrowthof theeconomyshallbenefit thewholeofsociety,eitherbymarket-driven ‘trickledown’ effect or by state-driven social policy (Fukuda-Parr, 2003). It is arguedthat thehumandevelopmentapproachcontains twocentral thesesaboutpeopleanddevelopment,whichidentifiedbyAmartyaSenas‘evaluativeaspect’andthe‘agencyaspect’.Whiletheevaluativeaspectstalkaboutimprovementofhumanlivesasanexplicitdevelopmentobjectivesandusehumanachievementsaskeyindicatorsofprogress,theagencyaspectseeshumanbeinganagentwhoactsandbringsimprovementthroughpolicyandpoliticalchanges.However,thehumandevelopmentapproachismostlybasedon theevaluativeaspect (Fukuda-Parr,2003).Thebasisofhumandevelopment isdealtwithacquiringknowledge,accessingbetterstandardoflivingandleadinghealthyandlonglifewhichcouldbethenusedinadditionalchoicesorproductivepurpose.Thegrowth,asargued,needtobetranslatedintoimprovementinpeople’slives.Humandevelopmentconstituteoffourelements;productivity, equity, sustainability and empowerment (Nayak, 2008). The initiative of calculation ofhumandevelopmentindex(HDI)wastakenbytheUNDP,asasteptowardsgreaterhumanwell-being.Itestablishedbothavailabilityofmeasurementsandcomparisontoolswhichprovidesanalternativeofevaluationofperformanceotherthanpercapitaincome.TheHDIcalculationcentresontheAmartyaSen’scapabilitiesapproach.HumandevelopmentfindsitstheoreticalfoundationinSen’s‘capability’approach.Capability isdefinedasvariouscombinationsoffunctioningthatapersoncanachieve.Itarguesaboutreflectingtheperson’sfreedomtoleadalife,choosefrompossiblelivings.Itisarguesthatdevelopmentshouldbeviewedastheprocessforimprovingqualityoflivesofthepeoplethroughenhancingcapabilitiesofthepeople(Sen,1989).Thisapproachappearedasaninstrumentinshiftingtheanalysisofdevelopment,bybroadeningthehorizonandtakingexpansionofhumancapabilitiesasoverridingobjectiveof development rather thaneconomicgrowth.Sen’s capability approach, inonehand, talksabout income,commodityandhappiness,on theother,putemphasison freedom.UNDP(UnitedNationDevelopmentProgramme,1990)definesHumandevelopmentasaprocessof
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enlargingpeople’schoicesandidentifiedthattolivealongandhealthylife,tobeeducatedandtohaveaccesstoresourcesforadecentstandardoflivingaremostcriticalamongthewiderangeofchoices.Theadditionalchoicesincludepoliticalfreedom,guaranteedhumanrightsandpersonalself-respect.Itviewedtheprocessofdevelopmenttocreateaconduciveenvironmentforpeople,individuallyandcollectively,todeveloptheirfullpotentialandtohaveareasonablechanceofleadingproductiveandcreativelivesinaccordingwiththeirneedsandinterests.UNDPdefinesHumanDevelopmentApproachisaboutexpandingtherichnessofhumanlife,ratherthansimplytherichnessoftheeconomyinwhichhumanbeings live. It isanapproachthat is focusedonpeopleandtheiropportunitiesandchoices.UNDPcalculatestheHumanDevelopmentIndex,whichisacompositeindexofthreedimensionsofhumanwell-being,namely,alongandhealthylife,education,andadecentstandardofliving.Inthequestionofrationalebehindselectingthesethreedimensionsitisarguedthatasitisobviousthatthehumandevelopmenthasmanyfacets,sotheindexofhumanprogressshouldincorporatearangeofindicatorstocapturethiscomplexity,buthavingtoomanyindicatorsintheindexwouldbluritsfocusandmakeitdifficulttointerpretanduse.TheHDIhasconceptualisedtobalancethevirtuesofbroadscopewiththoseofretainingsensitivitytocriticalaspects.Lackofdatahasalsobeenidentifiedasalimitingfactoranditisalsoarguedthattoomanyindicatorsmayproduceaperplexingpicture,perhapsdistractingpolicymakersfromitsthrust.
Therehasbeenachange inmethodologyofcalculationofHDIsince2010.ThecalculationofHDIinvolvesthreedimensions–health(h),education(e),andtheabilitytoachieveadecentstandardofliving,representedby income(y).Theperformancesofeachcountry in thesethreedimensionsarenormalizedsuchthat0≤h,e,y≤1,andthenaggregatedtogetthecompositeHDI.Priorto2010,linearaveragingacrossthreedimensionswasusedasanaggregationmethodorlinearaveragingmethodtoobtainHDI,(h+e+y)/3.In2010,thisaggregationmethodwaschangedtothegeometricmean(GM),(h×e×y)1/3. It is argued that,while the linearaveragingmethodsatisfied theaxiomsofmonotonicty,anonymity andnormalization, the geometricmeanmethod, in addition to these three axioms, alsosatisfiedtheaxiomofuniformity;aswellasthegeometricmeanmethodaddressthecriticismofperfectsubstitutabilityoflinearaveragingmethod(Mishra&Nathan,2013).
Calculating Human Development Index in the Context of BiharWith respect to Human Development, Bihar ranks 21st out of 23 states in India (United NationDevelopmentProgramme,2011).Oneof themost importantreason,as identified in thereport, thatthereishugelossofhumandevelopmentduetoinequality.Thereishighgendergapinliteracyandthereishighinequalityamongthedistrictsindifferenthumandevelopmentcomponents.Thepresentstudytriedtocalculatedistrictwisehumandevelopment indexwiththeavailabledata.Onethingtobenotedhere that, there is paucity of data, especially districtwisedisaggregateddata relevant tocalculationofhumandevelopmentindexinpublicdomain.ThestudyattemptstocalculatetheDistrictwiseHumanDevelopmentIndexwiththeavailabledata.ThemethodologyofcalculationofDistrictwiseHumanDevelopmentIndex(DHDI)isdefinedinthefollowingsection.
Human Development Index is a statistical method to find the composite of education, health andeconomical index.For calculationofHDI, datawasgathered fromdifferent sourcesanddatabase.This is to be noted that the present study attempted to analyse district wise situation of humandevelopmentinBiharascomprehensiveaspossiblewiththehelpofavailabledata.Thesituationasfoundisindicative,mightnotbeveryexhaustive,butgivesabroadoverviewofconditionofdistrict.TheHDIcalculationincludescomputationofthreedimensionsnamelyeducation,healthandincome.Forcalculatingeducationdimension,literacyrate(LR)(ElementaryEducationinIndia,DistrictReportCards2014-15Volume1,NationalUniversityofEducation,PlanningandAdministration)andgrossenrolmentratio (GER) (U-DISE, for theyear2014-15)forprimaryeducationconsideringclass1-5, is takenas
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indicatorstomeasureeducationalattainment.Forcalculatinghealthindex,infantmortalityratio(IMR)hasbeenconsideredandthisdatahavebeentakenfromAnnualHealthSurveyBulletin2011-12,Bihar.Forcalculatingincomeindex,districtwisepercapitaincome(PCI)hasbeenconsidered.ThedataofPCI for theyear2011-12hasbeen taken fromEconomicSurvey,2015-16byFinanceDepartment,GovernmentofBihar(GovernmentofBihar,2016).Aftercollectingdistrictwisedata,thenextstepwastonormalise,asthedataismeasuredindifferentunitandthuswouldleadtoimproperresult.Ontheotherhand,normalizingrendersdatainoneunitandtransformsittonormaldistribution.Thestudyhasusedtherangeequalizationprocessforofnormalizationofdatapresentedbelow:
Result and DiscussionThepresentstudyfoundthattherearehighinequalitiesamongthedistrictsinallaspectsofhumandevelopment.Intermsofeducation,thereishighinequalityamongdistrictsonbothliteracyarteandGrossEnrolmentRatio(GER).WhetherinRohtas,thedistrictwithhighliteracyrate,thevalueis75.6%andinPurniatheliteracyrateis52.5%.Tofurtherelaboratetheinequality,wehavecalculatedstandarddeviationofliteracyrateanditstandsat6.56anditconveysthedisparitybetweenthedistricts.ThestandarddeviationofGERis6.445,whichexhibitsthatthedistrictsvarytoeachothertomuchextent.Similarly,whenanalysing forHeath index, thesole indicatorused in thepresentpaper is IMR.TheestimatedvalueofstandarddeviationamongthedistrictsregardtoIMRis6.4.Forcalculatingeconomicindex,percapitaincomeistakenasthesoleindicator.Whether,thedistrictwiththehighestpercapitaincomeisPatnawithpercapitaincomeofRs.63063,thesecondisMungerwithpercapitaincomeRs.
Chart 1: District wise Calculated Human Development Index
Itiswellarguedthatinequalityandregionaldisparitiesaffecteconomicgrowth.Galor&Zeira(1993)argued that inequality negatively affects the GDP per capita in the short run, furthermore, in thepresenceofindivisibilitiesininvestmentinhumancapital,theseeffectsarecarriedtothelongrunaswell. In thecountrywidestudyBrueckner&Lederman (2015)showed that income inequalityhasasignificantnegativeeffectonaggregateoutputfortheaveragecountryinthesample.Halter,Oechslin,&Zweimüller(2014)foundthatthoughinshortruninequalityhelpseconomicperformancebutinthelongrunhigherinequalitytendstoreducegrowthofGDPpercapita.ThehighinequalityamongregionsmighthaveappearedasreasonforpersistentunderdevelopmentinBihar.
The Prohibition of Liquor Policy in Bihar: An AnalysisBackgroundLiquor which is known to be hazardous to human health, especially the country liquor, which ismanufacturedwithoutanyregulation,causesseriousdiseaserangingfromimmediateillnesstodeath.ChiefMinisterNitishKumarpromisedtothepeopleofBihar,duringhiselectioncampaign,toimplementprohibitionon liquor inBihar. Itwasalsoargued that the rationalebehind thepolicy is thatalcohol
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consumption is theprimary reason forviolenceagainstwomen(Kumar&Prakash,2015).With theapprovalofthecabinet,initiallyon1stApril,2016theprohibitionofcountrymadespicedliquorhadbeenmadeprohibitedandtheExciseandProhibitiondepartmentissuednotificationtoimplementthedecisionofprohibitionofcountrymadespicedliquorinruralareas.However,on5thApril,2016,ablanketbanwasinitiatedandboththeliquor,namelyIndianMadeForeignLiquor(IMFL)andcountryliquorwerecompletelyprohibitedformanufacture,saletransportandconsumption,withimmediateeffect.SeveralstepshavebeentakentomakeBiharcompletelyliquorfree.Checkpointsatdifferentplacesaroundthestateandissuinginstructiontopolicetobemorevigilantaresomeofthem.Furthermore,thestategovernmenthasrequestedtheUnionMinistryofCivilAviationtochecksmugglingofliquorintoBihar.Thegovernmentiswillingtoinstallbaggagex-rayscreeningmachinesatairportstoscanluggageandbaggageofallthepassengersatPatnaandGayaairports,tokeepacheckuponsmugglingofliquorintothestate.
The Policy ParadigmTheGovernmentofBiharon1stApril,2016 initiatedprohibitiononcountrymadeandspiced liquorfollowing which on 5th April, 2016 both Indian made foreign liquor and country liquor both werecompletelyprohibitedinstate,initiatingablanketban.Butthepassedactcriticizedforitsstringency,followingwhichtheBiharProhibitionandExciseAct2016wasagainpassedon2ndOctober,2016.TheActreplacedtheearlierBiharExcise(Amendment)Act,2016andcameintoforcefrom2ndOctober,2016.TheBiharProhibitionandExciseAct2016prohibitssale,purchaseorconsumptionofliquorinthestate.
If government requiresany suchestablishments, itwouldbe set upafter obtainingproper license,furtherahologramwouldbeattachedtotheproductsafterconsultationwiththeexcisecommissioner.
TheGovernmenthastoestablishde-addictioncentresforthosepeopleengagedorabouttoengagein consuming liquor. The centres would offer medical treatment or counselling or both under thesupervisionofmedicalexpert.
ProvisionofimpositionofcollectivefinebytheCollector,ifaparticularvillageortownoranylocalitywithinavillageor townoranycommunity is found tobeahabitualoffenderorareobstructing theadministrationoftheprovisionsoftheact.
Prohibition Policy in Bihar: An Ex-Ante AnalysisThepresentprohibitionpolicy,isofthenatureof‘RegulativePublicPolicy’.Regulatorypolicyisabout
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achievinggovernment’sobjectivesthroughtheuseofregulations,laws,andotherinstrumentstodeliverbettereconomicandsocialoutcomesandthusenhancethelifeofcitizensandbusiness(OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,2012).Italsosuggestedtoadoptanintegratedapproach,which considers policies, institutions and tools as awhole, at all levels of government and acrosssectors,includingtheroleofthelegislatureinensuringthequalityoflaws;tomakethepolicyasuccess.
Of late, theevaluationapproaches forpublicpolicy interventionhasgrownconsiderably in last twodecades.Aspublicpolicyinterventionsintendtobringchangesanddesignedtoreachcertaingoals,it is imperative toanalyseeffectivenessof thepolicy intervention. ImpactAssessment isa tool thatexamines andmeasures the likely benefits, costs and effects of new or changed regulations andpolicies.Thebasicideaistoprovidepolicymakersempiricaldataandcomprehensiveframeworktoassessconsequencesofthepolicy.Ex-AnteAnalysisisaspecialmethodofevaluatingimpactofanypolicyintervention.Anex-anteimpactevaluationattemptstomeasuretheintendedimpactsoffutureprogrammesandpolicies,givenapotentiallytargetedarea’scurrentsituation(Khandker,Koolwal,&Samad,2010).Theex-anteassessmentisimportantasitprovidesevidenceonwhatrangeofimpactstoexpectaftertheprogramisimplemented.Exanteevaluationcanbebothqualitativeorquantitativebasedoneconomicmodellingtopredictprogrammeimpact(Khandker,Koolwal,&Samad,2010)aswellusebehaviourmodellingtopredictimpactsofsocialsectorprogramme(Todd&Wolpin,2005).
Forsimplicity,weassumeatwodimensionspacewherehousehold/individual’spreferencespresentedas a utility function U, which is assumed to be dependent consumption of Food & other (F) andconsumptionofalcohol(A).Hereweassumedthatatypicalhouseholdspendonfoodandotheritemsand alcohol.Other items include expenditure on education, health, nutrition, leisure, entertainmentetc.TheutilityfunctioncanberepresentedasU=U(F,A).Thehousehold/the individual’sproblemistomaximizeutilitysubjecttobudgetconstraintM≤PF.F+PA.A.WherePFandPAaremarketpricesofFood&otherandAlcoholrespectively.Thesolutionof thisproblemis identifyoptimalchoicesofF*andA*.Estimating themodel requiresdataonF,A,M,PFandPAacrosshousehold/individuals.Now,duetothechangeinpolicyparadigm,whichprohibitsalcoholinthestatemakethehousehold/individualsareunabletomakeatradeoffwhichleadsto‘cornersolution’ofthisoptimizationproblem.Thisimplies,withcompletebanonalcohol,thehousehold/individualsspendonlyonfood&otheritemsonly,whichshallleadstoenhancetheirutilitylevel.Inthismodellingapproach,onealsocouldassumethatutilityUofahousehold/individualdependentonexogenoussocioeconomiccharacteristicsXtoo.WhichleadstomaketheutilityfunctionU=U(F,A,X).Estimatingthistypeofmodel isarguedtobenotstraightforward(Khandker,Koolwal,&Samad,2010).However,inthesimpleeconomicmodellinganalysisitisevidentthatwithcompleteprohibitionofalcoholconsumptionoffoodandnon-fooditemsofanytypicalfamilyincreasesandthefamilymovestohigherutilitylevel.
Onqualitativepointofviewofex-anteanalysisthepresentstudytakenhintfromtheframeworkprovidedbyCrissman,Abernethy,Delaporte,&Timmers(2013).Theframeworkprovideguidelineforex-anteanalysis with different modules of questions. Where the Module-1 ask ‘Key questions to validateinterventionlogic’,theModule2enquireabout‘Developmentandenvironmentsetting’;Module3askfor‘Stakeholderanalysis’,Module4requires‘Institutionalandorganizationalanalysis’andModule5enquiresabout‘Transmissionchannel’.Intheanalysisofkeyquestionitcanbearguedthatasectionofpeopledemandedbanofalcohol forsafeandbettersociety ( (GovernmentofBihar,2016).Thepolicyinterventionistheresultantofthevoiceofthepeople.Thedevelopmentandenvironmentsettingagendaanalysisexhibitthatwiththehighlevelofpovertyandinequality,ahighproportionofincomeisspentonalcohol.Ifthepercapitaexpenditureonalcoholisseenasaproportionofthepercapitaincome, in this respectBihar isplacedat the12thpositionoutof the29statesandDelhi (Kaushal&Mishra,2015).Whetherthekeystakeholdersofthispolicyinterventionismostlythepoordrinker,howeversuccessofthepolicydependsupondifferentsecondarystakeholdersatdifferentlevel.Oneof
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themostimportantstakeholderofthispolicyinterventionisthewomenmemberofthehouseholdandsociety.Ex-postanalysisofthepolicyinterventioncallsemphasizingtheimpactofthepolicyparadigmonwomenmember.Roleofgovernmentinstitutionisverymuchcriticalinsuccessfulinterventionofthispolicy.Theacthascreatedprovisionandresponsibilitiesfordifferentinstitutionsandtheirrespectiveroles in implementation.Toassessbenefitof thepolicy, it is important toassess the impactof thepolicyonpovertylevelandwomenempowerment.Asuccessfulimplementationexpectedtoenhancedemandoffoodandother itemsintheruralarea.Theoutcomeofthepolicymightbemoreprivateeducationandhealthcentreatvillages.
• Thesale,purchaseorconsumptionof liquorhas led to lossofemploymentof thosewhowereemployedinnumberofmanufacturingunitsinthestate(Daniyal,2016)
• Sincethelicensesofbreweriesordistillerieswouldnotberenewedandthiswouldleadtodiscouragingthe industries and loss of investment as well as employment opportunities (Mishra S., 2017).
Expected Impact of Prohibition on Human DevelopmentThough there is highgrowth rateof per capita income inBihar in recent years, but theper capitaincomeofBiharisthelowestinIndia(GovernmentofIndia,2015).Asargued,theconnectionsbetweeneconomicgrowth(EG)andhumandevelopment(HD)formtwochains.ItiswelldefinedthatEGandHDcanbeemergedasmutuallyreinforcingintoupwardspiral,wherehighlevelofHDshall leadtohighgrowthandpromotehighHDultimately.ButontheotherhandaweakHDmayresultinloweringgrowthandasaconsequence,shallbringdownthegrowthoftheeconomy(Ranis,Stewart,&Ramirez,2000).Asdiscussed,Biharhasbeenexperiencingahighgrowthofpercapitaincomeinlastdecade.TocontinuethegrowthofpercapitaincomeinasustainablemanneritisimportanttoboostuptheHDcomponents.Otherwise,thereisriskoffallback.Giventhissituation,thedecisionofalcoholprohibitioncanplayaroleindevelopingHDinthestate.Thoughthedecisionshallbringdowntherevenuetothestateexchequer,however,thepolicyshallempowerthehousehold,especiallywomenwithmoresavingtospendonHumanDevelopmentinputs.Thestategovernmenthaslaunchedbigpushprogrammesof Women Empowerment, along with this prohibition, to complement the policy decision. Womendevelopmentcorporation,Biharisonesuchinitiativethatfocusesondevelopmentofwomen,throughdifferentprogrammessponsoredbystategovernment,centralgovernmentandthroughdifferentNGOs.Toempowerwomenand tomake themself-reliant, statehas started theMukhyamantriNari Shakti Yojana (ChiefMinisterWomenEmpowermentScheme).Toencouragegirlchildtostudyfurther,andtoreducetheschooldropoutamongstgirls,theMukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojana (ChiefMinisterGirls’CycleScheme)islaunchedbythestategovernment.TheBetibachaobetipadhao,acentralsponsoredschemeencourageseducationofgirlchild.SincethesexratioofBiharis918per1000male(Census,2011), which is below the national average and further to improve the sex ratio and stop female
It is well argued fact that where women control cash income the expenditure pattern, are gearedrelativelymoretowardhumandevelopmentinputslikefood,education,nutrition.Itisfoundthatwithlarger control ofwomen over cash, spending on alcohol and cigarette decreases and household’scalorieconsumptionincreases(VonBraun,1988;Ranis,Stewart,&Ramirez,2000).Theprohibitionexpectedtoincreasedisposableincomeofhouseholds,tobespendonHumanDevelopmentinputs.Thisprohibitionofalcoholexpectedtoincreasethedemandfornutrition,educationandhealthcarein thestate,as thesegoodsareofnormalgood innature.Theprohibitionpolicyshallcomplementthehumandevelopmentcomponent to forasustainablegrowthofpercapita income in future.Theoutcomeofthepolicycanbemeasuredthroughincreasedemandforeducationandhealthservicesfromthemarginalcommunityhithertostayawayfromdemandingtheseinputs.
ConclusionKeepingthecurrentscenarioofBiharinmindandtosustainthegrowthandtomovetowardsHDfromEG,liquorprohibitionisanimperativestepwhichwouldindirectlycausesavinginthehousehold,andthatsavingcouldbebetterinvestedintoHDinputs,suchasavailingbettereducationfacilities,healthfacilities,consumingproteinandvitaminrichfoodandalsotowardssomeotherluxuryexpenditures.ThepresentpaperpresentstheHDIforallthedistrictsofBihar(refertoTable2)andarguesthereishighinequalityamongdistricts,especiallyincaseofpercapitaincome.ThestudyarguesthatemphasisingmoreonhumandevelopmentcomponentsandspendingmoreonHDinputscanreducetheinequality.ItisalsoarguedthattosustaingrowthofpercapitaincomeinBihar,enhancinghumandevelopmentalsoplaysacriticalrole,otherwisethereisachanceforrevertback.Inthisscenario,theprohibitiononliquor,thoughcriticisedforcreatingpressureonexchequer,hasnotonlyincreaseddisposableincomeofhouseholdstobespendmoreonhumandevelopmentinputs,italsoempowerswomensociallytotake strong decisions.TheBihar government has complemented the liquor prohibition initiative byboostingupdifferentwomenempowermentprogrammeandlaunchingnewprogrammes.ThepresentpaperarguesformoreefficientimplementationoftheprohibitionandempowermentofwomenwhichinturnshallenhancehumandevelopmentsituationinBiharandshallbeinstrumentalforsustainablegrowthofBiharwhichmaybecapturedthroughincreaseindemandforbettereducationandhealthserviceinruralareas.
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AnnexuresTable 1: Literacy rate, GER, IMR, Per Capita Income of all the districts
industrial development induced Climate Change and its impact on Various segment of rural society: a Case of Hajira Village of south Gujarat, india
Ankit Patel*
By taking the case of a South Gujarat village, namely Hajira, the present article tries to explore some of the issues related to the climate change more specifically in terms of environmental degradation due to process of modernisation. The article identified four major issues in terms of environmental/ pollution, health livelihood, and of gender. The article also assess the working of the state, panchayat, Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB), industry, civil society organisation, local leaders, etc. It is to be noted that in spite of presence of policies, rules, regulations, legislatures, provisions of various types, the problems; especially marginal section of the society remained unattended and they pushed into ‘marginalisation’ and ‘impoverishment’ condition, that has culminated in arousing anger towards the whole affair of development model. The article re-emphasised the needs of understanding the complexity of the rural society in a sociological perspective while planning and designing for tackling the wider and important issues of development.
IntroductionBackground of the StudyTheRiodeclarationofunitednationframeworkconventiononclimatechangeemphasisedthathumanbeingsareat thecentreofconcerns forsustainabledevelopmentandareentitled toahealthyandproductivelifeinharmonywithnature.Thisprincipleaffirmsthatconsiderationsofhumanwellbeingshouldguidepolicymakingforsustainabledevelopmentandthatconservationofnaturalentitiesmustbereckonedaspartofsuchwellbeing.(GoshProdipto,2013).
Unfortunately, thesepointsarenot fullygranted in thecaseofdevelopment inducedenvironmentalproblems1.Ofcourse,duringthepastseveraldecades, therehasbeenan increasingconcernoverenvironmental problems throughout the world involving depletion of Ozone layer, acid rain, greenhouseeffect,soilerosion,deforestation,waterpollution,airpollution,etc.
Atthesametimenumbersofenvironmentalmovements2haveemergedinIndiademandingrestorationofbalancebetweendevelopmentandenvironmentandaskingforagreaterroleforthestateagenciesintheprotectionoftheenvironment3.Ontheissueoftheclimatechangevariousagitationsprotests,resistances; particularly on the issues of environmental degradation took place throughout India.Although, the social scientists have yet to study this phenomenon exclusively and hence they are
Journal of Governance & Public PolicyISSN2231-0924 Volume7,No2,July-December2017 pp.39-59
* Assistant Professor, Shri Saraswati College of Social Work, Moriyana, Bharuch, Gujarat and can be reached at:[email protected]
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Modernisation Activities in Gujarat with Special Reference to HajiraFollowingtheeconomicreformsin1991,Indiahasadoptedthestructuraladjustmentpackage(SAP)designedbytheInternationalMonetaryFundandtheWorldBanktomovetowardsaderegulatedopeneconomytogetintegratedwiththeglobaleconomyasasolutiontoitsbasicproblemsoflowgrowthandstructuralmasspoverty.DevelopmentpoliciesincludingindustrialpolicyinIndiainthepostreformperiodhavebeenformulatedinaccordancewiththisparadigm.(HirwayI.,1998).
After introductionof theneweconomicpolicy (NEP) in1980s,moreandmoreemphasishasbeengiventotheindustries,particularlythemassiveone.Gujaratcanbesaidasoneoftheleadingstatesthroughoutthecountry.Gujaratitselfisexperiencingphenomenalincreaseininvestmentsbothfrommega- industrialsectorswithin thecountryandalso frommulti-nationalabroad.ThecoastalbeltofGujaratexperiencerapidgrowthintermsofmassiveindustrialisation,infrastructuredevelopmentandurbanisationinpostliberalisation,privatisationandglobalisation(LPG)era.
Industrialisation in HajiraTheinvestmentpatternshowsthatithasmainlyconcentratedinandaroundexistingorpotentialportsites.Hajira,Dahej,Dholera,Jamnager,Mundra,etc.haveemergedasthemajorindustrialpocketsinthecostalbeltofGujarat.
Hajira,witnessedphenomenalgrowthintermsofindustrialactivities,resultinginmammothinvestmentinverystrategicareas.ItisestimatedthattotalcapitalinvestmentofRs.350,000millionwillbemadeinHajiraDevelopmentAuthority (HADA)9 area (2003).This is expected to rise to overRs.500,000millionofinvestmentinthenearfuture-2025.TwoSEZsareproposedintheHADAregion.HajiraandMagdallaportsinthedistrictprovidelogisticsupporttoindustrialoperationsinthestate.Table2showstheprominentindustriesinHADAarea.
LargescaleindustrialisationhastakenawaymajorportionoflandinandaroundHajiravillage.Thelandsweretakenbyapplyingvarioustechniquessuchas;acquisition,purchase,grabbing,encroachment,etc. for various purposes including erection of plants, construction of roads, railway, warehouses,townships,ancillaryunitsandotherlogisticpurposes.Socio-economicprofileofHADAareasuggeststhatmajorityoftheaffectedpopulationbelongstothesocially,educationallybackwardcaste(SEBC)s10andrelativelyofloweducationalbackground.Theydonothavemuchsayinthestatepolitics.(PatelA.,1994;Archrya,A.2000;MahdeveiaD.2012).
Table 2: Spatial Spread of Industries in the HADA AreaName of Village Industries
Emerging Issues of Industrialisation in HajiraInall,thestudyhasidentifiedfourtypesofissuesthathaveemergedduetothedisplacementthroughtheindustrialisationinHajira.Theyare:1)emergenceofenvironmentrisks(pollutionandhealthrisk),issue of livelihood (landlessness, impact on animal rears, share croppers, joblessness, landlesslaborers,2) issuesoffishermen,employment in industry,fishermen,3) issuesofmigrant laborers),4)issuesofgender,issueoffoodinsecurityandimpoverishment/marginalisation.
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Emergence of Environment RisksInthissubsectiontwoaspectsofenvironment12arediscussed;onepollutionandanotherisofhealth.InHajira,airpollutionisoneofthemajorproblems.
Types of PollutionTable3describesthetypeofpollutiontheSFsexperiencedinHajira.Majority(morethan90percent)SFsinHajiraareexperiencingeffectsrelatedtoair,noise,waterandlandhasincreased.AcharyaA.(2000)notedinhisstudyofHADAareathatvillagerssay,‘Sometimesthesurroundingplantscreatea tremendousamountofnoise.Wecannoteven talkathome.Moreover, the irritatingsmellofgassuffocatesus.’
Table 3: Opinions of SFs of Hajira about PollutionParticulars of Pollution Increased Decreased Remained as it was NAir 59(100.0) 0 0 59Noise 59(100.0) 0 0 59Water 54(91.5) 0 5(8.5) 59Land 58(98.3) 0 1(1.7) 59Food/vegetables 59(100.0) 0 0 59Source:Surveydatafromsamplevillage,2012.
Extent of PollutionThe roofs aswell as the floors of thehousesare fully contaminatedwith the coal dust.Theair isalsopolluted.Theparticulatepresenceintheairnearwassohighthatonecouldfeelthedustwhilebreathing14.Landalsoturnedintouncultivated.Similaristhecasewithwater.Becauseoftheships,theriverTapigotpolluted15.
Migrant Labor added Dirtiness In the VillageDuetoindustrialisationinandaroundHajiravillagein-migration16tookplaceinabigway.ThousandsofworkersespeciallyunskilledworkersfromvariousstatesofthecountryhavealsoimmigratedinHajira.Theyusuallystayinamakeshifthousesandformtheslum17.Themigrantsgenerally liveinahighdensity.Duetothearrivalofthemigrantlabourersthedirtinesshasincreasedinthevillage.Ithasgivenberthinggroundtogrowmosquitoes,fliesandotherinsects.Ithasraisedhealthproblemtoo.
Health RiskInHajira,manySFssufferedfromdifferentdiseasesduetothepollution.(Table4).ThecancercasesarealsoverymuchonriseinHajira.Thelocalpeoplebreathingsmallironparticlesdaily.
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Table 4: Perception of the SFs of Hajira about the Status of Illness/Disease After the Arrival of Industries
Impact on Livelihood PatternThe process of industrialisation and urbanisation has forced the people of HADA to change theirlivelihood pattern drastically. They are force to shift from farming activity to Non- farming activity.Prior to industrialisation the people of Hajira were earning their livelihoodmainly through farming,fishing,agriculture laborwork,animalhusbandry,etc.butall thesehavereducesignificantlydue toindustrialisationinHajira.
The people have shifted to the temporary job in industry, working as a contractor, drivers, peon,watchman/securityman,runningtea-stall/shop/dhaba,incomefromrentinghouse,scrapcollectionwork,housekeepingwork,workingasmaidservant,vegetablevendors,workingasainsuranceagent,etc.Ofcoursetheyarefacingmanydifficultiesinadjusting20withthenewoccupation.
LandlessnessAsper theHADAplan total 5,267hectaresof landof 18 villages coveredunder industriesand itsalliedactivities.Thelandacquired21fordifferentpurposessuchasforerectionofplants,constructionofroads,railway,warehouses,townships,ancillaryunits,etc.(LoboL.,ShahikantK.,2009).About80percentoftheprivateandgovernmentlandofvillageHajirahasbeenacquired22fordevelopmentofindustriesanditsalliedactivities.Ithaschangedthelivelihoodpatterndrastically.
Usually, the cash compensation paid only to those families who have directly lost their land. Thefamilieswhodependentonsuch land, indirectlyarenotpaidanycompensation. Ithasaggravatedtheirdifficulties.Besides,thefarmersarelesshabituatedwithhandlingofthecashhavespentcashcompensation towardsunproductivemanner23. (Table,8).Hardly fewfamilieshavepurchased land.Thishashappenedinotherprojectstoo(PatelA.,1994;Hirway,I.,1998).
Impact on Animal Rears, Share Croppers, Landless LaborersDuetotheacquisitionofthelandnotonlythefarmersbuttheinter-connectedgroupssuchasshare-croppers24, landless laborers, animal husbandry, fishermen, etc. also have lost their sources oflivelihooddirectandindirectmanner.Forinstanceduetotheacquisitionoflandthefarmersareunabletomaintainthesubsidiaryoccupationofanimalhusbandryastheyarenotinapositiontoaccessofthegrass,whichabundantlyavailablepriortoindustrialisationinthisarea.
Economic Condition WorsenedInorder tounderstand the impactof industrialisationon theSFs, the researcherhadaskedseriesofquestions30wereaskedrelatedtotheeconomicconditionofthefamilyattheindividual levelandvillageasawhole.Inotherwords,anattemptwasmadetoknowtheimpactofindustrialisationthroughperceptionofSFsbasedontheirownexperiences.
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Chart 3 showsmore than70percentSFs reported that their economic conditionof the familyhaseitherworsenedor‘remainedasitwasbeforeinthepre-industrialisationperiod’.Chart4indicatesthatnearlythree-fourthSFsperceivedthattheconditionofthevillageasawholehasworsenedaftertheindustrialisation.Itisobservedthattheinequality31getsharpenedduetothecomingoftheindustriesinHajira.
Issue of Food InsecurityThelossoflandhasalsocreatedtheproblemoffoodsecurity.Itisobservedthatthesefarmerswhousedtosellthegrainsandvegetablespriortobeforeindustrialisationhavestartedbuyingtheseitemsfromtheopenmarketnow.Ithassohappenedthatduetothearrivaloftheindustries inHajiratheanimalbreederswhousedtosellmilktothevillagemilkco-operativesociety.
Citing the example of the Halpati laborers, a SF stated, that earlier, when they were engaged inagriculturallaborworktheynotonlygotwagesbutalsootheritemslike;vegetables,milk,curd,buttermilketc.atfreeofcost.Priortoindustrialisationofthisarea,theHalpatiswerealsofeltsecuredastheyhadprotectionfromthefarmers.Todaythefarmersthemselvesareintroubleandsotheycannotgiveassuranceofprotectiontotheothers
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Issue of GenderOneofthemoststrikingadverseconsequencesoftheindustrialisationinHajiraisthattheburdenonwomenhasintensifiedsignificantly.Apartfromtheirdomestic32responsibilities,womenareperforming,arangeofeconomicactivitiestosupporttheirfamilies.Theseactivitiesareoffivetypes;growingandsellingvegetables,animalhusbandryandsaleofmilk, farmwork,fishing,andworkingasmaids inindustrialtownships.
Women are also found running tea stalls near the industrial plants as well as retail shops sellingcigarettes,bidis,biscuits,gut-kha,bengals,combs,etc.Mosthavetakenon loansfromfriendsandrelativesinordertosetuptheseshops.Astheyareonheavytrafficroutes,theyusuallygetagoodnumberofcustomersbutcannotmakemuchprofitoutoftheseactivities33.
Issues of Migrant LaborersPeopleofHajirafeltthattheirproblemshaveincreasedduetothearrivalofthemigrantlabourersintheirvillage.
Programs Initiated for Resilience of Risks GenerallytheprogramsinitiatedundertheCorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)aremainlyrevolvedaroundthedevelopmentoftheinfrastructurerelatedtocivicamenitiesatthevillagelevel.Infrastructureisnecessaryforthedevelopmentoflocalpeoplebutitisnottheirpriority.Insteadtheyhavedifferenttypeofpriority,ofcourseatindividuallevelbuttheindustriesdonotpayattentiontoit.
StateeffortswithreferencetoworkingoftheGujaratpollutioncontrolboard(GPCB). Table11showsthatall theSFsdissatisfiedwithworkingofGPCB.SFsallegedthat theGPCBistotally inactiveasthey have close connivancewith the industrialist lobby.The officials didn’t bothermuch about theprojectaffectedpeopleasmanyofthemarecorrupt.ItistobeaddedthataspertheCoastalregionprotectedzone(CRPZ)regulation;industriesshouldlocateditselfatthedistanceof20kmsfarfromthehumanhabitat.Despiteofallrulesregulation,industriesarelocateditselfinHajiravillage.TheissueofviolationofprovisionmadeunderCRPZActwastimeandagainraisedbeforethedistrictandstateadministrationbutinvain.Thepeoplestronglyfeltthatthemassivefloodoccurredintheyear2006inSurat,incurredlossofbillionsofrupeesforwhichtheillegalactivitiesoffillinguptheriverandtheseacoastnearHajiraislargelyresponsible.
TheSFsofHajira registered their complaint to thecollector /GPCB / sarpanchetc. butnoone isresponding positively. People are very much annoyed with attitude of the local officials and theindustrialists. ‘Ourwater, land,houses,air, noiseall havecontaminated through industrial pollutionbutwhowillbother?Alltheworksdonethroughbribe’,onerespondenttoldinhisinterview.Thelocalpeoplewonderthat‘HowsuchmostdangerousplantslikeESSARaregivenpermission?OnecanseetheheapsofcoalattheveryentranceofvillageHajira,Howsuchpermissioncanbegiven?’.
Table13showsthatmajority,95percentSFsareunawareaboutthestepstakenforthepreventionof thepollution.Those fewSFswereawareabout the sameunsatisfiedwith the steps taken.Therespondentsrevealedthefactthatindustrialistnevervisittothevillageattimewhenthedirty/rainywaterentersintheirhomeinmonsoonseason34.Theofficialsdon’ttakeanyactiontopreventthepollution.
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Role of Civil SocietyInHajira,twoNGOsviz;LokVikasSanstha,Icchapore(LVSI)andParivartanSanstha,SuratworkingforthebettermentoftheaffectedpeopleofHajiraarea.BoththeNGOsareworkinginspecificfocusareas likeeducation,health,generaldevelopmentetc.LVSIhasalso initiatedvocational training totheSFsofHajira, toupgrade theskillofpeople toprepare them for thenew jobs in the industriesandtherebyearningthelivelihoodfortheirsustenance35oftheirfamily,someoftheindustrieshaveinitiatedtrainingprogram36sliketailoring,computeretc.forthevillagepeoplebutthedatashowsthatthetraininghasnotyieldedthedesiredresult.
Table 13: Opinion of the SFs of Hajira Regarding the Impact of Pollution by the Industrialisation
Particulars Category Frequency PercentKnowledgeregardingthestepstakenbytheindustriesforpreventingthepollution
Itwas revealedby theSFs that this trainingprogramwasanattempt from the industry tocreateagoodwillatmosphereamongthevillagers.LVSIalsoworksontheissueofAIDSamongthemigrants.Ithasalsoinitiatedtrainingontheuseofthesewingmachine,computereducation,dance,etc.duringthetalkitwasrevealedbytheSFsarenothappywiththeworkingoftheNGOs.
Non-Involvement from the Decision Making ProcessItisrevealedfromthetable14thattheindustrieshavenotallowedthelocalcommunitytoparticipateinthedecisionmakingprocesswithregardthecivicamenities.Thedecisionssuchaswhatsortsofamenitiesarenecessary for thevillage,where itshouldbe located, the typesof theamenities, theallotmentofthecontractwork,supervisionduringthework,issuesaboutmaintenanceetc.
Table 14: Opinion Regarding Participation in Decision Making at the Village Level of the SFs of Hajira
From planning to implementation the local community were not given due participatory powers indecisionmaking,thereforepeopledonotthinkthatthisworkbelongtotheir`own’.
Dissatisfaction of the Village PeopleDatasuggeststhat theSFsareverymuchdissatisfiedwiththewholeprocessofdisplacementandresettlement38.Table15showsthatmorethan80percentoftheSFsexpressedtheirdissatisfactiontowards the displacement and resettlement process, which includes awareness about the landacquisitionAct, land acquisition process, process of calculating compensation, industrial job policytowards the localpeople,qualityof thecivicamenitiesprovidedby industries.Programcarriedoutby the industries as a part of social responsibility, services provided by the Industries and overallexperiencesoftheindustries.
Protests Initiated by the People HADA AreaHADAregionhaswitnessedseventypesofsuchresistanceontheissueofland,environment,Illegalencroachment,flood,lossoffishingactivities,etc.(Table16).
Table 16: Protest in South Gujarat Sr.No. Protest Against Issues of Protest Location1 Special-InvestmentRegion Landacquisition 19villageofOlpad-Choryashi,
Protests Against the Issue of the EnvironmentInandaroundHajira,theaffectedpeopletimeandagainfoughtagainsttheinjusticemadetothemonthequestionofdisplacement,environment40andotherissues.Veryrecently,tensofhundredsofvillagersparticipated in the rally,which started fromKhajod village and culminated at the district collector’soffice at multi storied building at Nanpura, where the leaders of the Parivartan Trust submitted amemorandumtothedistrictadministrationdemandingpermanentclosureofGujaratEnviroProtectionandInfrastructureLtd.(GEPIL)withinamonth’stime.Thevillagers,carryingplacardagainstGEPILanditsownerGirishLuthra,shoutedslogansdemandingimmediateclosureofthecompanyresponsibleforthreateningtheecologyandatmosphereinthecoastalvillages.
Concluding RemarksThepresentarticlearguesthatinabsenceofproperpolicyandpackagesregardingtheclimatechange,particularlyofenvironmentalproblem,the‘qualityoflife’ofthelocalpeoplehasdeterioratednotablyafterfollowingthedevelopmentprocessthroughindustrialisation.Ithasimpactedadverselyontheirsocio-economicmatters.Thisdevelopmentprocesshasnotonlychangetheculturebutitalsoaffectthecompositionofthefamily,relationwithneighborandamongfamilymember. After arrival ofindustrytheunityamongvillagememberisalsodeteriorated.Inabsenceofproperworkthemalefolkhaveturnedtowardsthealcoholism.Insomefamilieswomenhavebecometheonlybreadwinnerbydoingscrapecollectionworkandworkingas“Homemaid”intownship.TheStateandthecorporateindustrialistshavegiven leastattention to theaspectofdisplacement.The traditionalsetpatternofthe lifeof thepeoplegetsshattered. Ithascreatedstrongresentment towardstheStateaswellasindustrialists.Environmentalproblembecameworrisome.Ithasresultedincompoundinghealthrisk.Majority;especiallythevulnerablegroupsperceivethattheyhavebecomethe‘victimsofdevelopment’,whichoftenreflected in theformof frequentprotests/agitation.Onthewholepeopleareverymuchdissatisfiedandalienatedwiththepresentstateofaffairwhichcallsforimmediateattentionofthepolicymakerandtheconcernedauthoritiesforthe‘sustainabledevelopment’.
(Endnotes)1 The severity of these problem depends largely on the quest for development, technological
advancement, industrialisation and urbanization which causes unprecedented demands on theregenerative capacity of ecosystems and jeopardizes conservation of the environment.(Sahu:2007,quotedinhttp://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/63583/12/12_chapter%206.pdf).
2 IndiahaswitnessedawiderangeofenvironmentalmovementssuchasSilentValleyMovementin Kerala, Chipko Movement in Uttar Pradesh, Aapiko Movement in Karnataka, NarmadaBachano Andolan in Central India, Gandhamardhan Movement in Orissa etc., which aim athaltingenvironmentaldegradationorbringingaboutenvironmentalrestorationorregenerationorsustainableuseofnaturalresources.
3 Environmental movements in Western Countries have emerged out of the concern for theconservation and protection of natural resources whereas in India it emerged only when theimmediatelivelihoodsofthepeoplewereaffectedorthreatened.
9 Itwasconstituted in1985underGujaratTownPlanningandAreaDevelopmentActof1963 forplannedindustrialdevelopmentofareaunderitsjurisdiction.NinevillagesHajira,Sunvali,Rajgari,Mora, Bhatali, Dmaka, Vansva, Kavas and Limla spread over 86 sq. km. come under HADA’sjurisdiction.
10 SEBCwasappointedunderthechairmanshipofBaxi,toidentifiedbackwardintermsofsocially,economicallyandeducationalother than theSCsandSTs.SEBC. Ithas identified82casteasSEBCcasteinGujarat.Thereaftersomemorecastesaddedinthelist.
16 These industriesprimarilyemploy threecategoriesofemployees: (a) technicalandprofessionalpersons,(b)productionworkersundertheWageBoard13and(c)“otherworkers”whichincludesquarryworkers,sweepers,andotherunskilledworkers.Thefirstcategoryofworkerswhichincludesscientists,technicians,supervisors,managers,accountantsetcareusuallyfromoutsidethedistrictoroutsidethestate.Theyarecasualworkersorcontractworkers.Theyreceivelowwageswithoutanysocialprotection,notevenhealthprotection.
17 The basic amenities such as drinking water, dispensary, electricity, educational facilities, road,drainage,etcarefoundpoor.Thebasicfacilitieslatrine,bathroom,drinkingwateretcfoundabsentintheirhut.Industriesalsonottreatthemaspartofthevillage.
24 Variousmethodsare inpractice for share-cropping.Usually thepersonwhoholds the landbutstayingoutsideofthevillageforoneortheotherreasongivehislandtoothersforcultivation.
25 Thiswas the traditionalmethodoffishcatch. In thismethod thefishermengo tocatch thefishthroughthewalkandnotusingtheboatoranyothermechanizedvesselsforfishing.Thepoorandthemiddleclassfishermenwhodonotaffordtopurchasethefishinginstrumentaregenerallyusingthismethod.
26 SimilarobservationwasmadebyIndiraHirway(1998)inherstudyof theaffectedvillageof theAmbujaCement in theSurashstra region.LikewiseArjunPatel (1994)alsoobserved thesimilartrendinhisstudyoftheaffectedpeopleofNTPCofthetheHADAbelt.
31 Thusononehand littlesectionof thevillagepeoplegotbenefitedandchanged theireconomiccondition remarkably while at the same time sizable population of Hajira village deterioratedeconomically.
35 It is tobenoted thatShellCompanyhassponsored researchworkproject toCentre forSocialStudies,Surattocarryoutthesurveyregardingthewomen’sparticipationinincomegenerationinHajiraarea,in2000.ThisstudywascarriedoutinfourvillagesincludingHajira,Mora,SuvaliandJunagam.Outof total400selectedSFs,200SFswereselected fromvillageHajira.44percentofSFswerenotinterestedinanykindoftraining.37percenthavegivenpreferencefortailoringwork.12percenthaveshowninterestinknittingorneedleworkand3percenthaveshowninterestincomputertrainingand3percentinterestedinpapadandpicklebusiness,remaining1percentinbamboowork.
36 SevenSFshave reported that a familymember has received the training.This trainingwasoftailoringworkanditwasgivenbyLVSIfundedbytheShellIndustryin2003-04.Thedurationoftrainingwasthreetosixmonths.Thetraineeswerenotgivenanystipendandtheywerenotofferedjobs.
38 Another respondent fromHajira added that the award (of land acquisition) was totally false, itdemarcatedtheland,whichhadnotcomeundertheirpreview’.TheindustriesortheGovernmenthavedirectlygivennoticesandstartedproceduresforlandacquisitionbyusingthe eminentdomainofwhichmanyofthelocalpeoplewerequiteignorant.
40 In December-2011, the GPCB had exposed two illegal pipelines from an Integrated CommonHazardousWasteManagementFacility(ICHWMF)operatedbyGEPILtodumpuntreatedindustrialwasteintoUnnrivulet.Followingtheexpose,theGPCBhadissuedanimmediateclosurenoticetoGEPIL.Thecompanyisthreattoecologyandatmosphereinthesurroundingvillagesandthelocalpeoplehavefixedtheirgoaltoseethatthecompanyisclosedpermanently.Itwassaidthatdue to thehazardousdischargeof toxicwastematerialbyGEPILhas led to thedeathofmorethan200buffaloes.Inthemid-Aprilthisyear2012,largenumberoffishdeadinKRIBHCOwaterbody.Similarly,OneofthefarmersoftheGundardiHamletofHajiratoldinhisinterviewthathehadlost25Cowsbecausetheanimalsconsumedplastic.Thishadmadetheseapollutedandhadaffectedmarinelife.Ithasalsodestroyedagriculturelandtoo.Onthesamegroundrecently,theresidentsofcoastalvillageslocatedfromSachintoDumas,ontherightbankoftheriverTapiofHajiravillageopposedthesettingupofacoaldepoton4lakhsqmetersoflandinJiyavvillageinthearea.Thetwomaincommunitieslivinginthesevillages,KoliPatelsandMacchi,havecometogethertoopposeanymovetosetupthedepotwhichtheyfeelwillruintheiragricultureandcattlebreedingactivities,besidesharmingtheenvironment.Itwillalsocausehugedustpollution,leadingtorespiratoryailments.
41 EPW has published numbers of such protests from time to time. For instances in Singur andNandigram, Polavaram Project, Dantewada, Tata Motors in Singur, TISCO Project, Mining`Development’, and MNCs (see: Guha Abhijit, (2007), Rao Palla Trinadha (2006), PatnaikPrabhat(2007),MishraBanikanta(2006),
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60 Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Volume 7, No 2, July-December 2017
Performance of Planning Boards in india: Evidence from southern states
Deepa Kylasam Iyer*, Tanya Agrawal** and Francis Kuriakose***
Planning boards are autonomous institutions constituted at the sub-national level (called states) in India to aid and advise the government on preparing five year plans, annual plans and undertaking expert-based studies to examine the feasibility of plan projects at the local level. In addition to this, some planning boards are also entrusted with monitoring and evaluation of plan projects. Planning boards have an important part to play in formulating and implementing development plans. However, there is no uniform structure or functional mandate of planning boards in India. As a result, the actual mandate and performance of state planning boards are largely influenced by local contexts, government’s priorities and the perception of bureaucrats about planning boards. This paper comparatively examines the ideas of structure and function of planning boards in the southern states of India through the perspective of bureaucrats about their functional mandate. The theoretical framework used is Lowe’s theory of instrumental inference of planning institutions. Elite interview method is used to compare variables of performance. The paper argues that planning boards with well-defined functional mandate, autonomy from state government, presence of experts and involvement of local governments perform better than the others in development planning. Two distinct trajectories of development are evolving in the institutional context of planning boards - type I that resembles think tank mode of development and type II that looks for reforms within the traditional structures.
IntroductionThere is a general sense of ‘plan weariness’ in many countries today. Economists of differentdoctrinalpersuasionsseemtoagree thatplanningasexperimented inseveraleconomieshavenotbeenasuccess(Friedman,1962;Nozick,1974).Economicplanningrequiresstructuralchangesthatenableadjustment tochangingexternaland internal factors.According toeconomistsofneo-liberalpersuasion,structuralchangesoftherightmagnitudeanddirectionattherighttimeintheeconomyarenotsomethingstateplanninghassucceededinaccomplishing(Friedman,1962;Hayek,1944;Munck,2005).Therefore,stateplanningisthoughtofasaninefficientwayofallocatingstocksofproductivefactorsamongcompetitiveusers.Theadventofopening theeconomy toglobalmarket forceshas
* Deepa Kylasam Iyer is an MPhil Candidate at University of Cambridge, United Kingdom and can be reached at:[email protected]
Journal of Governance & Public PolicyISSN2231-0924 Volume7,No2,July-December2017 pp.60-68
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insteadbroughtin‘economicreforms’asthekeyideaindevelopmentstudies,relegatingstateplanningtoasecondarystatus. In thiscontext, it is relevant toexaminedevelopmentplanning in the IndiancontextbecauseIndiabeganitspostindependentdecadeonthepromiseofcentralisedstateplanningfordevelopment.
Historically,Indianplanningwasacarefullythoughtoutexercise.AftergainingindependencefromtheBritishcolonialrulein1947,planningwasviewedasapositiveinstrumentthatenabledthreeimportantobjectives-(i)avoidingtheunnecessaryrigoursof industrialtransitionthattheruralmassesofIndiawaslikelytoexperience,(ii)resolvingconflictofresourcedistributionamongsubnationalgovernmentsinIndiaand(iii) initiatingandmanagingstructuralchangesthattheeconomydemandedatthetimetospureconomicgrowth(Chakravarty,1987).Specifically,Indiawasdeeplyconcernedwithwhatwasbelievedtobeaprincipalconstraintonitseconomicgrowth-theshortageofcapitalstockformation.Theobjective,targetsandtheimplementationprocessofstateplanning,primarilyledbythefirstPrimeMinisterJawaharlalNehru,wasalivelyproductofthisrationale.However,itisimportanttonotethattherewereIndianthinkerswhoprovidedalternativesonplanningintheGandhianandliberaltraditionsintheearlydecadesafter independence(Nachane,2014). Indianplanning in its initial twodecades(1950-1970)alsobenefittedfromtheriseofdevelopmenteconomicsasanacademicdiscipline.Thishistorical coincidence resulted in a rich two-way transaction- the emerging ideas of developmenteconomicsinfluencedtheIndiancaseandIndianplanningexperiencealsoilluminatedthetheoryofdevelopmentplanning.
Institutionally, India had recognised three levels of planning- the central level through theplanningcommission,thesub-national(hereafterstate)levelthroughautonomousplanningboardsandthedistrictlevelthroughbureaucrats.Atthecentrallevel,planswereformulatedattheministeriallevelwithinputsfromthedepartmentsattachedtotheministries.Thefive-yearplansandannualplanswerepartofthiscentrallevelofplanning.Toresolvedisputesattheinter-statelevel,therewasaNationalDevelopmentCouncil thatwasheadedby thePrimeMinister.State-wisedemands forbudgetaryallocationwerepresentedtoanotherinstitutioncalledtheplanningcommissionthatthenrecommendedtheallocationtotheministryoffinancebasedonvariousprerogativeslikebackwardness,sizeofthestate,regionalbalanceofresourceallocationandmeritsofthedemand.Therewereanumberofcentrallysponsoredschemesthatweredirectlyallottedunderthecentralministriesinordertobeimplementedatthesub-nationallevel.Atthestatelevel,thestateplanningboardswereinchargeofpreparingannualplans,formulatingplanprioritiesbasedonfiveyearplansandsettingdevelopmentprojectsforthestate.Herealso,theallocationofresourceswasfavouredbasedonregionalparityandpriority.Theseplanprojectswerethenimplementedbythedistrictlevelbureaucrats.
TwoimportanttransformationshavehappenedintheinstitutionalstructureofdevelopmentplanninginIndiabothfromthebottomandatthetoplevelssinceNehru’stimes.Oneimportanttransformationarrivedwiththe73rdamendmentoftheIndianconstitutionthatdevolvedpowertothelocalgovernmentcalled the Panchayat at a sub-district level. This amendment mandated that the sub-nationalgovernments take certain legislative measures to revitalize local governments through periodicelection,representativereservationforwomenandpeopleofthescheduledcastesandtribesaswellas devolution of government responsibilities. Today, development planning is as much influencedby the local demandsas it is by centrally sponsoredprojects. Indeed, local democracy is seenasmoreegalitarian todirectparticipation from lower castesandgenders,asasteppingstone towardgreaterdemocraticparticipationaswellasanagentforsocialchange(Drèze&Sen,2012).However,at thePanchayat level, localadministrationhasvery lowcapacity to taxpopulationand inadequateinfrastructuretoimplementprojects.Thesecondtransformationwasthedismantlingoftheplanningcommissionat the top. In2015, theplanningcommissionwas replacedby theNational InstituteofTransformingIndia(NITI)Aayog.Ahistoricalanalysisoftheconditionsthatledtothereplacementof
ThispaperexaminestheperformanceofplanningboardsofsouthernstatesofIndiabyevaluatingitsfunctionalparametersprovidedbybureaucratswhoworkwiththeseinstitutions.ThestatesexaminedinthestudyareKerala,TamilNadu,Karnataka,PuducherryandundividedAndhraPradesh(Telangana,anewstatewascarvedoutofAndhraPradeshon2June2014).Functionalparametersofplanningboard performance are given by variables like degree of autonomy from state government, clearmandateoffunction,frequencyofmeetings,presenceofexternalexpertmembersandinvolvementoflocalgovernment.Eliteinterviewswithbureaucratsatthelevelofmembersecretaryareusedalongwith secondary data information about the planning boards. The paper argues that state planningboardswithhigherdegreeofautonomyandhigherinvolvementoflocalgovernmentsarebetterplacedtofunctionwellindevelopmentplanning.
Development Planning and its Theoretical EvolutionPlanning inagenericsense leads to theexaminationofalternativecoursesofactionwhilemakingdecisions.It takesintoaccountthedirectionalclarityofanorganization,competinggoalsfor limitedresources,copingwithunexpectedshifts inenvironmentandbringing togethershared ideasof thefuture(Denhardt&Denhardt,2009,p.143).Analytically,theconceptofdevelopmentplanningcanbedistinguishedintotwoforms-asaformof‘instrumentalinference’toattainthegoalsofdevelopmentassetbytheplannerandasanalternativetomarketmechanismthrough‘commandandfulfillment’(Chakravarty,1987).Theformerisanactiverolethatisusuallybackedbythestateandthelatterisaproxyrolewheretheprimaryfunctionofallocatingresourcesisgiventothemarkets.IntheIndiancase,forthefirsttwodecades,planningwasviewedmoreintheformersense.Instrumentalinferenceis a concept that is borrowed from institutional economics. In a study on instrumental inference ininstitutional economics, Lowe (1977) questions the demand-supply axiomof traditional economics,proposinganalternativeparadigmofunderstandingthepoliticalprocessesthatdoesnotentirelyrelyonpricemechanics.Fromthisvantagepoint,hearguesthat instrumental inferenceofaninstitutionbringstolighttheexistenceofdesiredstatesandanumberofpathsthatleadtoit.Planningconsistsofchoosingofoneormorepathwayswhichcantransformtheinitialstatesintodesiredterminalstates(referfigure1).Thisprocessisachievedintwobroadstages-initially,byinducingstructuraladjustmentsintheinstitutionalsystemandeventuallybyestablishingbehaviouralpatternswhichwillsetthesystemongoal-adequatetrajectories(Chakravarty,1987,p.42).
AnalysingIndianplanningprocessesthroughLowe’smodel,afewinferencescanbemade.WhileIndianplanninghasbeenlargelysuccessfulinsettingastablestructurethroughstructuraladjustment,ithasfailedinfosteringgoal-adequatebehaviouralpatterns.Whyisthisso?Chakravarty(1987)examinesthisquestionandconjectures threebroadreasons-(i) thepresenceof rentmaximizingbehaviour inplaceofdirectlyproductiveactivities in theeconomy,(ii) theabsenceof learningeffect,and (iii) theabsence of sufficient information.All the three problems have been a result of either structural orbehaviouralfactors.Kruger(1974)andBardhan(1984)haveexaminedthereasonsforrentmaximizingbehaviour. Krueger’s argument (Krueger, 1974) on rent maximising behaviour assumes that ‘non-functionalrestrictionsfromaregulatorystate’wouldsystematicallydistortincentivestructures.Bardhan(1984)haselucidatedthispointfurtherbyexaminingsubsidiesasacategoryofinterventionanditseffect on growth in India.The second problem, absence of learning effect, has also been seen inIndia.Learningeffect, i.e.,governmentinterventionthatencourageslearningbydoinghasnotbeenmaximizedintheIndiancontext.Thethirdproblemisthatofasymmetricinformation.TheinformationproblemintheIndianeconomycreatespersistentinabilitytoassessthesocialvalueofatechnologicaltransfer.Allthethreeproblemscanberectifiedbyusingplanningasatool.
Thediscord betweenplanning as a theoretical decisionmaking exercise anda practical operatingexercisehasledtoconsiderablefrictionbetweentheobjectivesandstrategiesofplanningitselfaswellaschangeandcontinuityfromoneplantoanother.Howdoesaplanmodelbecomeadevelopmentplan?Adevelopmentplanisanoperatingdocumentthatnotonlyaimsforadesiredstateofaffairsandindicatesdirectionalchangesasaplanmodelshouldtheoretically; italsomustpayattentionto‘feasibility’on implementation.Theproblemof implementation isdeterminedby thesocio-economiclandscapeof the locationand the informal constraints that planners faceon theground.From theperspectiveof theplanningauthorities, therearemany implementationconstraints-(i) inaccessibilitytoinformationorinefficiencyingatheringdata,(ii)timelagbetweenplandesignandimplementationand(iii) inadequacyofcapacity (manpowerandmotivation) to implement theproject.Lipksy(1980)examinesbureaucratsasdecisionmakersfunctioninginsideinstitutions.Whatemergesasagencyinperformanceininstitutions,Lipskyargues,isaresultoftwodistinctcircumstances.Bureaucratshavelimited timeand informationwhilemakingpublicpolicyand implementing them.Therefore,beyondrulesandregulations,whatemergesasperformanceistheoutcomeofpublicpolicydevisedasaresultofessentiallyapoliticalprocessbytheinstitutionsaswellasindividualimprovisationatthebureaucraticlevel.Theperceptionofbureaucratsisbothpartofthestructureandfunctionalaspectofanyinstitution.Thispaperanalysesplanningboardperformancefromthisbureaucraticinstitutionalperspective.
ThetraditionalchallengesoflimitedtimeandinformationfacedbytheplanningauthoritieshavebeencompoundedbytheincreasingnumberandroleofprivateplayersinformulatingplansinIndia.ThechangingglobalenvironmentthatpromotedglobalizationhasadvocatedincreasingopennessofIndianeconomytoglobalinterferences.Thepresenceofinternationalplayersandprivateentitieshasledtodistinctionbetweenthewaybothfunctionindependently.Forexample,publiclyownedagenciesworkonnon-pricesignalslikegovernmentordersandprivatelyownedagenciesworkonprofit-maximizationmodels. Both public and private institutions also have different strategic and parametric behaviourpatternswhileplanning.
In this context, decentralisation of development planning that includes local level representativeinstitutions in the formulationand implementationofdevelopmentplans is tobeseenasacountermechanismtotheincreasingroleofextra-stateplayersinplanning(Oommen,2006).Decentralisationismeanttofacilitategreaterefficiencyofutilisationandequityindistributionofbenefitsfromdevelopment.Inthecaseofpublicinstitutions,decentralisationcoupledwith‘debureaucratisation’isadvocatedforautonomyofdecisionmakingandoutcome-basedperformance.Theprocessofdecentralisationinthiscontext isenvisagednottoobviatetheneedforcentralisedplanningbuttostrengthentheplanning
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processitselfbyrelievinghigherlevelsofplanningfromdecisionmakingandstrengtheningallocativedecision making capabilities of lower level planning machinery (Rao, 1989). Since decentralisedplanning involves devolution of resources and responsibilities to sub-state level (district, block andpanchayat), the politics of development planning becomes relevant.Theway state planning boardfunctions become crucial in this context because these are institutions that negotiate the interestsofthelocalitytothepressuresofcentralisingforcesinplanning,beitthestateorthemarket.Thesetwoforces-externalglobalplayersanddecentralisedlocalplayers-thusthreatenthetraditionalroleplayedbythebureaucrat.Itisinthiscontext,thatthispaperexaminesperformanceofplanningboards.
Functional Mandate of Planning InstitutionsPlanningboardsineachstateinIndiaisanautonomousbodyconstitutedtoadvisethestategovernmentinmatterspertainingtoplanningandoverallguidanceintheformulationofannualandfiveyearplans.Theroleofaplanningboardinastatewasinitiallytochannelizeavailableresourcesinsector-specificandregionallyequitablemannerformaximumefficiencyandproductivity.Thebasicstructureof theplanningboardconsistsof thestatechiefministeras thechairperson,adeputychairpersonandamember secretary.There are official and non-officialmembers of the board.The officialmembersincludetheministerofplanning,secretariesfrominterrelateddepartmentslikefinance,developmentandothersasspecified.Thispaperexamines theplanningboards infivestatesof southern India-Karnataka,AndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,KeralaandPuducherry.
Theunderstandingof the roleand responsibilitiesofplanningboardhasundergonechangessinceopeningtheIndianeconomytoglobalmarketsandstate-inducedstructuraladjustment.Forinstance,inKarnataka,thestateplanningboardwasestablishedin1993toadvisethegovernmentonmattersrelatingtoplanning.Furtherobjectivesalsoincludedsuggestingpoliciesforoptimumutilisationofnaturalandhuman resources, reducing regional imbalances, improving the investmentclimate,sponsoringresearchstudies,recommendingmeasurestoimprovedecentralisationandreviewingimplementationofplans.Thesetraditional functionshaveundergonemodificationinrecenttimes.Someofthenewresponsibilitiesenvisaged include ‘acting likea think tankchartingoutdevelopmentprocess for thestate,andintegratingtheentiregamutofactivitiesfromplanformulation,implementation,monitoringandevaluation’.Theplanningboardsarealsomeant tohavepowersofoverviewon theschemesofotherdepartments.This functionalmandaterequires infrastructuraland institutional restructuring,includingindependenceandautonomyoftheplanningboard,invitingmultidisciplinaryspecialistsfromvariousfieldstoheadthedepartmentsanddetachingthestateplanningboardfromtheadministrativecontrolofstateplanningdepartment.
Similarly,undividedAndhraPradesh,thesecondstateunderstudy,hasaninterestinghistoryontheevolutionofits‘planningsociety’.Aspartofdisastermanagementstrategy,thestateofAndhraPradeshrestructureditsstatedisastermitigationsocietyasstatedevelopmentplanningsocietyaftertenyearsof functioning to assist the planning department. As a development planning unit, this institutioninitiatesexpert-ledstudies,collectsdatafromdifferentdepartments,analysesinter-departmentalandsector-wiseplanningactivities,comesoutwithfocusareasandassistinpreparingactionplans.Otherobjectivesincludegeneratingalternativeinnovativestrategies,conductinggapanalysis,carryingoutpilotprojects,generatingvulnerabilitymappingandbuildingaccuratedisasterwarning.
The third case is Kerala whose state planning board was established in 1967 to assist the stategovernment in formulatingadevelopmentplanbasedonscientificassessmentof resourcesandacomprehensive economic reviewof the state every year.Eight divisions of the planning board areonplancoordination,agriculture,evaluation,socialservice,industryandinfrastructure,decentralisedplanning,perspectiveplanningandinformationandtechnology.Inaddition,thereisaprojectfinancingcelltoexaminefeasibilityofoutsidefundingincludingpublic-privateparticipationofprojects.
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ThefourthcasestudyofTamilNadustateplanningcommissionwassetup in1971with functionalmandatethatincludedpreparingfiveyearandannualplans,undertakingmid-termreviewoffiveyearplan,evaluatingmajorplanschemes,monitoringdevelopmentandundertakingspecialstudies.Thestateplanningcommissionalsoimplementsandmonitorsstatebalancedgrowthfundandcoordinatesthe functionsof thedistrictplanningcells. In theannualplans,stateplanningcommission receivesproposals from secretarial departments that prioritise development expenditure. There have beentwomajordevelopmentsrelatingtostatedevelopmentplanning.Thefirstisthepreparationofhumandevelopmentreportfocusingonthedistrictasaunitofanalysis,bringingtolightintra-districtdisparityandchallengesinhumandevelopmentattainment.Thishasalsoenabledthestatetoidentifybackwardareas with respect to human development parameters like income, poverty, employment, health,education and gender. Special funds for focused intervention, preparation of perspective plan andannualactionplanhavebeenthepriority.Resourceinstitutionshavebeenidentifiedineachdistricttoprepareperspectiveplans,annualplansandprojectstoaddressbackwardnesswiththeparticipationof district level officials and Panchayat representatives. Two specialised bodies like empoweredcommittee tomakesuggestionsandstate level reviewcommittee to introducemonitoring includingfieldvisittobackwardareasarepresent.
ThefifthcasestudyisthatofPuducherrythathasaspecialstatusasUnionTerritory.UnionterritoriesareadministrativeunitsinIndiathatareunderthedirectsupervisionofthecentralgovernment.Althoughunionterritorieshavegovernancestructurewithchiefministerandlieutenantgovernor,inmattersofdevelopmentplanning,theyapproachtheministryofhomeaffairsandnottheplanningcommissionunlike their state counterparts.Thebudgetary allocation ismade from theministry of homeaffairsbuttheprocessofpreparingdocumentationandimplementingplanninglargelyremainsthesameasstates.
Analysis of Structural and Functional PerceptionsThestudyfocussedonthefivestateplanningboardsinsouthernIndiawithrespecttotheautonomyintheirstructureandfunctionasexperiencedbythebureaucratswhoworkedwiththeseinstitutionsinaseniorcapacity(membersecretarylevel).Themethodusedtoobtaininformationwasthrougheliteinterviews.Theinterviewsfocussedonparametersthatgaveinformationonthevariable‘effectivenessofstructure’andthatwhichgaveinformationonthevariable‘effectivenessoffunction’.Thevariableeffectivenessofstructurehadparameterssuchaspresenceoftechnicalmembers,perspectiveplanning,perceptionoffunctionalmandate,perceptionofindependentevaluationandreal-timemonitoring.Thevariableeffectivenessoffunctionhadparameterslikemethodofappointmentofitsmembers,tenuresecurity, frequencies of internal and annualmeeting, freedom in setting agenda, perception of thegovernmentacceptingitsadvice,perceptionofpoliticalinterferenceaswellasperceptionofideasofreformingtheinstitution.
Thefindingsofthestudyindicatewidedifferencesintheperceptionofeffectivenessofstructureandfunctionoftherespectiveplanninginstitutions.Onthestructuralfront,definedboundariesofone’sownfunctionweresignificantlydifferent.For instance, inKerala,planningboardwasclearthat ithadnooverlapofjurisdictionordichotomousjurisdiction.Itsfunctionsasperceivedbyitsbureaucratsincludedallocative functionanddevelopmental function.Allocative functionwasmeant toconveydistributionof resources and developmental function was defined as advisorial in policy forum. The planningboardalsohadmonitoringdutiesthat itperformedthroughmonthlydepartmentalorderssenttothevariousdepartmentsarticulatinghowwellplanobjectivesweremetandinformingtheChiefMinister.InTamilNadu,itsstateplanningcommissionspecifiedfunctionsthatincludedplanrelatedworkshops,evaluation of reports, dissemination of information and implementation. On the other hand, somestateplanningboardsexperiencedacutejurisdictionaloverlapwithstateplanningdepartment.Intheir
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functionalmandate, thebureaucratsdescribed that inaddition topreparingplandocuments forfiveyearandannualplan,theyalsoformulatedtermsofreferenceforspecificprojectsandpreparationofresultdocuments.Oneinterestingoutcomewasthatsomebureaucratsperceivedtheplanningboardsasa‘thinktank’ofthechiefminister.Theideaof‘thinktank’togenerateideasforgoodgovernancewascommonlyheldinstateswhichincidentallyhasgreaterinvestmentbyprivateplayerswhileothersreflectedtheirrolesalongtraditionallines.Theideaaboutlongtermplancalled‘perspectiveplan’wasunderstoodandimplementedonlybyKeralastateplanningboard.Theperspectiveplanwasfortheperiod2010-2030,with15croresallotted for fifteendevelopmentsectorprojectsand10crores forinformationdissemination.Alltheotherplanningboardsdiscussedvisiondocumentwhilediscussingperspectiveplans.
Findings and DiscussionFromthediscussionofeffectivenessofstructuresandfunctionsof theplanningboards insouthernstatesof India,parameters forefficientperformancethatarebothstructuraland functionalemerge.In the structural aspect of planning board as institution, autonomy of function and availability andaccessibilityofexpertiseareimportantfor‘depoliticisation’.Forexample,statesthatincludedtechnicalmembers toheadeachof itsdepartmentsandprovidedpart-timeaswell as full-timemembersassubjectexpertsexperiencedgreateracceptanceofitssuggestionsbythegovernment.
One idea thatemergedwasviewingplanningboardas the think-tankof thegovernment.This isadevelopmentthatneedstobeexamined.Statesthatdependoninfrastructureandprivateinvestmenthavealsobegunthinkingofgovernmentmachineryintermsofcorporate-likeunitsthatisefficientandprofessional.Restructuringpublicfundedinstitutionsalongthelineoffirmsisoneoftheoptionsthatisbeingactivelypursued.Thesecondideaofreformistoretainthecurrentstructureoftheboardswithincreasingautonomyfromthegovernment.Thiswouldinvolveseparatingtheboardsfromjurisdictionaloverlapwithanygovernmentdepartmentanddelegatingevaluation function toanexternalagency(refertable1).Boththemodelscanbedifferentiatedonfivecharacteristicfeatures-proximitytopoliticalclass,bureaucraticdiscretion, involvementof local government, functionalautonomyandstructural
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differentiation.Accordingly,therearetwowaysinwhichplanningboardsperceivetheirfunctions.Thethink-tankmodelofplanningboardenvisagesahigherproximitywithpolitical classwith low levelsof participation from other stakeholders like bureaucrats and local government officials. Structuraldifferentiationoftheinstitutionthatseparatestheroleofpoliticians,bureaucrats,expertsandthelocalgovernmentisveryhigh.Atthesametime,functionalautonomyanddiscretionofbureaucraticclassislow.Inthesecondmodelthatismoretraditional,planningboardfunctionsasaresultofinteractionbetweendemandsofpolitician,bureaucrat,expertand localgovernment.Their functionalstructuraldifferentiationislowandresolvingconflictbynegotiationishigh.Table1summarisesthecharacteristicsofthesetwomodels.
Table 1: Emerging Models of Development of Planning Boards
Characteristics Type I: Think-Tank Model Type II: Traditional Model
Proximitytopoliticalclass High Low
Bureaucraticdiscretion Low High
Involvementoflocalgovernment Low High
Functionalautonomy Low High
Structuraldifferentiation High Low
Source:Authors’compilation
Clarityintheperceptionofitsownfunctionalmandatethatincludedallocativeanddevelopmentfunctionshelpedinreducingconflictswiththepoliticalclass.Whilealltheplanningboardsacknowledgedtheirappointmentandtenuresecurityasamatterofpoliticaldecision,implementationofplanprojectswasbetterwhendevelopmentplanprioritywasnotbasedonpoliticalinterestfocussingonelectoralgains.Similarly,monitoringthatincludedreal-timemonitoringwithlocalparticipationandtabulatingphysicalassets alongwith financial assetsworks comparatively better than post-factomonitoring. Planningboardsthatdelegatedthetaskofevaluationtoanexternalagencyseemtoperformbetterinsettingobjectivesinthenextplancycles.Intradepartmentalreportingofprogressperiodicallyaspractisedinsomestatesensuredselfevaluationreal-time.
Planningboards that viewed theirmandate inadvisory capacityand felt less interference from thegovernmentinsettingtheagendaalsofaredbetterinperformance.Thesewerealsotheboardsthatfelttheyweremoreopentoinnovationandchange.Alltheplanningboardsagreedtovariousdegreesthat theyhadscope to improve theirperformance,but the trajectoryof reformshowed twodistinctpathways.
ConclusionTheareaofplanningespeciallydevelopmentplanninghasundergonesignificantchanges from theNehruvianeratotheopeningoftheeconomytoglobalforces.Therationaleandobjectivesofplanning,theroleof thestateandmarketshavetakenpre-eminence. Inthepolitical frameworkof federalismoftheIndiankind,adelicatebalancebetweenthecentreandthestatesaremandatorytochannelizeresources taking into consideration regional disparity and local demands. Planning boards in thisscenarioneeds to revitalize their roles to fulfil their functionalmandate indevelopmentplanning inthenearfuture.Thedirectionthattheseplanninginstitutionsmightoptforremainstobeofacademicinterest.
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ReferencesBardhan, P. (1984). The Political Economy of Development in India. New Delhi: Oxford.
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Oommen, M.A. (2006). Fiscal Decentralisation to the Sub-State Level Governments, Economic & Political Weekly, 41(10), pp: 897-903.
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Political awareness of dalit: selected Villages in Karnataka
I. Maruthi* and Pesala Peter***
Political awareness is very important for the people in general and particularly in Dalit. Majority of the villagers are not aware about many issues and things in general and Dalit people in particular. Some of the Dalit people not awareness about president of Gram Panchyat (Sarpanch), ZP, TP, MLA and MP. Due to Lack of education, superstition, low caste, inferiority complex are the main factors are influenced the Dalit not contest the election. In villages few of Dalit are educated and they are poor in economically and unemployed due to these reasons their voice are not recognized. The main objective of the paper is to investigate the political awareness of Dalits households in rural Karnataka.
In the overall observation a majority of Dalits were not awareness about different kind of political leaders. In the same manner, half of the households were aware about their local MLA. Surprisingly half of the households were aware about the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Nearly half of the per cent of the households knows about that Prime Minister. Villagers are very much interested casting in their votes in elections in general and particularly in selected Dalit households. A few persons contested elections and in reserved seats and by self motivation contested the election.
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Research Methodology and Data Collection of the StudyKarnatakawaspurposivelyselectedas thestudyarea.Thestudyemployed therigorousfieldworkmethodologyandcollected theneededdata for theanalysisofboth thequalitativeandquantitativeinformation.Thestudyisbasedontheinterdisciplinaryapproachestounderstandthepersistingofsocio-economicconditionsoftheDalitcommunity.Secondarydatawasusedtopertainingthebackgroundinformationregarding theDalitcommunity inKarnataka.Thesamplerespondentswereselectedbyusingmultistagerandomsampling techniqueand thesimplest formofentiresamplingprocedure ispresentedinTable1.Inthefirststageentirestatewasdividedintothreemainregionsnamely;North,Central,andSouthKarnataka.Inthesecondstage,accordingto2011census,thestudyareaselectedhighestSCpopulation ineachregion in twodistricts.TheselecteddistrictsareBelagavi (Belgaum)andKalaburagi (Gulbarga) inNorthKarnataka;ChitradurgaandDavanagere inCentralKarnataka;andMysuruandTumakuruinSouthKarnataka.Inthirdstage,highestSCpopulationtwovillageswereselectedineachdistrict.Theselectedvillagesare:Harugeri(Population5,846)andMugalkhod(5,579)inBelagavidistrict;SrinivasSaradgi(4,374)andRavoor(3,794) inKalaburagi;Naikanahatti(2,759)andAdivala(2,692)inChitradurga;Towdur(3,387)andUchangidurga(2,823)inDavanagere;Sosale(5,084)andMuguru(2,995)inMysuru;Madalur(1,951)andKodigenahalli(1,764)inTumakuru(Table1).Andfinalstage,ineachvillage,150samplehouseholdswereselectedrandomly.Thetotalsamplesize is1800(MaruthiandBusenna, (2015a);MaruthiandBusenna(2015b);MaruthiandBusenna,(2016a);MaruthiandPeter,(2017)andMaruthiandBusenna(2017).
Table 1: Population Details of the Selected Villages (in Numbers)Regions Districts NameoftheVillage Population SCPopulation A* B*
Awareness about Local Political LeadersAmajority(innumber939)ofDalitswerenotawareabouttheirvillagepresidentduetolackofeducation,economicallyweak.ThelackofawarenesswasveryhighinMugalkhoda(122),followedbyRavoor(116)andHarugeri(108)(Table2).Similarly,nearly91(1629)percentofthehouseholdswerenotawareaboutTalukPanchyatmemberanditisashighinMadalur(147)followedbySosale(146)andAdivala(145)(Table2).Nearly91(1634)percentofthehouseholdswerenotawareabouttheirZillaPanchyatmembersand this isveryhigh inMadalur (148) followedbySosale (146)andNayakanahatti (143)(Table2).Interestinglyandsurprisinglythisawarenesslevelisbetteraboutknowingstatelevelpoliticalleaders;nearlyhalfof themknewabout theirMLA.Theawareness is lowest inSrinivasasaradagi
followedbyRavoorandUchangidurga(Table3). In localMLAis involving inallkindofgovernmentdevelopmentprogramduetothisreasonmanyDalitknowsaboutMLA.Inthesamemannerdaytodaylifehiscontributionofdevelopmentofworkmaybevisibletothepublic.Incontrastthat77(1387)percenthouseholdswereawareabouttheirMPsandthisishighinKodigenahalli(144)villageandfollowedbyMadalur(137)andSosale(123),and23percentofknewabouttheirMP(Table3).ManydevelopmentactivitiesMPisusuallynotinvolvedinadditiontothathe/sheparticipateincentrallevelprogram. In thesamemannerdaytoday lifehisdevelopmentactivitiesmaynotreveals togeneralpublic.Surprisinglyhalf(887)ofthehouseholdswereawareabouttheChiefMinisterofKarnataka,thisishighinMuguruvillage(97)andfollowedbySosale(93)andNayakanahatti(88)andthedetailsarepresentedinTable3.ThemainreasonfortoknowtheChiefMinisterisdaytodaylifeisgeneralpublicarewatchingtheTelevision(TV),listeningnewsfromRadiosandreadingthenewsfrompapers.Thesechannelsareimprovedbutstillselectedhouseholds,mostofthemwerenothavingTVs,Radios.InadditiontothatDalitpeoplewereunabletosubscribethenewspapersduetothisreasonawarenessimprovement is required.Majorities (1528)of thehouseholdswerenotawareabout theirpresidentofIndia(Table3).Nearly40(717)percentofthehouseholdswereawareaboutPrimeMinisterandsurprisinglyitishighinSosale(93)followedbyNayakanahatti(85)andMuguru(80)(Table3).
Table 2. Particulars of Awareness about Local Political Leaders
Village / DistrictDo you know President
in your GPDo you know your Taluk
Panchyat Member?Do you know your Zilla
Panchyat Member?Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Election and Dalit Participation Dalitalwaysconcernedandvery interested tocast their vote inelections irrespectiveofwhether itis beingheld for Lokshaba, LegislativeAssemblyandPanchyat.Sing (2014)probed into influenceawareness on capacity building ofDalitwomen inAmbedkarGramand non-Ambedkar gramof inLucknowregion.Thestudyselected500sampleDalitwomen,andofwhich250eachDalitwomenfromAmbedkargramandfromnon-Ambedkargram.ThestudycomparedAmbedkarandnon-Ambedkargramblocks.ThestudyfindsthattheAmbedkargramDailtwomenhavemorefacilitiesandawarenesscomparedtonon-Ambedkargram.Ambedkargramwomenconditionsweremoreimprovedthannon-Ambedkargramonthebasisofhealth,income,education,decisionmakingandpoliticalrights.Thestudy suggested for givingmore attention to non-Ambedkar gram in several issues those are: thecastingofvoteisstilllowinnon-Ambedkargram,secondly,theawarenessisverylowandimprovementis required for this, thirdly,womaneducation and awareness is requiredmore and finally, lawandawarenessareverylowinnon-Ambedkargram.Theabovesaidpointsareveryessentialforimprovingthenon-Ambedkargramblock.Ourprimarystudydatarevealsthatmost(1410)ofthehouseholdswerecasted vote in 2014 lokshabaelection.Among the villagesUchangidurgahousehold’s participationrate(149)washighandfollowedbyTowdor(148)andRavoor(126)(Table5).Only38householdswerecontestedinGPelectionsintheirrespectivevillages.ThisishighinNayakanahatti(innumber8)villageandfollowedbySosale(6),Ravoor(4)andAdivala(4)(Table5).Amajorityofthemwerecontestedelectionsinreservedseat(32)andsixmemberswerecontestedingeneralseat(Table5).Withregardtoelectionexpenses;anaverageRs.59,333/-werespend.ThehighestamountspentwasinUchangidurga (Rs.1,50,000)village, followedbySosale (Rs.1,25,000)andRavoor (Rs.1,20,000)(Table5).AmajorityoftheDalitwerespendtheirownfunds(18),forcontestingelectionandborrowed(3);Relatives(2);partyfunds(2);andownandborrowedfunds(1);anddetailsarepresentedinTable6. Theinspirationisveryimportanttocontesttheelection,ourstudydatarevealsthatmostofthemweremotivatedbyself(7),andfollowedbyfamilymembers(6),friends(5),castepeople(3),uppercastepeople(2),friendsanduppercastepeople(2)(Table7).AfterwinningGPelections,halfofthememberscontributedtowardsDalitdevelopmentandtheremainingwerenot(Table8)duetopressurefromtheOthercastepeople.MemberswereresponsiblefordevelopingtheroadsandstreetlightsinSCcolonyfollowedbydevelopmentalactivitieslikeconstructionhousessanitaryfacilities(Table8).
Table 5: Did you Vote in the Last (2014) Lokshaba Election?
Village/District A B C DYes No Total Yes No Total E F Total G H
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Participation of Election Very small number (9) of Dalit people were contestedTP/ZP elections.Among the villages, threememberscontestedfromSosalevillageandrestsofthemwereothervillages(Table9).Similarlythreeeachcontested ingeneralandreserved(Table 9)seats respectively.Forcontestingofelection,anaverageamountRs.78,333werespend.ThehighestaverageamountwasRs.2,00,000/-fromTowdorvillageandthelowestwasRs.10,000inSosalevillage(Table 9).Thefundingofcontestinginelection,comefromown(2)sources;partyfund(1)andothersources(1).Thecandidatesweremotivatedbyself (3)andsuggestedby relatives (1).Among theelectedpeopleonepersoncontributed for roaddevelopmentinDalitcolony.Thisissurprisingnews.
Table 9: Did you Contest TP/ ZP Election?
Village/District
Did you contest TP/ ZP election?
Did you contest in General /Reserved category?
How much money you spent?
Yes No Total General Reserved Total Total Amount Average Amount
Membership in Different OrganizationsMostofthehouseholdswerenotwardmembersoftheirGPsandonlycountablepeoplewerewardmembers’offromSosale,TowdorandNayakanahatti.NinememberswereparticipatedactivelyinGPsactivities,byinvolvingthemselvesintheconstructionofhouses,roadandalliedactivities,streetlightandwaterconnection.Atthesametime,Sosalevillage,twohouseholdsweremembersinDairysocietyandtheydidnotcontributetowardsDalitwelfare.
Reasons for not Contesting ElectionForcontestinganyelectionselfmotivation,personal interest,courage,decisionmaking,moneyandpolitical strength is very important. Without money, winning in election is very difficult. Almost allDalitswerefinanciallypooringeneral,andparticularlyinselectedvillagesandalsotheyaresociallyvulnerable,andpoliticallyvoiceless.Ourstudydatarevealsthatverypoor(563),lackofmoney(411),lack of strength (392), not interested (251), lack of support (40) from the villagers were themainreasonsfornotcontestedtheGP/TP/ZPelections(Table10)duringstudyperiod.At thesametime,Lackofsupport,notinterested,Lackofcapability,poorandlackofmoneywerethemainreasonsfornotbecomingmemberofthesocieties/community/organizations.
Conclusion and Findings of the Study IntheoverallobservationamajorityofDalitswerenotawarenessabouttheirvillageGrampresidentTPandZPmembers.InthesamemannerhalfofthehouseholdswereaabouttheirMLA.SurprisinglyhalfofthehouseholdsknowabouttheirChiefMinisterofKarnataka.Amajority(1528)ofhouseholdswere less awareness aboutPresident of India and all this to illiteracy, poor and rural background.Nearly40(717)percentofthehouseholdswereawareaboutPrimeMinisterofIndia.Most(1410)ofthehouseholdswerevotedin2014lokshabaelection.Asmallnumber(38)ofpersonscontestedGPelections,andmajorityofthemwerecontestedelectionsinreservedseats(32)andsevenmemberswere contested in general seats. By selfmotivation contested the election and followed by familymembers, friends, same caste people, upper caste people, friends and upper caste people weremotivatedthemtocontestedtheelection.AverysmallnumberofpersonscontestedTP/ZPelectionsintheirrespectivevillagesinKarnataka.Verypoor,lackofmoney,Lackofstrength,notinterestedandlackofsupportfromothersarethemainreasonfornotbecomingmemberofthesocieties/committeesintheirrespectivevillageinselectedhouseholds.
ReferencesMaruthi, I. & Pesala Busenna(2015a). Assessment of Socio-economic Capabilities of Dalit Households
in Karnataka. Report Submitted to ICSSR, New Delhi.
Maruthi, I. & Pesala Busenna (2015b). Drinking Water, Sanitation, Hygiene Practices Dalits in Karnataka, Journal of Governance and & Public Policy (JGPP), 6 (2), pp: 82-102.
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Maruthi, I. & Pesala Busenna (2016). Own House and Dalit: Selected Villages in Karnataka State, ISEC Working Paper No. 354.
Maruthi, I. & Pesala Peter (2016). Participation of SHG and Employment Capabilities of Dalits Households in Karnataka, Indian Journal of Economics and Development, 4(8), pp:1-10.
Maruthi, I. & Peter Pesala (2017). Status of Small and Marginal Dalit Farmers in Karnataka, Agriculture Situation in India, 73 (12), pp:35-47.
Maruthi, I. & Pesala Busenna (2017). Expenditure Inequalities Among School Children: A Study in Karnataka, In: (Eds) Gyanmudra & M. Sarumathy, The New Rural Paradigm: Policies and Governance, NIRD, Hyderabad.
Sing Ruchi DR (2014). Influence of Health Awareness on Capacity Building of Dalit Women’s: A Comparative Study in Ambedkar Gram and Non-Ambedkar Gram of Bkt Block, International Journal of Social Relevance & Concern, 2 (1), pp:5-20.
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revealing Cavities in india’s Groundwater Management
Madhavi Marwah*
While the first Green Revolution served its initial purpose of ensuring India’s food security, there is little doubt in claiming that this revolution was not environmentally sustainable and resulted in visible signs of resource depletion and degradation, particularly of groundwater. Groundwater contamination, rather than groundwater depletion, needs to be considered more seriously at policy level. By shedding light on the different sources, extent of spread and possible impacts of groundwater contamination in India, the author provides analytical insights into some major missing links at policy level in India’s groundwater management. The author particularly warns against the move towards a second Green Revolution in India.
IntroductionAs the Green Revolution boom began to turn around and the resultant signs of environmentaldegradationintermsofdeclininggroundwaterlevelsanddeterioratingsoilqualitybecameimminent,naturalresourcemanagementreceivedfurtherimpetusbyearly1980’s.Withregardtowaterresourcesmanagement,thefirstnationallevelassessmentofgroundwateravailability,utilisationandmonitoringofwaterlevelwascarriedoutfortheyear1984,followedbythereleaseofNationalWaterPolicyin1987toguidethedevelopmentofwaterresourcesandensuretheirefficientutilisationacrossthecountry.
Withtheincreasingnumberofdryingwellsandtheneedtodigdeeper,efficientuseofgroundwatertocontrolandcheckthequantitydepletionoftheresourcebecametheprimaryfocuswithingroundwatermanagement.Exploitingtheenergy-groundwaternexusthroughenergypricing,enhancingwateruseefficiency through incentivising use of technological innovations – drip and sprinkler irrigation, andnon-technologicalmeasures–controllingthetimingofpaddytransplantation,havebeensomeoftheimportantpolicyinstruments.
Having utilised the yield potential as well as the irrigation potential in north-western States, mid-2000’sagainsawthecountryreelingunderthepressuretomeetthegrowingfoodrequirements.ThisdirectedattentiontotheneedforasecondGreenRevolution,targetingproductivityimprovementsintherelativelywaterabundanteasternStates.SuchashiftbecameexplicitlyvisiblewiththeintroductionoftheBringingGreenRevolutiontoEasternIndiaschemelaunchedin2011undertheRashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana.
Holdingon to this agendapropagatedby thepreviousgovernment,PrimeMinisterNarendraModionseveraloccasionsreiterated theneedforasecondGreenRevolution. InanaddressatBurnpur
Journal of Governance & Public PolicyISSN2231-0924 Volume7,No2,July-December2017 pp.79-84
Groundwater Contamination: The Hidden CrisisWhile surfacewater contamination is visible and hence receives significant attention, groundwaterpollution is hidden and remains largely neglected. There are two ways in which groundwatercontaminationtakesplace.
Anthropogenic Contamination of GroundwaterThepollutionofgroundwatercausedbyhumanactivitiesisreferredtoasanthropogeniccontaminationof groundwater. Agricultural activities which contaminate groundwater include the application ofchemical fertilisers,pesticides,herbicidesandanimalwasteswhichseep into theaquifer. Industrialeffluents and wastematerials bymanufacturing industries which are discharged and dumped intosurfacewaterbodiesalsopollutetheaquifer(CGWB,n.a.).
While use of chemicals directly affects soil quality, groundwater quality gets impacted once thechemicalsmovedownthroughthesoiltotheaquifer.Althoughwithgrowingrealisationofthenegativeimpactsofchemicalapplicationintermsofsoildeterioration,therehasbeensomedeclineintheiruse,butwhatisoverlookedisthehistoricalaccumulationofthesecontaminantsinthegroundwaterusedforirrigation.
Aquifercharacteristicsareanimportantdeterminantofthetypeandextentofcontaminationproblems.Approximately65percentofaquifersinIndiacomprisehard-rockaquifersfoundinwesternandcentralpeninsular India,while the remainingarealluvial aquifers found in the Indo-Gangetic plains region(Suhag 2016). Quality degradation ismore prominent in alluvial aquifer type, firstly on account ofeasytransmissionofchemicalfertilizersandpesticidesfromsoiltotheshallowwatertable(top-downcontamination) and second is for geological reasons wherein contaminants like arsenic from rockformations getmobilized into groundwater surrounding them as extraction takes place (bottom-upcontamination)(Shah2007:10).
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Geogenic Contamination of GroundwaterContamination arising naturally or from naturally occurring sources, as opposed to from humanactivities,isknownasgeogeniccontamination.GeogeniccontaminationofgroundwaterusuallyoccursonaccountofsubstancesandheavymetalspresentintherockformationsbelowgroundorEarth’ssubsurfacewhichmixwiththegroundwater.SomeofthewidelyprevalentcontaminantsintheaquifersinIndiaarefluoride,chloride,ironandarsenic.
Anthropogenic and geogenic contamination may overlap in case that human activities mobilisenaturallyoccurringsubstancesintogroundwater.Thistypeofcontaminationisreferredtoasindirectanthropogenic contamination (Grutzmacher et al. 2013). Extraction of groundwater for domesticpurpose or for irrigation results inmobilisation of arsenic from rocks into the aquifer.Similarly, thevacuumcreatedfromgroundwaterextractionnearcoastalareascausesintrusionofsalinewaterintheaquifer.
Alargenumberofscientificexperimentsbasedstudiesconfirmadeclineinyieldofcropswhenarsenic-concentratedwater is applied for irrigation.However, at same level of arsenic content, the impactvariesacrosscrops,varietyofcropgrown,soilconditions–aerobicoranaerobic.Khanetal.(2010)for instance, found that arsenic addition inwater or soil resulted in yield reductions from21 to 74percentinboro (summer)riceand8to80percentinaman (winter)rice,thelatterindicatingthestrongresidual effect of arsenic on subsequent crops. In a controlled pot experiment study,Abedin et al.(2002) found that arsenate contaminated irrigationwater accounted for 26, 38, 56 and 65 percentriceyieldreductionbyadditionof1,2,4and8mgarsenic,respectively.Moreover,thenumberofricegrain(filledspikelets)alsodecreasedsignificantly(at1percentlevelofsignificance)withthelevelofcontaminationofirrigationwaterbyarsenate.Abedinetal.(2002)alsoobservedadeclineinweightofricegrainwitharsenicadditionsuchthathighestthousandgrainweight(i.e.,massof1000grains)of19.8gramswasfoundincontrolcasewhichdecreasedto18.3gramsinthehighestarsenatetreatmentcase.Similarly,100-500ppmoffluorideconcentrationinirrigationwaterusedforsixweeksshowsadeclineingrowth,yield,leafexpansionofpoplarcrop(SinghandVerma,2013).
Missing Links at Policy LevelMonitoring Groundwater QualityCentral Ground Water Board (CGWB) in collaboration with State Ground Water Departmentsperiodicallyundertakesmonitoringofgroundwaterlevelandqualityacrosstheentirecountry.Itdoesso throughassessment ofwater level and certain quality indicators in designatedmonitoringwellsspreadthroughoutthecountry.Thesamehasbeencarriedoutforbaseyears2004,2009,2011and2013,basedonthemethodologylaidoutbytheGroundwaterEstimationCommitteereportof1997.Byanalysingthetrendinpre-monsoonandpost-monsoonwaterlevels,CGWBcategoriseswhatarecalled‘assessmentunits’intofourcategories.Asperitslatestassessmentofgroundwaterresourcesin2013, thereare4520 ‘safe’units,681 ‘semi-critical’units,253 ‘critical’unitsand1034are ‘over-exploited’unitsoutofatotalof6584‘assessmentunits’(blocks/mandals/taluks/watersheds/firkas).Theremaining96unitsasfoundtohavesalineorbrackishwater(CGWB,2013).
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The main limitations with respect to groundwater monitoring specifically with respect to qualityparametersisthatonlyoneindicatorisconsidered,ie.salinity.GEC-97methodologyrequiresassessingpoorgroundwaterareasseparately,but lacksclarityonwhatmustbeconsideredas ‘poorquality’.Therearesomeintermittentassessmentsofgroundwaterqualityandtheirreportspublished;however,thereisnoconsistencyinthemethodologyfollowed.
Anothermajordrawbackisthatwaterqualityassessmenthasneverbeenundertakenatvaryingwaterdepths in order to understand the relationship betweenwater depth and the variouswater qualityparameters. It isdone ina rather rudimentary fashionofcollectingonesample fromonewell.Thisfurther implies that there isnounderstandingofdistinctionbetweenwaterquality inwellsused fordrinkingandthoseusedforirrigation.
Lack of Acknowledgment NationalWater Policy 2002 and 2012 have in theirmandate to prevent detrimental environmentalconsequencesofoverexploitationofgroundwaterbyensuringthatground-waterrechargeprojectsaredevelopedandimplementedforimprovingboththequalityandavailabilityofgroundwaterresources.However, NWP fails to acknowledge ormake note of geogenic contaminants, let alone provide adetailedplanfortacklingmajorcontaminantssuchasarsenicandfluoride,andtheirresultantimpactsonlivelihood.
Push to Increase Groundwater UseIn lieu of the focus on a secondGreen Revolution, there are schemes like BGREI which includeprovisiontosubsidiseassetbuildingforindividualfarmersandfarmergroups.100percentassistanceisprovided,tothetuneofINR30,000fordugwellandborewell,andINR12,000forshallowtubewell,forconstructionactivities(BGREIschemeguidelines).Inaddition,a50percentofsubsidyoncostofpumpsets,uptoINR10,000hasalsobeenprovidedunderthisscheme.
Such initiatives have received support by political parties at State level in some eastern States.ParticularlyappallingisthecaseofWestBengalwhereinspiteofarsenicpresenceoverpermissiblelimitof0.01mgperlitreinnearly90blocks,someoftheStategovernmentagencieshavesupported1 These14StatesareAndhraPradesh,Assam,Bihar,Chhattisgarh,Goa,Haryana,HimachalPradesh,Maharashtra,Kerala,Karnataka,Odisha,TamilNadu,UttarPradeshandWestBengal.
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a conducive environment for increasing groundwater extraction for irrigation in February 2011,WestBengalStateElectricityDistributionCompanyLimited(WBSEDCL)passedapolicyresolutionstatingthat itwouldprovidenewelectricityconnectionstofarmersagainstapaymentofafixedfeeamountingbetweenRs1,000andRs30,000perconnection,dependingontheconnectedload.Thismeant a reduction in expenses to farmers whowould no longer bear the full cost of wires, polesandtransformers,asrequiredearlier(Mukherjietal.2012).Furthermore,onNovember09,2011theWaterResourcesInvestigationandDevelopmentDirectorate,GovernmentofWestBengalchangedaprovisionoftheWestGroundWaterResources(Management,ControlandRegulation)Act,2005.Asperthisamendment,farmerslocatedin“safe”groundwaterblocksandowningpumpsoflessthan5horsepower(HP)andtubewellswithdischargeoflessthan30cubicmetresperhourwouldnolongerneedapermit fromtheStateWaterInvestigationDirectoratetoapplyforelectricityconnectionfromWBSEDCL.Thepoint tobenotedhere is that theblocks in ‘safe’categoryareassessedonlywithrespecttodepthtowaterlevelbytheCGWB.Ithasnobearingonthequalityaspectofgroundwater,whichmeansthatliberalisationofgroundwaterextractionin‘safe’arseniccontaminatedblockscouldaggravatetheproblem.
Atnational levelparticularly,weobservea lackofdueattention towards thestatusofgroundwaterquality, its larger implications and initiatives in the right direction. In fact, significant increase ingroundwateruse inso-calledgroundwaterabundantareaswithoutproperappraisalof theavailableresourceintermsofquantity,qualityandotherenvironmentalconditionsisnoted.
Sustainable use of groundwater needs to be encompassedand imbibed in an all-pervasive sensebymanagingbothquantityandqualitydeteriorationoftheresource.Itfurthercallsforunderstandingthe long-run implications of extracting contaminated groundwater on the groundwater quality itself,onhumanhealthaswellasonagriculturalproduction.Forinstance,arsenicconcentrationinaquifermay increase with groundwater pumping and its usage over long periods can render agricultureunsustainable.Rainwaterharvesting,tappingdeeperarsenic-freeaquiferorfindingotheralternativeirrigationsourcesaresomeofthepossiblesolutionswhosefeasibilitymaybeassessedandaccordinglyimplemented.
ReferencesAbedin, Md. Joinal, J. Cotter-Howells and Andy A. Meharg(2002):“Arsenic Uptake and Accumulation
in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Irrigated with Contaminated Water,”Plant and Soil, Vol 240, pp 311-319.
Chakraborti, Dipankar, Bhaskar Das and Matthew T. Murrill (2011): “Examining India’s Groundwater Quality Management,” Environmental Science and Technology Feature, Vol 45, pp 27-33.
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Central Ground Water Board (n.a.):“Anthropogenic Pollution of Ground Water – Mitigation Measures,” Bhu-Jal Manthan, http://www.cgwb.gov.in/Bhujal-manthan/Anthropogenic%20pollution_revised.pdf
- (2013): Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, Government of India.
Chandrakanth, M.G. (2015) Water Resource Economics: Towards a Sustainable Use of Water for Irrigation in India, Springer, New Delhi, India, pp: 1-20.
Grutzmacher, G. et al.(2013). Geogenic Groundwater Contamination – Definition, Occurrence and Relevance for Drinking Water Production,Zbl. Geol. Palaont. Tell. I, Jg, pp: 69-75.
Khan, A (2010). Accumulation of Arsenic in Soil and Rice under Wetland Condition in Bangladesh, Plant and Soil, 333(1-2), pp:263-274.
Mukherji, Aditi., Tushaar Shah. & Parthasarathi Banerjee (2012). Kickstarting a Second Green Revolution in Bengal, Economic and Political Weekly, 47 (18), pp: 27-30.
Pepper, Daniel (2008). The Toxic Consequences of the Green Revolution. [Available at:https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2008/07/07/the-toxic-consequences-of-the-green-revolution] [Accessed July 17, 2017].
Singh, Munna & Krishan Kumar Verma (2013). Influence of Fluoride-Contaminated Irrigation Water on Physiological Responses of Poplar Seedlings, Research Report, April-June, 48(2), pp: 83-89.
The Economic Times (2015). Second Green Revolution will Happen in Eastern India: PM Modi, [Available at:http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/47222397.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst] [ Accessed on 12 July 2017].
The Hindu (2015). East Should Lead Next Green Revolution: Modi. [Available at: http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/agriculture/modi-urges-farmers-to-use-scientific-methods-to-boost-production/article7363923.ece] [Accessed 02 June 2017].
Times of India (2017). Make Way not for a Second Green Revolution, but for Evergreen Revolution [Available at: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/make-way-not-for-2nd-green-revolution-but-for-evergreen-revolution-says-pm-narendra-modi/articleshow/58856754.cms] [Accessed 24/07/2017].
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aBoUt tHE aUtHors
Ramakrishna NallathigalaRamakrishnaNallathigalaisanEngineer,PlannerandAppliedEconomistbyeducation.Hehasprofessionalworkexperience of fifteen years and teaching experience of five yearswith interest in the areas of urban planning,development,policy,andgovernancereformsaswellasenvironmentalplanning,policyandmanagement.Currently,heisafacultymemberattheNationalInstituteofConstructionManagementandResearch(NICMAR),Pune.Hehasseveralinternationalandnationaljournalpaperstohiscredit.Healsopresentedpapersinnationalconferencesandinternationalconferences,bothinIndiaaswellasabroadandreachedat:
Maadhavi SriramAcertifiedprojectManagementprofessional(PMP)withabout17yearsofmanagerialexperienceinTransportandITsectors.PrimarydegreeisinMechanicalEngineeringwithapostgraduatediplomainIT.CurrentlyassociatedwithCentreforGoodGovernance(CGG)andshehasbeenworkingextensivelyineGovernanceprojectsofvariousdomains likeFinancialManagement,HumanResourceManagement,warehousemanagementandSchemes&ProjectMonitoring systems. Shewas key resource person in implementation of several State-level aswell asNationallevelprojectmonitoringsystemsandcanbereachedat:
Amit Kumar DrKumarisanalumnusofKiroriMalCollege,DelhiUniversityandNationalInstituteofTechnology,Trichy(TamilNadu) at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels respectively. He has been associated with the universityafter completing his MBA in 2008. Dr Kumar’s areas of interest include Marketing (specifically Branding) andCommunication.Hehaspublishedresearchpapersinmanypeer-reviewed,reputedjournalsaswellasconferenceproceedingsalongwithattendinginternationalandnationalconferencesandworkshopsrelatedtothevariedfieldsofmanagement.HecompletedhisPhDinthedomainofPoliticalBrandingfromGLAUniversity,Mathuraandcanbereachedat:
Ramya EmandiRamya Emandi is a freelance author of articles & op-eds, a blogger and a speaker. She is an MBA and anEngineeringgraduatewithprofoundexperienceofmorethan6yearsinthesectorsofOil&GasandSustainableDevelopment.Herareasof interestareGlobalEconomics,Socio-PoliticalPublicPolicy&EconomicRegulatoryFrameworksDevelopment.Heradviceandinsightsintheareaofeconomics&publicpolicies,havebeenfeaturedinelectronicmedia(TheCitizen,OpIndia.com,etc.).Shevolunteersinteachingandasvisitingspeakeratvariousplatformsandenvisions to imparteducation toeconomicallybackwardsectionsandcanbe reachedat: [email protected]
Debabrata SamantaDr.DebabrataSamanta, Assistant Professor, Chandragupt Institute of Management Patna, does research inDevelopmentEconomics,HumanDevelopmentTheory andAppliedMicroeconomics. EarnedDoctoralDegreefromIndian InstituteofTechnologyKharagpurandMasters inEconomics fromUniversityofCalcutta.Publishedinnationalandinternational journalsandnationalandinternationallypublishedbook/editedvolumes/handbooks.ProvidedresearchandconsultancyservicestoWorldBankanddifferentStateGovernmentDepartments.Providedpolicysuggestionandtakenpartinformulatingpoliciesfocusingonpovertyalleviationandensuringaccountabilityandlandgovernanceandcanbereachedat:[email protected].
AbouttheAuthors
86 Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Volume 7, No 2, July-December 2017
Shivani NarayanShivaniNarayan, amanagement professionalwith research inclination.Provided support to thegovernment ofBiharinimplementationofprohibitionpolicywhiledoinginternshipatKPMG,India.PresentedherresearchatIITKharagpur.SheearnsherpostgraduatediplomainmanagementfromChandraguptInstituteofManagementPatnaandcompletedgraduation inB.comspecialized inBanking&Finance fromUniversityofPune.She iscurrentlyworkingwithBajajPetroImpexPrivateLimitedandcanbereachedat:[email protected]
Ankit PatelAnkit Patel recently awardedPh.D. degree in Sociology fromGujarat University,Ahmedabad.He didMaster’sin Sociology from M.S. University Baroda and M.Phil. from Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar. Thetopic of his M.Phil. dissertation was “Exploring the Impact of Science, Technology and Industrialization: TheCaseofHajiraVillage inGujarat”(WithReferencetotheImpoverishRiskReconstructionModel).Development,Displacement, Rehabilitation, Environment, Climate Change are themajor areas of interests. He published acoupleofarticlesonthesubjectinvariousreputedjournalsandcontributedpaperstoaneditedvolume.Healsopresentedpapersatthestate,nationalandinternationalseminars,workshopsandconferencesandcanbereachedat:[email protected]
Deepa Kylasam IyerDeepaKylasamIyer isanMPhilcandidate indevelopmentstudiesatUniversityofCambridgeandtheresearchdirectorofCambridgeDevelopmentInitiative.Herprimaryresearcharea is landdistribution indevelopmentandherdissertationexploreshowsocialmovementsopenchannelsofinstitutionalchangeinlandholdingandcanbereachedatdk547@cam.ac.uk
Francis KuriakoseFrancisKuriakoseisaResearchFellowatErasmusUniversity,Rotterdam.Hisresearchinterestsincludeeconomictheory,historyoffinance,behaviouraleconomicsaswellasinstitutionalaspectsofhighereducation.Hiscurrentresearch project explores how technology and automation alters institutional structures and can be [email protected]
I MaruthiDrIMaruthiisanAssociateProfessor&HeadintheAgricultureDevelopmentRuralTransformationCentre(ADRTC),at Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC), Bengaluru. He obtained MA and M.Phil from GulbargaUniversity;andPh.DfromUniversityofPoona,Pune.Hepublishedmanypapersandbooks.Andalsohecompletedseveral projects.Andsomeof hispapersare inpipeline.Hehasa vast experience in social changeand [email protected]
Pesala PeterDr.Pesala Peter is working as a Consultant in ADRTC, at Institute for Social and Economic change (ISEC),Bengaluru.Heworkeddifferentreputedinstitutions.Hehaspresentedpapersinnationalandinternationalseminars.Sofarhepublishednearly24papersincludingjournals,papersineditedbooksandworkingpapersandcanbereachedat:[email protected]
Madhavi MarwahMadhaviMarwahisaPhDscholarattheCentreforEconomicStudiesandPolicy,InstituteforSocialandEconomicChange (ISEC),Bengaluru, (Karnataka).Herdoctoral research isonenvironmental and institutionalaspectsofgroundwatermanagementinWestBengal,withspecificfocusonarsenicaffectedregions.ShecompletedherMScinDevelopmentEconomicsin2012fromSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies,UniversityofLondon(London).Prior to joining ISEC,shehasworkedwith internationalorganisationssuchas InternationalWaterManagementInstitute.Herresearch interests includewaterresourceeconomicsandmanagement,environmentaleconomics,institutionaleconomicsandcanbereachedat:
ADVERTISEMENT TARIFFJournal of Governance & Public Policywillacceptalimitednumberofcorporateandinstitutionaladvertisements.Thesizeofthejournalis9.5”X7.0”.Thetariffratesfortheadvertisementinthejournalareasfollowsw.e.f.01-January-2015.
The United Nations (UN),withmorethan190memberstates, is themostimportant institution in the area ofglobalgovernance.
Whatever may be its real andperceived inadequacies, the UN andits specialised agencies constitutean ever-growing realm of voluntaryand not-so-voluntary compliance ofinternational laws, rules, regulations,conventions, and practices by nationstatesandpeoplesaroundtheworld.
By all accounts, the UN system ofthe post-War vintage needs to bereformed and restructured to reflecttheradicallytransformedglobalpowerstructure implementation in the 21stcentury. Till that happens, the UN istheonly‘inter-national’governingbodyavailableformankind.
As such, no serious study ofgovernance&publicpolicyiscompletewithoutincludingtheworldbodyinitsambit.
Institute of Public Enterprise (IPE),Hyderabad, isanon-profit educationalsociety devoted toEducation, Training,Research andConsultancy forbusiness enterprisesin public and privatesectors. IPE is apremierB-Schoolandis recognised as a
‘CentreofExcellence’by the IndianCouncilofSocialScienceResearch(ICSSR),MinistryofHRD,GovernmentofIndia,fordoctoralstudies.It isalsorecognisedbynineuniversitiesforguidanceofPhDscholars.Ithasdevelopedstrong linkswith industryandacademic institutionsand is thefoundermemberoftheAssociationofIndianManagementSchools(AIMS).
IPEstronglybelievesthatHRdevelopment includingeducation iscrucialfor economicgrowth.Aspart of its long-termeducationprogramme, theInstituterunsanAICTE-approvedPGDiplomainBusinessManagement,whichisalsorecognisedasequivalenttoMBAbytheAssociationofIndianUniversities(AIU).Addedtoit,theInstituteoffersMBAinPublicEnterprisefor practicing managers in collaboration with Osmania University. Withthechangingneedsof the industry, theInstitutealsorunssector-specificPGDM programmes in Retail & Marketing, Banking, Insurance andFinancialServices,Biotechnologyand InternationalBusiness,aswellasanExecutivePGDMprogramme.
TheInstitutehasastrongresearchwingwithanumberofresearchscholars,sponsored by ICSSR and IPE,working on topics of current interest. ItsPhDprogrammeisoneof the largest insocialsciences.Research,bothbasic andapplied, is the forte of the Institute andhelps it in its trainingand educational activities. IPE’s research studies are extensively usedby the Committee on Public Undertakings (COPU), other Legislativeand Government Committees, the Economic Advisory Council to thePrimeMinister, several Ministries of the Government of India, PlanningCommission, Standing Committee on Public Enterprises (SCOPE) andseveralFinance&PayCommissions.
PGDM - Banking, Insurance and Financial Services***$
PGDM - International Business***$
PGDM - Retail Marketing**$
PGDM - Human Resource Management*$
PGDM - Executive* *** Approved by AICTE, recognized as MBA equivalent by AIU, NBA Accredited ** Approved by AICTE, recognized as MBA equivalent by AIU * Approved by AICTE $ AICTE approved program for Foreign Nationals, PIO, OCI, Gulf residents
