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General Technical Report PNW-138June 1982

REHABILITATINGAND ENHANCINGSTREAM HABITAT:1. REVIEW AND EVALUATION

JAMES D. HALL and CALVIN O. BAKER

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest ServicePacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station

Influence of Forest and Rangeland Management on Anadromous Fish Habitat in Western North America

FILE COPY EDITOR'S

ABSTRACT

The literature and many unpublished documents on rehabilitating and enhancing stream habitat for salmonid fishes are reviewed. conceptual basis for habitat management are considered, followed by a review of successful and un’successful techniques for manipulation of spawning, rearing, and riparian habitat. Insufficient attention to evaluation of past work has slowed the development of habitat management for anadromous salmonids in the West. Recent developments, including improved design of structures to accommodate variable streamflow, show promise of permitting increased application of these techniques. Past work in the West has emphasized management of spawning habitat. increased emphasis on rehabilitation and enhancement of rearing and riparian habitat. The importance of a strong program of habitat protection is emphasized.

The historical development and

We recommend

KEYWORDS: Fish habitat, habitat improvement, riparian habitat, anadromous fish, salmonids.

USDA FOREST SERVICE General Technical Report PNW- I 38

INFLUENCE OF FOREST AND RANGELAND MANAGEMENTON ANADROMOUS FISH HABITAT IN WESTERN NORTH AMERICA

William R. Meehan, Technical Editor

12. Rehabilitating and Enhancing Stream Habitat: 1. Review and Evaluation

JAMES D. HALL Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon 9733 1

CALVIN 0. BAKER U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Hebo Ranger District Hebo, Oregon 97122

1982

PACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , Portland, Oregon

PREFACE

This is one of a series of publications on the influences of forest and rangeland This paper describes management on anadromous fish habitat in western North America.

and evaluates methods that have been used for rehabilitating and enhancing habitat. Our intent is to provide managers and users of forests and rangelands with the most complete information available for estimating the consequences of various management alternatives .

In this series of papers, we will summarize published and unpublished reports and data as well as the observations of scientists and resource managers developed over years of experience in the West. resource managers in planning uses of forest and rangeland resources, and to scientists in planning future research.

These compilations will be valuable to

Previous publications in this series include:

1.

2.

3.

4.

6.

7.

8.

11.

13.

"Habitat requirements of anadromous salmonids," by D. W. Reiser and T. C. Bjornn.

"Impacts of natural events," by Douglas N. Swanston.

"Timber harvest," by T. W. Chamberlin.

"Planning forest roads to protect salmonid habitat," by Carlton S. Yee and Terry D. Roelofs.

"Silvicultural treatments," by Fred H. Everest and R. Dennis Harr.

"Effects of livestock grazing," by William S. Platts.

"Effects of mining," by Susan B. Martin and William S. Platts.

"Processing mills and camps," by Donald C. Schmiege.

"Rehabilitating and enhancing stream habitat: 2. Field applications," by Gordon H. Reeves and Terry D. Roelofs.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SPAWNING HABITAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

G r a v e l R e s t o r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 G r a v e l P l a c e m e n t and C a t c h m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 A c c e s s I m p r o v e m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 F i s h w a y D e v e l o p m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

REARlhGHABITAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 B o u l d e r P l a c e m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 R e a r i n g P o o l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 W i n t e r H a b i t a t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1 5 F l o w A u g m e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 S t r e a m F e r t i l i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

RIPARIANHABITAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1 9

LITEHATUKE CITED . UNPUBLISHED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

DIRECTORY FOR PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS 29

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF FISHES MENTIONED IN TEXT"

Common name Scientific name

Pink salmon Chum salmon Coho salmon Sockeye salmon (kokanee) Chinook salmon Cutthroat trout Rainbow (steelhead) trout Atlantic salmon Brown trout Brook trout Dolly Varden Redside shiner Speckled dace

Oncorhynchus gorhuscha (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum) Salmo clarki Richardson Salmo gairdneri Richardson Salmo salar Linnaeus Salmo trutta Linnaeus Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill) Salvelinus malma (Walbaum) Richardsonius balteatus (Richardson) Rhinichthys osculus (Girard)

--

-- --

LIFrom "A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada," American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 12, Fourth Edition, 1980, 174 p.

INTRODUCTION Techniques f o r r e h a b i l i t a t i n g and

enhancing h a b i t a t have been used f o r over 50 y e a r s i n f i s h e r y management, bu t t o a r e l a t i v e l y small degree i n t h e management of anadromous salmonids on t h e w e s t c o a s t of North America. P r e s e n t t h r e a t s t o many of t h e s e s t o c k s c a l l f o r i n t e n s i f i e d f i s h e r y management. I n c r e a s e d rates of h a r v e s t t h r e a t e n t h e s u r v i v a l of many w i l d p o p u l a t i o n s o f salmon and t r o u t . Increased u s e of o t h e r r e s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g dam b u i l d i n g , l o g g i n g , g r a z i n g , and o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , has d imin ished t h e q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y of h a b i t a t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e s e w i l d s t o c k s . I n p r i n c i p l e , r e h a b i l i t a t i n g and enhancing h a b i t a t are a t t r a c t i v e t e c h n i q u e s f o r working toward r e s t o r i n g t h e abundance of anadromous salmonids .

A r e c e n t l y renewed i n t e r e s t i n h a b i t a t management h a s been accompanied by s e v e r a l review a r t i c l e s and b i b l i o g r a p h i e s ( s e e Barton e t a l . 1972, Park inson and Slaney 1975, Maughan e t a l . 1978, Nelson e t a l . 1978, Wydoski and Duff 1978, Canada Department o f F i s h e r i e s and Oceans 1980). None the less , a review focused more d i r e c t l y on anadromous f i s h h a b i t a t i n t h e f o r e s t e d r e g i o n s of w e s t e r n North America is needed. We p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l review

and e v a l u a t i o n of p a s t e f f o r t s i n h a b i t a t management, b o t h s u c c e s s f u l and u n s u c c e s s f u l . We have inc luded techn iques used f o r b o t h r e s i d e n t and anadromous salmonids i n streams throughout North America. A companion paper (Reeves and Roe lofs 1982) reviews c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s i n t h e West, o u t l i n i n g s u c c e s s f u l t e c h n i q u e s and i n c l u d i n g s p e c i f i c recommendations on implementat ion.

The p r i n c i p a l purpose of t h e s e reviews i s t o make p r a c t i c a l informa- t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o f i e l d managers wishing t o r e h a b i l i t a t e damaged h a b i t a t o r t o enhance h a b i t a t t h a t i s n a t u r a l l y low i n p roduc t ive c a p a c i t y . Thus, we i n c l u d e o n l y t echn iques t h a t r e q u i r e r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e l a b o r and expend- i t u r e . Such c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e measures as spawning channe ls w i l l n o t be i n c l u d e d , even though they r e p r e s e n t a manipu la t ion of h a b i t a t .

The t a s k w a s made more d i f f i c u l t by t h e s c a r c i t y of w r i t t e n documenta- t i o n of p a s t work. Too many p r o j e c t s have not been e v a l u a t e d a t a l l , o r i f any review has been under taken , i t h a s n o t been made g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e . A s a r e s u l t , we were f o r c e d t o r e l y h e a v i l y on p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t and may have missed some impor tan t develop- ments. When r e p o r t s on manipu la t ion of s t ream h a b i t a t were completed, many of t h e s t u d i e s d i d no t p rov ide a n a c c u r a t e assessment of t h e outcome. In a d d i t i o n , a b i a s probably e x i s t s i n t h e publ i shed record because of admin- i s t r a t i v e o r e d i t o r i a l d e c i s i o n s a g a i n s t p u b l i c a t i o n of i n c o n c l u s i v e o r unfavorab le r e s u l t s . We hope t h a t one outcome of o u r review w i l l be i n c r e a s e d awareness of t h e need t o e v a l u a t e and document all projects- - even t h o s e t h a t are u n s u c c e s s f u l . O f t e n v a l u a b l e l e s s o n s can be l e a r n e d from a p p a r e n t f a i l u r e .

1

I n t h e h i s t o r i c a l development of t h e s c i e n c e of w i l d l i f e management, man ipu la t ion of h a b i t a t was t h e l a s t i n a sequence of t echn iques t o be recognized as a n impor tant t o o l f o r t h e manager (Leopold 1933) . The same has g e n e r a l l y been t r u e i n f i s h e r i e s . The f i r s t l a r g e- s c a l e h a b i t a t manage- ment i n streams was i n i t i a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1930 ' s i n t h e Midwest (Hubbs e t a l . 1932). S t imula ted i n p a r t by t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of l a b o r from t h e C i v i l i a n Conse rva t ion Corps, t h i s p u l s e of a c t i v i t y l e d t o a l a r g e number of p r o j e c t s ( e . g . , Davis 1934; Tarzwel l 1935, 1937; Fearnow 19/11). The apparen t s u c c e s s of t h e s e e f f o r t s i n t h e Midwest and E a s t was fol lowed by a number of p r o j e c t s i n the West ( e .g . , Burghduff 1934, Madsen 1938, Tarzwel l 1938). Many e v a l u a t i o n s of w e s t c o a s t e f f o r t s concluded t h a t f 7 i l u r e w a s more common than s u c c e s s ( E h l e r s 1956, Richard 1963, Calhoun 1966). R e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement cont inued a t a s i g n i f i c a n t pace i n t h e Midwest ( S h e t t e r e t a l . 1949; Hale 1969 ; Hunt 1969, 1976) , and s e v e r a l manuals f o r h a b i t a t improvement were produced by S t a t e and F e d e r a l a g e n c i e s (Davis 1935, USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e 1952 , White and Bryn i ldson 1967, USDI Bureau of Land Management 1968). Over t h e y e a r s , m o d i f i c a t i o n s g r a d u a l l y made t echn iques more compat ib le w i t h s e v e r e f r e s h e t c o n d i t i o n s i n w e s t e r n streams. For example, Sweet (1975 unpubl. )L/ l i s t s over 150 p r o j e c t s t h a t have been completed i n Alaska. We are o p t i m i s t i c about chances f o r success of h a b i t a t improvement f o r anadromous f i s h i n t h i s r eg ion .

Some of t h e e a r l y enthusiasm f o r stream improvement w a s probably misguided, i n t h a t p r o j e c t p l a n n e r s f a i l e d t o t a k e account of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l i m i t e d t r o u t p roduc t ion i n a p a r t i c u l a r stream. Many s t r u c t u r e s f a i l e d because they were no t des igned t o wi ths tand f r e s h e t c o n d i t i o n s . For t h e s e r easons and o t h e r s , some f i s h e r y b i o l o g i s t s took a p e s s i m i s t i c view of

t h e p o t e n t i a l of stream "improvement" ( s e e Mullan 1962, R ichards 1 9 G 4 ) . Nonetheless , s i n c e 1932 s e v e r a l well- designed r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s have shown t h a t t h e q u a l i t y of h a b i t a t i s an impor tan t de te rminan t of salmonid biomass and p roduc t ion . Although n e a r l y all t h i s work has been done on nonmigratory p o p u l a t i o n s , many conc lus ions can be r e l a t e d t o anadromous s p e c i e s . The r e s e a r c h e f f o r t h a s t a k e n two r e l a t e d approaches: assessment of salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s b e f o r e and a f t e r h a b i t a t m o d i f i c a t i o n , and q u a n t i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n of h a b i t a t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e abundance of sa lmonids .

One e a r l y , well-documented s t u d y e v a l u a t e d t h e e f f e c t s of d e f l e c t o r s i n a small brook t r o u t stream i n Michigan ( S h e t t e r e t a l . 1949). The d e f l e c t o r s caused a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e number, s i z e , and d e p t h of p o o l s . A s a r e s u l t , s u r v i v a l and s t o c k s i z e of young brook t r o u t were i n c r e a s e d , l e a d i n g t o a s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i n c a t c h r a te and t o t a l c a t c h . Angling e f f o r t i n c r e a s e d 64 p e r c e n t , and a n g l e r s ' c a t c h i n c r e a s e d 141 pe rcen t i n t o t a l weight and 46 p e r c e n t i n weight caught p e r hour.

A s t u d y of cover man ipu la t ion i n a Montana t r o u t stream showed s i g n i f i - c a n t response of t h e t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n s ( p r i m a r i l y rainbow and brook t r o u t ) t o t h e t r e a t m e n t s (Boussu 1954) . Inven- t o r i e s b e f o r e and a f t e r h a b i t a t manipu- l a t i o n showed t h a t t r o u t abundance i n c r e a s e d more t h a n t h r e e times a f t e r a d d i t i o n of b rush cover t o about 5 pe rcen t of t h e stream area. Removal of brush cover t o t a l i n g about 10 p e r c e n t of t h e stream s u r f a c e area r e s u l t e d i n about a 40- percent r e d u c t i o n i n t r o u t biomass. Removal of undercut bank cover t h a t provided s h e l t e r o v e r less t h a n 2 p e r c e n t of t h e stream area r e s u l t e d i n a one- th i rd r e d u c t i o n i n t r o u t abundance.

L'Unpublished r e f e r e n c e s are l i s t e d a f t e r t h e L i t e r a t u r e C i t e d .

2

The best-documented s tudy of habi- t a t manipula t ion w a s under taken on a Wisconsin brook t r o u t stream (Hunt 1971). A 1.7-km s e c t i o n of Lawrence Creek w a s a l t e - r ed i n 1964 by a d d i t i o n of s t r u c t u r e s f o r bank cover and c u r r e n t d e f l e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , stream s u r f a c e area w a s reduced by 50 p e r c e n t , average dep th w a s i n c r e a s e d by 60 p e r c e n t , t h e number of pools w a s i n c r e a s e d by 52 p e r c e n t , and t h e l e n g t h of streambank w i t h permanent overhang- i n g cover was i n c r e a s e d 416 pe rcen t . These changes i n t h e p h y s i c a l h a b i t a t g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d ove rwin t e r s u r v i v a l and biomass of t h e t r o u t popu la t i on . A l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n a n g l e r e f f o r t r e s u l t e d i n an even g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l c a t c h . Average h a r v e s t du r ing 1965-67 w a s n e a r l y t h r e e t i m e s t h e preimprovement average (Hunt 1971). The response of t h e t r o u t popu la t i on t o h a b i t a t development cont inued through t h e per iod 1968-70, when t h e t o t a l t r o u t biomass i n c r e a s e d t o 2.8 times t h e preimprovement v a l u e (Hunt 1976).

S e v e r a l o t h e r e v a l u a t i o n s have been made be fo re and a f t e r h a b i t a t improvement, most of which have shown a p o s i t i v e response by t h e t r o u t popula t ion . The r e s u l t s of many of t h e s e up through 1975 are summarized i n t a b l e 1, taken from White (1975a).

Eva lua t i ng s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t r o u t h a b i t a t and r e l a t i n g such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t r o u t abundance ( u s u a l l y th rough c o r r e l a t i o n t echn iques ) has provided a d d i t i o n a l ev idence of t h e importance of h a b i t a t q u a l i t y t o salmonid abundance. S t u d i e s by L e w i s (1969) S t ewar t (1970) , and Wesche (1976) found cover i n some form t o be t h e h a b i t a t char- a c t e r i s t i c most c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h abundance of brook, brown, and rainbow t r o u t . More complex combin- a t i o n s of h a b i t a t v a r i a b l e s have been i nc luded i n m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s t h a t provided s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t p r e d i c t o r s of abundance f o r j u v e n i l e c u t t h r o a t and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t i n Oregon (Nicke lson and Hafe le 1978) and f o r f o u r s p e c i e s of t r o u t i n

Wyoming (Binns and Eiserman 1979).

The Cooperat ive Ins t ream Flow S e r v i c e Group of t h e U.S. F i s h and W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e has been under tak ing a l a r g e - s c a l e e f f o r t des igned i n p a r t t o p r e d i c t consequences t o t r o u t popula- t i o n s of i nc r emen ta l l o s s e s of s t reamflow (Bovee and Cochnauer 1977, Bovee 1978) . Pre l imina ry r e s u l t s have been encouraging but more work on v a l i d a t i o n of t h e s e models i s needed.

A fundamental concept of h a b i t a t management d e s e r v e s emphasis he re . Care must be t aken t o i d e n t i f y a s p e c t s of h a b i t a t t h a t l i m i t p roduc t ion , and a t t e n t i o n must be focused on improving t h o s e elements . Consider ing t h e t iming of l i f e - h i s t o r y e v e n t s i s a l s o impor tan t . I nc rea s ing t h e q u a n t i t y o r q u a l i t y of some a s p e c t of h a b i t a t l i m i t i n g t h e abundance of f r y w i l l g e n e r a l l y be of l i t t l e use i f a c r i t i c a l s h o r t a g e of cover o r some o t h e r r e sou rce occu r s a t a l a t e r s t a g e i n t h e l i f e c y c l e . A c rude , bu t u s e f u l ana logy t o a b o t t l e n e c k i s shown i n f i g u r e 1, adapted from H a l l and Field-Dodgson (1981). Note t h a t t h e neck i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a t t h e end of t h e b o t t l e ; a c r i t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n can occur w e l l b e fo re mig ra t i on t o t h e ocean ( f i g . l b ) , o r i n t h e ocean a f t e r downstream mig ra t i on .

An example i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e f u t i l i t y of enhancing numbers of f i s h be fo re o p e r a t i o n of t h e f i n a l l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i s provided by an experiment i n a B r i t i s h Columbia s t ream suppor t i ng coho salmon (Mason 1976). I n t h a t system, most young coho go t o s ea a s smol t s a f t e r 1 y e a r of stream r e a r i n g . A r t i f i c i a l f eed ing of j u v e n i l e s du r ing one summer i n c r e a s e d t h e i r abundance s i x t o seven f o l d over p r ev ious ly measured summer biomass. The number of smol t s estimated t o have l e f t t h e system i n t h e fo l l owing s p r i n g , however, w a s w i t h i n t h e range of p rev ious v a l u e s ( f i g . I C ) . I n t h i s stream, t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t a t i o n t o smolt p roduc t ion appeared t o be some a s p e c t of w i n t e r h a b i t a t .

3

Tab le 1--Management e v a l u a t i o n s o f i n - s t r e a m h a b i t a t by measurements o f t r o u t abundance o v e r s e v e r a l y e a r s (adapted f r o m White 1 Y 7 5 a )1/

Stream, w i l d t r o u t species, r e f e r e n c e

Schedule o f p o p u l a t i o n

P r i m a r y management i n v e n t o r i e s E f f e c t s on t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n s and a n g l i n g y i e l d

Lawrence Creek, Wiscons in Brook t r o u t Hunt (1971)

B i g Roche-a-Cri Creek,

t jrook, few brown t r o u t Wiscons in

White (1Y72, 1975b)

w. Branch S p l i t Rock

Brook t r o u t H a l e (1Y6Y)

R i v e r , M inneso ta

Hayes Brook, P r i n c e

Brook t r o u t Saunders and Smi th (1962)

Edward I s l a n d , Canada

Hunt Creek, M i c h i g a n Brook t r o u t S h e t t e r e t a l . (1949)

P igeon R i v e r , M i c h i g a n Brook, brown t r o u t L a t t a (1972)

K i n n i k i n n i c R i v e r ,

Brown, b rook t r o u t FranKenberger (1968)

Wisconsin

Bohemian Val l e y Creek, ki s c o n s i n

Brown t r o u t F rankenberger and

Fassbender (1967)

McKenzie Creek, Wiscons in Brown t r o u t Lowry (1971)

B lack E a r t h Creek, Wiscons in

Brown t r o u t White (1975a)

M t . Vernon Creek, w i scons i n

Brown t r o u t Wni t e (1975a)

Bank- cover d e f l e c t o r s i n 1.7 km (compared w i t h 1.4-km c o n t r o l )

Bank- cover d e f l e c t o r s i n 6 km (compared w i t h 5 km o f i n t e r s p e r s e d c o n t r o l a reas) , c a t t l e fenced o u t , beaver dams removed

D e f l e c t o r s , bank covers , low dams i n 1.6 km (compared w i t h 1.6-km c o n t r o l a rea)

Low dams, d e f l e c t o r s , covers o f p o l e s and b r u s h i n 0.4 km (no c o n t r o l a r e a )

D e f l e c t o r s i n 0.5 km (no c o n t r o l a r e a )

D e f l e c t o r s i n 2 km (compared w i t h 2-km c o n t r o l )

Rock d e f l e c t o r s , r o c k reve tments , fences a long 2.2 km (compared w i t h an unmanaged c o n t r o l )

F loodwater d e t e n t i o n dams, r o c k d e f l e c t o r s , r o c k reve tments , low dams, f e n c i n g i n 4.3 km (compared w i t h 1.2-km c o n t r o l )

D e f l e c t o r s , bank covers, b r u s h covers , low dams i n 5 km (compared w i t h 0.6-km c o n t r o l )

Fencing, dam removal , few d e f l e c t o r s , bank reve tments i n 8 km ( c o n t r o l : M t . Vernon Creek)

Unmanaged c o n t r o l f o r B lack E a r t h Creek ( a d j o i n i n g d r a i n a g e b a s i n ) , dam removed

3 y r b e f o r e , 141 p e r c e n t r i s e i n age-11+ biomass f r o m b e t t e r 3 yr a f t e r o v e r w i n t e r s u r v i v a l . 156 p e r c e n t more f i s h o v e r management 20 cm ( 8 i n ) i n A p r i l . 200 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r

a n g l e r s ' c a t c h .

3 yr b e f o r e , 200 p e r c e n t r i s e i n numbers o f age- I I+ , compar ing 2 yr d u r i n g , 3 p r e- w i t h 3 postmanagement y e a r s o f s i m i l a r 5 y r a f t e r f l o w reg ime i n 3-km s e c t i o n o f most i n t e n s i v e management a l t e r a t i o n . G r e a t e s t e f f e c t was improvement o f

d r o u g h t ( l o w- w a t e r ) abundances o f f i s h . 36 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n c a t c h p e r a n g l e r hour .

3 y r b e f o r e , 9 - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n numbers o f age-0. D o u b l i n g o f 3 yr a f t e r number o f age- I+. A n g l e r success r o s e f r o m 0.58 management t o 0.89 f i s h p e r a n g l e r hour i n managed area, w h i l e

d e c l i n i n g i n c o n t r o l area.

5 yr b e f o r e , 1 y r a f t e r management 5 - y r average.

Number o f age- I+ i n y e a r a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n was h i g h e s t on r e c o r d , n e a r l y doub le t h e p r e v i o u s

1 yr b e f o r e , 35 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n c a t c h p e r a n g l e r hour . 3 yr a f t e r L i t t l e change i n s t a n d i n g c rop . ( c r e e l census 3 y r b e f o r e , 5 yr a f t e r ) management

5 yr b e f o r e , Managed-sect ion t r o u t abundance ( i n te rms o f f a l l 5 yr a f t e r p o p u l a t i o n p l u s a n g l e r s ' c a t c h i n p r e v i o u s management, summer) was o r i g i n a l l y lower t h a n i n c o n t r o l b u t t h e n 5 y r r o s e t o e q u a l i t y a f t e r management, t h e n a f t e r d i s - d e t e r i o r a t e d when d e v i c e s were i n t e n t i o n a l l y m a n t l i n g d e s t r o y e d .

5 yr b e f o r e , 3 yr a f t e r o v e r 14 cm (5.6 i n ) and 150-200 p e r c e n t r i s e i n management

400-500 p e r c e n t r i s e i n numbers o f b rook t r o u t

numbers o f brown t r o u t o v e r 14 cm (5.6 i n ) , w h i l e p o p u l a t i o n s i n c o n t r o l a rea remained e s s e n t i a l l y s t a t i c .

6 y r b e f o r e , 4 yr a f t e r management

O r i g i n a l l y n e g l i g i b l e brown t r o u t abundance (some- t i m e s fewer t h a n 5 p e r km) r o s e t o about 250 p e r km.

2 yr b e f o r e , 10-15 p e r c e n t r i s e i n t o t a l biomass (25 p e r c e n t r i s e f o r age- I+ , 100 p e r c e n t r i s e f o r a g e - I I + ) . I n c o n c l u s i v e changes i n numbers o f f i s h l a r g e r t h a n 15 cm ( 6 i n ) .

6 yr a f t e r management

3 yr d u r i n g , 3 - f o l d i n c r e a s e s i n age-0, t o t a l biomass, and

l a r g e r t h a n 15 cm ( 6 i n ) .

5 yr a f t e r a n g l e r s ' c a t c h p e r hour o f w i l d t r o u t . 5 - f o l d management i n c r e a s e i n s p r i n g ( p r e - a n g l i n g ) numbers o f f i s h

Concur ren t w i t h R e l a t i v e l y m i n o r i n c r e a s e s i n age-0, t o t a l biomass, B lack E a r t h and a n g l e r s ' c a t c h p e r hour o f w i l d t r o u t . 2 - f o l d Creek i n c r e a s e i n s p r i n g numbers o f f i s h l a r g e r t h a n

15 cm ( 6 i n ) a t t r i b u t a b l e t o h y d r o l o g i c even ts .

1 1 T a o l e was p repared f o r p u b l i c a t i o n and r e f e r e n c e d i n Whi te (1975a) . b u t o m i t t e d f r o m p u b l i c a t i o n by e d i t o r i a l e r r o r ( w h i t e , p e r s o n a l communicat ion).

4

The s i n g l e l i m i t i n g- f a c t o r "bo t t l eneck" concept i s a n overs impl i- f i c a t i o n of a complex e c o l o g i c a l p rocess . I n t h e c o n t e x t of a t o t a l system, t h e s e a r c h f o r a s i n g l e f a c t o r can be mis lead ing . u l t i m a t e l i m i t a t i o n vary from y e a r t o y e a r , i t may be composed of i n t e r a c t i n g e lements ; when one i s improved, o t h e r s may t a k e over . Such a n i n t e r a c t i o n may account f o r t h e f a i l u r e of some of t h e we l l- in t en t i oned a t t e m p t s a t h a b i t a t improvement. Notwithstanding t h i s c a u t i o n , however, t h e g e n e r a l concept of l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s r e q u i r e s more a t t e n t i o n i n f u t u r e h a b i t a t - improvement work.

Not on ly may t h e

I n t h e fo l l owing t e x t , we have t r e a t e d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhance- ment methods under t h r e e headings: spawning h a b i t a t , r e a r i n g h a b i t a t , and r i p a r i a n h a b i t a t . These c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t a continuum i n t h e salmonid environment and must be cons idered t o g e t h e r i n e v a l u a t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n .

F igu re 1.--A. Example of a l i m i t i n g - f a c t o r " bo t t l eneck" occu r r ing du r ing t h e w i n t e r j u s t b e f o r e mig ra t i on of smol t s t o t h e ocean. B. Here t h e b o t t l e n e c k occu r s e a r l y i n t h e l i f e of t h e young salmon. Numbers are r e s t r i c t e d by h a b i t a t c o n d i t i o n s du r ing summer, and t h i s l i m i t a t i o n carries through t o smolt m ig ra t i on . C. At tempts t o i n c r e a s e abundance e a r l y i n t h e l i f e h i s t o r y , be fo re o p e r a t i o n of a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r , w i l l u s u a l l y n o t succeed . A r t i f i c i a l f e ed ing r e s u l t e d i n a 6- t o 7- fold i n c r e a s e i n j u v e n i l e coho salmon du r ing summer, b u t w i n t e r h a b i t a t l i m i t a t i o n s reduced smolt numbers t o p r e v i o u s l y observed l e v e l s (Mason 1976).

SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER A

B SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER

im - i

SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER '.I m I .. 1 1 m m I 1 I .. **

C

5

c,

SPAWNING HABITAT S e v e r a l approaches a re a v a i l a b l e

f o r improving spawning h a b i t a t . The t h r e e t h a t have been most s u c c e s s f u l a re :

e Improving t h e q u a l i t y of spawning g r a v e l by removing f i n e sediments ;

spawning g r a v e l ; and

a d u l t s above b a r r i e r s .

e I n c r e a s i n g t h e amount of

o Prov id ing a c c e s s f o r spawning

GRAVEL RESTORATION

An e a r l y development i n r e s t o r- a t i o n of spawning h a b i t a t was t h e d e s i g n and t e s t i n g of a s e l f - p r o p e l l e d amphibious v e h i c l e f o r c l e a n i n g f i n e sediment from spawning g r a v e l . Known as t h e " R i f f l e S i f t e r , " t h e machine w a s des igned t o remove sediment by a c t i o n of h igh- pressure underwater j e t s (Outdoor C a l i f o r n i a 1968) . A s u c t i o n pump f o r c e d sediment- l a d e n water th rough a nozz le on to nearby streambanks. The " R i f f l e S i f t e r " was g r e e t e d w i t h g r e a t enthusiasm (Sher idan e t a l . 1968 unpub l . ) , and e a r l y f i e l d tes ts i n Alaska and n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a appeared promising (Meehan 1971) . I n t h e end, however, t h e machine had many mechan- i c a l problems and w a s abandoned a s a n expensive f a i l u r e .

The concept of a h y d r a u l i c g r a v e l c l e a n e r h a s r e c e n t l y been rev ived on a somewhat smaller scale (Mih 1978, 1979, 1981) . F i e l d tests i n t h e S t a t e of Washington dur ing 1979 and 1980 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e new machine cou ld e f f e c t i v e l y remove f i n e sediments from spawning g r a v e l , bu t s i g n i f i c a n t mechanical problems remained t o be so lved ( A l l e n e t a l . 1981). F u r t h e r t e s t i n g i n 1981 has ach ieved promis ing r e s u l t s (Cowan, p e r s o n a l communica- t i o n l l ) . Work on a n o t h e r h y d r a u l i c g r a v e l c l e a n e r and o t h e r mechanical methods of c l e a n i n g g r a v e l i s a l s o underway i n B r i t i s h Columbia (Andrew 1981) .

A b u l l d o z e r h a s been used t o remove h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of f i n e sediment i n s e v e r a l impor tan t spawning areas used by p ink and chum salmon i n Puget Sound. I n 1969, a p i l o t s t u d y w a s i n i t i a t e d i n which 1840 m 2 of h e a v i l y s i l t e d spawning g r a v e l i n t h e lower Dungeness R ive r were c leaned (He i se r 1972a unpubl. ). C o n c e n t r a t i o n of sediment less t h a n 0.8 mm d iamete r w a s reduced d r a m a t i c a l l y , and s u r v i v a l of p i n k salmon f r y w a s 90 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r i n t h e c l eaned area t h a n i n t h e immediately a d j a c e n t uncleaned area (He i se r 1972a unpubl. ). Fine sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s con t inued t o d e c l i n e each y e a r a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l c l e a n i n g w i t h a b u l l d o z e r (1971, 12 .8 p e r c e n t ; 1972, 12 .3 p e r c e n t ; and 1973, 10 .4 p e r c e n t ) . Gerke (1973) b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s d e c r e a s e r e s u l t e d from n a t u r a l h y d r a u l i c a c t i o n , f i n e sand and s i l t being removed a t a f a s t e r rate than they acc rued from bedload t r a n s p o r t . S i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s have been made i n o t h e r P a c i f i c Northwest r i v e r s and streams where s o u r c e s of sediment i n p u t have been c o n t r o l l e d (McNeil and Ahnel l 1964, Shapley and Bishop 1965, Burns 1972, P l a t t s and Megahan 1975) .

2'A d i r e c t o r y f o r p e r s o n a l communi- c a t i o n s i s provided a t t h e end of t h e paper .

6

Cleaning w i th a bu l l doze r has a l s o shown f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s i n some o t h e r Washington streams (He i se r 1971, 1972b, unpubl . ; Gerke 1973). On t h e Cedar R ive r , 29 000 m2 of g r a v e l were c leaned a t a c o s t of $0.05/m2. I n t h e subsequent spawning season, 3,000 sockeye and 50 chinook salmon used t h e area, which i n prev ious y e a r s suppor ted almost no f i s h . Heiser (1972b unpubl . ) e s t ima ted a b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o of 14 .3 : l f o r t h e y e a r and f e l t t h a t i t would be economical ly j u s t i f i a b l e t o c l e a n each y e a r i f necessary .

Not a l l a t t e m p t s a t g r a v e l rehab- i l i t a t i o n w i t h b u l l d o z e r s have m e t w i th t h e succes s of t h o s e mentioned above. The percen tage of f i n e sediment in spawnfng a r e a s on t h e S t i l l a g u a m i s h R ive r , Washington, w a s reduced from 19 t o 8.7 p e r c e n t , bu t t h e r e w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t use by spawning f i s h a f t e r c l e a n i n g (He i se r 1972a unpubl. ).

L e s s complicated means of g r a v e l c l e a n i n g can a l s o be e f f e c t i v e . Mundie and Mounce (1978) r e p o r t on t h e s u c c e s s f u l u se of a p o r t a b l e pump and f i r e h o s e t o c l e a n g r a v e l i n a small channel . Youth Conserva t ion Corps crews used shove l s t o t u r n over g r a v e l t o remove s i l t and d e b r i s t h a t accumulated a f t e r beavers c o n s t r u c t e d a dam on Bear Creek, a s m a l l , sp r ing- f e d t r i b u t a r y of Upper Russian Lake, Alaska (Nelson, p e r s o n a l communica- t i o n ) . The dam w a s t hen broken, produc- i n g a f r e s h e t t h a t removed t h e r e l e a s e d m a t e r i a l . A f o u r f o l d i n c r e a s e i n sur- v i v a l of sockeye salmon from egg t o f r y was recorded i n t h e spawning season a f t e r t h i s p r o j e c t w a s completed.

Under most c i r cums tances , g r a v e l c l ean ing w i l l p rov ide o n l y a temporary b e n e f i t u n l e s s t h e source of sedimen- t a t i o n i s i d e n t i f i e d and measures taken t o reduce t h i s i n p u t . Of ten t h e most e f f e c t i v e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n measure f o r exces s ive i n s t r eam sediment i s i n c r e a s e d watershed p r o t e c t i o n .

An example of t h e succes s of such a p r o t e c t i o n program i n r e h a b i l i t a t i n g damaged spawning a r e a s comes from t h e South Fork Salmon River i n Idaho ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1975). The r i v e r channe l had become choked w i t h sediment t h a t r e s u l t e d from a c c e l e r a t e d s u r f a c e e r o s i o n and l a n d s l i d e s . The problem was made worse when a pe r iod of i n t e n s e r a i n f a l l from 1962 t o 1965 fo l lowed logg ing a c t i v i t y and road c o n s t r u c t i o n on s t e e p , u n s t a b l e s l o p e s . The r e s u l t i n g 3.5- fold i n c r e a s e i n r i v e r bedload p r a c t i c a l l y de s t royed t h e spawning p o t e n t i a l of t h e main r i v e r . A s a r e s u l t , t h e USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e dec l a r ed a moratorium on logging and road c o n s t r u c t i o n on Na t iona l F o r e s t l a n d s i n t h e watershed of t h e South Fork i n 1965. Watershed r e h a b i l i t a t i o n was begun t h a t y e a r , i n c l u d i n g t h e p l a n t i n g of v e g e t a t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n of roads. Throughout t h e program, sediment l e v e l s i n t h e r i v e r channe l were monitored.

From 1966 t o 1974, t h e pe rcen t age of f i n e sed iments ( l e s s t han 4.7 mm) i n t h e spawning areas decreased p r o g r e s s i v e l y ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1975). Concent ra t ions i n f o u r moni- t o r e d areas decreased from a n ave rage of about 55 pe rcen t i n 1966 ( r ange 45 t o g r e a t e r t han 80 p e r c e n t ) t o about 2 1 p e r c e n t i n 1974 ( r ange 1 2 t o 26 p e r c e n t ) . After t h e moratorium w a s d e c l a r e d , sediment sou rces f o r t h e r i v e r were d r a s t i c a l l y reduced because of d r ama t i c r e d u c t i o n s i n s u r f a c e and l a n d s l i d e e r o s i o n . When sediment i n p u t w a s c u r t a i l e d , t h e energy of t h e r i v e r g r a d u a l l y moved t h e accumulated f i n e sed iments downstream. The p a r t i c l e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e South Fork w a s n e a r optimum f o r spawning of chinook salmon i n 1974 ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1975). F u r t h e r improvement i n t h e c o n d i t i o n of f i s h h a b i t a t l e d t o a c a u t i o u s l i f t i n g of t h e moratorium on l ogg ing and road c o n s t r u c t i o n i n 1978, w i t h f u t u r e a c t i v i t y t o be c l o s e l y monitored (Megahan e t a l . 1980) .

7

GRA AND

VEL PLACEMENT

Where spawning area i s l i m i t e d , a t t e m p t s have been made t o provide a d d i t i o n a l spawning g r a v e l by con- s t r u c t i n g catchment d e v i c e s . These s t r u c t u r e s s t a b i l i z e in t roduced g r a v e l o r a l l o w t h e c a p t u r e of bedload. Most of t h e s e e a r l y a t t e m p t s on west c o a s t streams w e r e unsuccess fu l . Calhoun (1966) documented s e v e r a l of t h e s e e f f o r t s and suggested t h a t h igh c o s t and s h o r t l i f e would g e n e r a l l y l i m i t t h e u s e of i n s t r e a m s t r u c t u r e s on t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e of North America. I n s p i t e of c o n s i d e r a b l e f a i l u r e , t h e a c t i v i t y h a s con t inued , and some s u c c e s s has been r e p o r t e d .

Before 1972, adequate spawning g r a v e l was l a c k i n g i n P e r k i n s Creek, Washington (Gerke 1973) . Wooden weirs were i n s t a l l e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s t o p rov ide a n optimum g r a d i e n t f o r spawn- i n g chum salmon, and graded g r a v e l was in t roduced i n t o t h e channel . A f t e r h o l e s were d r i l l e d i n t h e w e i r s t o a l l o w passage of i n t r a g r a v e l water , t h e spawner d e n s i t y w a s tw ice a s h i g h i n areas where g r a v e l had been i n t r o- duced than it w a s i n unimproved areas, and f r y o u t p u t from t h e stream was a l s o i n c r e a s e d (Gerke 1974).

Gravel placement h a s a l s o shown promise i n r e h a b i l i t a t i n g streams dredged d u r i n g go ld mining. t h e Oregon S t a t e Game Commission r e p l a c e d o v e r 10 000 m3 of g r a v e l and rock t h a t had been dredged from 5.4 km of Clear Creek i n n o r t h e a s t Oregon (West e t a l . 1965b). Rock s i l l s w e r e used t o h e l p s t a b i l i z e t h e in t roduced g r a v e l . Few f i s h were p r e s e n t t o u s e t h e i n t r o d u c e d g r a v e l i n t h e f i r s t y e a r , but i n t h e t h r e e fo l lowing y e a r s , a n ave rage of 137 chinook redds w a s observed i n t h e in t roduced g r a v e l , com- pared t o 34 i n t h e small amount of o r i g i n a l g r a v e l t h a t remained a f t e r dredging. I n t h e 3 y e a r s b e f o r e t h e p r o j e c t , a n ave rage of 24 r edds w a s counted i n t h i s g r a v e l . S i n c e then , t h e modif ied s e c t i o n s of Clear Creek have been t h e s u b j e c t of annua l

I n 1961,

spawning su rveys and h a b i t a t e v a l u a t i o n . Although t h e channe l morphology and g r a v e l accumula t ions have changed c o n s i d e r a b l y d u r i n g t h e y e a r s , some g r a v e l d e p o s i t s c o n t i n u e t o provide spawning s i t e s f o r salmon ( C l a i r e , p e r s o n a l communication).

I n streams w i t h adequa te g r a v e l bedload, but d e f i c i e n t i n r e t e n t i o n of t h i s g r a v e l , v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s have been used w i t h some s u c c e s s t o p rov ide spawning areas Gabions ( r e c t a n g u l a r wire-mesh b a s k e t s t h a t can be f i l l e d w i t h rock) have been most commonly used , but have on ly r e c e n t l y been s u c c e s s f u l . S e v e r a l a t t e m p t s have been made on t h e Oregon C o a s t , where bedrock forms a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of t h e s u b s t r a t e of many streams. The Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission con- s t r u c t e d low-head gab ions and i n t r o- duced g r a v e l behind t h e s t r u c t u r e s i n a n a t t empt t o c rea te spawning h a b i t a t f o r f a l l chinook salmon on t h e main s t e m of t h e Alsea Rive r ( F e s s l e r 1970; G a r r i s o n 1971a, b ) . These s t r u c t u r e s , p l aced p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f low i n a l a r g e r i v e r , f a i l e d bo th t o s low t h e ra te a t which in t roduced materials were c a r r i e d downstream and t o accumulate adequa te replacement g r a v e l . U l t i - mate ly , t h e p r o j e c t was abandoned,

Use of gab ions a l s o had l i t t l e success i n t h e S ius law Rive r d r a i n a g e . The Bureau of Land Management cons t r u c - t e d 44 gabion dams of v a r i o u s d e s i g n between 1968 and 1975 a t a c o s t o f about $40,000 (Hammer 1976 unpubl . ) . Washed g r a v e l w a s in t roduced behind most o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s , Desp i t e t h e f a c t t h a t many s t r u c t u r e s have washed o u t o r r o l l e d o v e r and no l o n g e r hold g r a v e l , t h e p r o j e c t h a s ach ieved some s u c c e s s (Hammer, p e r s o n a l communica- t i o n ) . Limited spawning by chinook and coho salmon and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t has been recorded behind some of t h e gab ion dams, and r e l a t i v e l y more j u v e n i l e s have been found n e a r t h e s t r u c t u r e s t h a n i n su r round ing bedrock areas (Hammer 1977 unpubl ) Although anadromous f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s have n o t appeared t o i n c r e a s e i n t h e area, summer water t empera tu res a re ex t remely h igh and may be a t leas t i n p a r t t h e cause of low salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e d r a i n a g e (Johnson 1977 unpubl , )

8

Another gabion p r o j e c t t h a t f a i l e d was l o c a t e d on Pass Creek, i n t h e North Umpqua d r a i n a g e i n Oregon. This stream w a s t h e s i t e of e x t e n s i v e r e h a b i l i t a - t i o n e f f o r t s a f t e r logging i n c l u d i n g

i n con junc t i on w i t h placement of 11 gabion dams (Mag i l l 1971) . I n i t i a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s w a s q u i t e promising, w i t h a d u l t s t e e l h e a d observed u s ing t h e added spawning g r a v e l . A t least two of t h e gab ion dams have s i n c e washed o u t , however, and t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e remaining s t r u c t u r e s no l o n g e r ho ld s u i t a b l e spawning g r a v e l ( O l i v e r , pe r sona l communication).

t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of 1025 m 3 of g r a v e l

Desp i t e many f a i l u r e s , some gabion i n s t a l l a t i o n s have provided u s e f u l h a b i t a t enhancement. For example, 1 0 gab ion dams were c o n s t r u c t e d on Johns Creek, a t r i b u t a r y of t h e Hamma Hamma R ive r i n Washington, a stream w i t h a 3.05- change i n e l e v a t i o n i n 222 m (Wilson 1976). These s t r u c t u r e s wer.e s u c c e s s f u l i n r e t a i n i n g g r a v e l and p rov id ing s u i t a b l e g r a d i e n t f o r spawning .

Egg- to- fry s u r v i v a l of p ink and chum salmon improved on J o r s t e d Creek, Washington, a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n of gab ions des igned t o reduce g r a v e l s cou r and s h i f t i n g . The most d r ama t i c d i f f e r e n c e s between s t a b i l i z e d and u n s t a b i l i z e d s e c t i o n s occur red i n y e a r s of h igh f low; i n y e a r s of low f low, s u r v i v a l w a s about t h e same i n a l l s e c t i o n s (Wilson 1976). More than 4,000 a d u l t chum salmon were counted i n J o r s t e d Creek i n December 1978 (Wilson, p e r s o n a l communication). This i n c r e a s e i n abundance of spawning f i s h w a s thought t o be because of improved spawning and r e a r i n g condi- t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from gabion placement.

The u se of l o g s i l ls t o c a p t u r e spawning g r a v e l has been s u c c e s s f u l . I n Oregon f i v e s i l l s were c o n s t r u c t e d on Anvil Creek i n t h e summer of 1973, and 350 spawning chinook salmon were observed i n t h e improved area i n January 1974 (Bender 1978 unpubl . ) . An average of 200 f i s h p e r yea r w a s recorded th rough 1978, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e prev ious long- term average of 50 spawners i n t h a t s e c t i o n . S tee lhead t r o u t have a l s o made use of t h e spawning a r e a (Bender and Mullarkey, pe r sona l communication).

The Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s and Oceans has r e c e n t l y begun a program t o develop new spawning a r e a s f o r chum salmon i n sou the rn B r i t i s h Columbia. Ground-water f low i s enhanced i n former f l o o d channels now i s o l a t e d from t h e main r i v e r . P r e l i m- i n a r y assessment of f r y produc t ion from t h e s e areas sugges t s t h a t t h e technique has promise ( L i s t e r e t a l . 1980).

Recent developments i n gab ion d e s i g n , which appear t o have g r e a t l y improved chances f o r s u c c e s s , are d i s c u s s e d by Reeves and Roelofs (1982). One s t i m u l u s f o r t h e s e improvements was a n e x c e l l e n t e v a l u a t i o n of problems exper ienced i n gab ion i n s t a l l a t i o n s by Engels (1975 unpubl . ) . This r e p o r t i n c l u d e s d i s c u s s i o n of succes s and f a i l u r e , and s u g g e s t s m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o improve gab ion performance .

ACCESS IMPROVEMENT

H i s t o r i c a l l y , improvement of access t o spawning areas by removal of bar- r i e r s t o mig ra t i on has been t h e most common form of h a b i t a t r e h a b i l i t a - t i o n and enhancement f o r anadromous salmonids on t h e w e s t c o a s t . Unfor- t u n a t e l y , however, i t i s a l s o t h e least documented o r eva lua t ed of a l l t e chn iques .

9

BARRIER REMOVAL

Debr i s and l o g j a m s pose a major t h r e a t t o m i g r a t i o n of anadromous salmonids. Jams were e s t i m a t e d t o have prevented a c c e s s t o ove r 500 miles of u s a b l e stream h a b i t a t i n Alaska i n 1971 ( E l l i o t t 1978). More t h a n 200 jams, ranging from p a r t i a l t o complete b a r r i e r s t o anadromous f i s h , were e s t i m a t e d t o be p r e s e n t on a s i n g l e Ranger D i s t r i c t of t h e S ius law N a t i o n a l F o r e s t i n wes te rn Oregon i n 1978 ( H e l l e r , p e r s o n a l communication). Heller, however, noted t h e d i f f i c u l t y of p rov id ing a n a c c u r a t e i n v e n t o r y , because of s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n d e b r i s l o c a t i o n from one l a r g e s torm t o t h e nex t .

One of t h e ea r l i e s t documented e f f o r t s t o remove d e b r i s jams w a s r e p o r t e d by Merrell (1951). About 170 major and minor jams were removed from 43 km of t h e C l a t s k a n i e R ive r sys tem i n Oregon. Stream c l e a r a n c e and access development were a l s o a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of p r o j e c t s t o improve c o a s t a l streams conducted i n Oregon dur ing t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 ' s (Summers and Neubauer 1965 unpubl . ) . More t h a n a dozen f ishways were i n s t a l l e d o r r e p a i r e d and more t h a n 50 l o g jams were removed.

Ex tens ive stream c l e a r a n c e h a s a l s o been under taken i n C a l i f o r n i a . During t h e l a t e 1950 ' s and i n t o t h e 1960' s , a program t o remove o l d l o g jams was c a r r i e d o u t by t h e C a l i f o r n i a Department of F i s h and G a m e on n e a r l y eve ry major c o a s t a l r i v e r system t h a t suppor ted anadromous f i s h , from t h e Oregon borde r s o u t h t o San ta Cruz (Evans, p e r s o n a l communication). T h i s w a s a very e x t e n s i v e e f f o r t , i nvo lv ing l a r g e e x p e n d i t u r e s by t h e W i l d l i f e Conservat ion Board, bu t very few of t h e r e p o r t s submi t t ed were pub l i shed . An e x c e p t i o n was t h e work on t h e Moyo R i v e r , where n e a r l y 60 km of stream were c l e a r e d of l o g jams, p a r t i a l b a r r i e r s , and d e b r i s t h a t t h r e a t e n e d t o form f u t u r e jams (Holman and Evans 1964).

Log d e b r i s jams have a l s o r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n e l sewhere on t h e P a c i f i c Coas t , Roppel (1978 unpubl . ) l i s t e d 88 major s t ream- clearance p r o j e c t s conducted i n t h e S t a t e of Alaska by t h e USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e and Alaska Department of F i s h and G a m e between 1952 and 1978.

I f pub l i shed r e p o r t s a l o n e were cons ide red , t h e scope of p a s t log- jam removal o p e r a t i o n s would be g r e a t l y underes t ima ted . One example from t h e Northwest c a n be found i n t h e r ecord of p a s t removal p r o j e c t s i n t h e S ius law Rive r b a s i n i n wes te rn Oregon. Although Saltzman (1964 unpub l . ) r e p o r t s on major e f f o r t s t o c l ea r d e b r i s du r ing 1962-64, 1948-50 was a l s o a t i m e of e x t e n s i v e undocumented stream c leanup , and numerous c l e a r a n c e p r o j e c t s have been under taken s i n c e t h e w i n t e r of 1975-76. I n a d d i t i o n , many small p r o j e c t s were conducted dur ing 1936-38, 1944-46, 1957-58, and 1965-66, f o r which few r e c o r d s a re a v a i l a b l e (Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commis- s i o n , F i s h e r y D i v i s i o n Annual Repor t s , numerous y e a r s ) . Added t o t h i s l i s t are t h e many removal p r o j e c t s under taken by p r i v a t e companies, o f which no r e c o r d s a t a l l were k e p t . I f a l l t h e d e b r i s removal p r o j e c t s completed i n t h i s d r a i n a g e o v e r t h e p a s t 45 y e a r s cou ld be l i s t e d , t h e t o t a l would be l a r g e , p o s s i b l y more t h a n l,OOOe The same c o n c l u s i o n would probably a p p l y t o o t h e r r i v e r d r a i n- ages i n Oregon, and t o many o t h e r P a c i f i c Northwest wa te r sheds a s w e l l .

Although l o g jams have undoubtedly d e c l i n e d i n bo th number and s i z e , t h e y are s t i l l a common f e a t u r e of P a c i f i c Northwest streams. I n t h e p a s t , jams were most o f t e n caused by poor logg ing p r a c t i c e s and f i r e s , bu t now l a r g e d e b r i s jams are most commonly caused by d e b r i s t o r r e n t s d u r i n g major s to rms . The l a r g e s to rms of 1964-65, 1972, 1975, and 1977 l e d t o fo rmat ion of many jams.

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For many y e a r s , road c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s cons ide red t h e major cause of mass s o i l f a i l u r e l e a d i n g t o d e b r i s ava l- anches and t o r r e n t s i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest (Swanston and Swanson 1976) . Recent ev idence from s t e e p l a n d s i n t h e Oregon Coast Ranges, however, s u g g e s t s t h a t c l e a r c u t t i n g a l o n e can a l s o t r i g g e r a s i g n i f i c a n t number of such e v e n t s (Gresswel l e t a l . 1979). Thus, as a r e s u l t of p a s t and f u t u r e f o r e s t h a r v e s t i n g , l o g d e b r i s jams w i l l c o n t i n u e t o pose a s i g n i f i c a n t t h r e a t t o anadromous f i s h h a b i t a t i n t h e s t e e p l a n d s of t h e P a c i f i c Northwest, and jam removal w i l l con t inue t o be a n impor tan t management a c t i v i t y .

Desp i t e t h e e x t e n s i v e e f f o r t i n d e b r i s j a m removal, s u r p r i s i n g l y l i t t l e e f f o r t h a s been made t o e v a l u a t e t h e impact of t h e s e stream c l e a r a n c e p r o j e c t s , e i t h e r on t h e anadromous f i s h popu la t i ons t hey are designed t o enhance, o r on h a b i t a t q u a l i t y downstream from t h e removal area. Large amounts of f i n e sediment are u s u a l l y s t o r e d behind d e b r i s jams, and complete removal of t h e j a m r e s u l t s i n t r a n s p o r t of t h a t material t o downstream areas. Removal of one p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e j a m i n t h e Oregon Coast Ranges r e s u l t e d i n t h e release of over 5000 m3 of sediment t o t h e stream channel below t h e removal s i t e (Beschta 1979) .

Moderate amounts of d e b r i s i n a stream can provide f a v o r a b l e salmonid h a b i t a t , and e x c e s s i v e removal of d e b r i s may r e s u l t i n f u r t h e r h a b i t a t deg rada t i on ( H a l l and Baker 1975 unpubl . ) . An example of such a n e f f e c t comes from a s tudy i n c o a s t a l Alaska. The numbers of j u v e n i l e sea- run Dol ly Varden decreased immediately a f t e r complete removal of accumulated logging d e b r i s i n Spr ing Pond Creek ( E l l i o t t 1978) . Two y e a r s l a te r , t h e popu la t i on had decreased by 80 pe rcen t . Changes i n s p e c i e s abundance and compos i t ion of t h e ben th i c mac ro inve r t eb ra t e popu la t i on l e d t o a s h i f t i n t h e d i e t of t h e f i s h . This s t udy recommended t h a t many d e b r i s removal p r o j e c t s be r eeva lua t ed .

Baker (1979) po in t ed o u t s e v e r a l c o n s t r a i n t s t o a thorough a n a l y s i s of o p e r a t i o n s t o remove d e b r i s jams. I n a s tudy of seven removal s i tes i n wes te rn Oregon, he found t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l shor t- te rm impacts were release of sediment and d e b r i s t rapped behind t h e j a m and d e s t r u c t i o n of e x i s t i n g h a b i t a t w i t h i n t h e j a m . Sometimes t h e s e n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s can be o f f s e t by g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d use by anadromous f i s h above t h e j a m , bu t t h e t r a d e- o f f s are o f t e n hard t o eva lua t e . Bake r ' s work sugges ted i n c r e a s e d emphasis on p a r t i a l removal of d e b r i s jams.

A s tudy of t h e r o l e of l a r g e ,

d e b r i s i n streams examined t h e e f f e c t s of removal of about 70 pe rcen t of t he n a t u r a l d e b r i s from one of two ad j a- c e n t small t r i b u t a r i e s i n t h e Clearwater R ive r d r a inage , Washington ( L e s t e l l e 1978). Nonmigratory c u t t h r o a t t r o u t were t h e on ly salmonids p r e s e n t , and t h e i r numbers were l i t t l e a f f e c t e d i n t h e f i r s t few months a f t e r removal of d e b r i s i n August. The major e f f e c t w a s d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e streambed du r ing t h e fo l l owing w i n t e r , i n c l u d i n g widespread d e p o s i t i o n and scour ing . Changes i n t h e p h y s i c a l h a b i t a t may have been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n numbers of t r o u t observed du r ing t h e w in t e r . '

Within a y e a r of removal, however, most of t h e d e b r i s volume had re- accumulated, and t h e t r o u t popu la t i on had r e t u r n e d t o i t s p rev ious l e v e l .

Some d e b r i s jams may a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e amount of h a b i t a t a v a i l a b l e f o r r e a r i n g j u v e n i l e salmonids, p rov id ing they are not e x t e n s i v e enough t o comple te ly block passage upstream. A s t udy c u r r e n t l y underway i n t h e Oregon Coast Ranges has i d e n t i f i e d a t least one jam t h a t formed a sma l l impoundment and i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y of j u v e n i l e coho salmon i n t h e impoundment about 10- fold over t h a t i n t h e n a t u r a l channel , based on l i n e a l stream d i s t a n c e ( E v e r e s t , pe r sona l communication). More thorough e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r o l e of d e b r i s i n streams and p o l i c i e s f o r i t s removal i s needed.

11

Log d r i v i n g , o f t e n invo lv ing t h e u s e of s p l a s h dams on smaller streams and r i v e r s , was a common p r a c t i c e i n t h e e a r l y days of t h e logging i n d u s t r y i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest. The scour- i n g of stream bottoms and blockage of salmonid r u n s by t h e dams were two prominent impacts on f i s h popu la t ions . The I n t e r n a t i o n a l P a c i f i c Salmon F i s h e r i e s Commission (1966) documented many of t h e consequences of log d r i v i n g on t h e S t e l l a k o River i n B r i t i s h Columbia, i n c l u d i n g t h e fo rma t ion of numerous l o g j a m s . Wendler and Deschamps (1955) provided a n e x c e l l e n t account of t h e use of logging dams i n Washington, i nc lud ing a map of t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . These b a r r i e r s t o m i g r a t i o n have been g r a d u a l l y removed, by n a t u r a l means and by v a r i o u s logging companies o r t h e Washington S t a t e Department of F i s h e r i e s .

FISHWAY DEVELOPMENT

Removing log j a m s i s r e l a t i v e l y easy compared t o some b a r r i e r s ; provid- i n g a passageway over and around n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l o b s t r u c t i o n s has f r e q u e n t l y been necessa ry . Among t h e d e v i c e s employed have been f i s h l a d d e r s , l o c k s , tramways and t r o l l e y s , and a v a r i e t y of o t h e r methods of pass ing f i s h upstream and downstream (Clay 1961).

One of t h e many f i sh- passage t echn iques , t h e Deni l f i shway, has p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o f i e l d managers. A m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h i s des ign t h a t i s a d a p t a b l e t o p o r t a b l e use has become known a s t h e Alaskan s t e e p p a s s (Ziemer 1962). T h i s f i s h pas s has been used t o e s t a b l i s h new runs of salmon t o p r e v i o u s l y i n a c c e s s i b l e F r a z e r Lake on Kodiak I s l a n d i n Alaska ( B l a c k e t t 1979). Eggs and f r y of sockeye salmon from nearby s t o c k s were p l a n t e d i n t h e t r i b u t a r i e s beginning i n 1951. I n 1962, a f o u r- s t e p s t e e p p a s s , 64 m l ong , w a s b u i l t t o provide r e t u r n i n g f i s h access o v e r t h e 10-m f a l l s t h a t had p r e v i o u s l y b a r r e d anadromous f i s h . By 1978, t h e run had grown t o 142,000 and p l a n s a re underway t o p rov ide a d d i t i o n a l passage f a c i l i - t ies t o accommodate a run expected t o r e a c h 300-400,000 i n t h e 1980' s ( B l a c k e t t 1979) . A small r u n of chinook salmon has a l s o been developed i n t h e system.

Because of t h e p o t e n t i a l l y l a r g e s i z e of salmon runs i n t h e r eg ion , b a r r i e r bypass p r o j e c t s have a f a v o r a b l e b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o i n Alaska and B r i t i s h Columbia, and as a r e s u l t a re f a i r l y common. Sweet (1975 unpubl . ) l i s t s ove r 20 s t e e p p a s s p r ,o j ec t s i n t h e Alaska r e g i o n , and Narver (1976) r e c o r d s 28 f i shways i n B r i t i s h Columbia. F a r t h e r sou th , a l a r g e number of access p r o j e c t s have a l s o involved l a d d e r i n g of b a r r i e r s . Narver (1976) observed t h a t Oregon a l o n e had f i s h passage f a c i l i t i e s a t 56 n a t u r a l and 79 a r t i f i c i a l obs t ruc- t i o n s , exc luding t h e dams on t h e main Columbia River . Few r e p o r t s , however, have eva lua t ed t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e of t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s . Th i s i s p a r t i c u- l a r l y t r u e of p r o j e c t s f o r improving f i s h passage on small i s o l a t e d stream reaches such as t h o s e blocked by improper ly i n s t a l l e d c u l v e r t s .

C u l v e r t s t h a t are poor ly des igned o r i n s t a l l e d have been a major cause of impai red f i s h passage . An annota- t e d b ib l iog raphy of r e p o r t s d e a l i n g w i t h f i s h passage a t road c r o s s i n g s has r e c e n t l y been prepared (Anderson and Bryant 1980).

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1

REARING HABITAT Most of t he e a r l y work on develop-

ment of r e a r i n g h a b i t a t w a s done i n t h e Midwest, where i n c r e a s e s i n bank cove r and pool area were shown t o i n c r e a s e t h e abundance and h a r v e s t of l e g a l- s i z e d brook t r o u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( S h e t t e r e t a l . 1949, Hunt 1976). Tarzwel l (1938) , however, observed t h a t most midwestern and e a s t e r n t e chn iques were not d i r e c t l y t r a n s f e r a b l e t o w e s t c o a s t streams. Highly v a r i a b l e f low regimes, i nc lud- i n g f r e q u e n t f l o o d s and d rough t s , make many s t r u c t u r e s u n s u i t a b l e o r u n s t a b l e . The u se of i n s t r eam bou lde r s , however, d i d seem t o have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p rovid ing s t a b l e cover and small poo l s i n t h e s e c i r cums tances (Madsen 1938, Tarzwel l 1938) .

BOULDER PLACEMENT

One of t h e e a r l y w e s t c o a s t e f f o r t s i nvo lv ing boulder placement occu r r ed i n C a l i f o r n i a t r o u t streams (Calhoun 1964, 1966). Followup photographs c l e a r l y showed t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r l a r g e bou lde r s t o s u r v i v e major s torms and con t inue t o provide d e s i r a b l e h a b i t a t . Since then , s e v e r a l s t u d i e s have emphasized t h e a s s o c i a t i o n between rock cover and abundance of anadromous f i s h (Hartman 1965, Chapman and B-jornn 1969, Eve re s t and Chapman 1972, Narver 1976) , and a

few a d d i t i o n a l e f f o r t s have been made t o use t h i s t e chn ique i n h a b i t a t enhancement. B j o r n n (1971) found t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of l a r g e rock i n t o small headwaters n e a r spawning areas inc rea sed t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y and r e t a r d e d t h e downstream movement of pre- smolt chinook salmon and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t over t h e w i n t e r . Boulders were added t o a n A t l a n t i c salmon stream i n New Brunswick (Redmond 1975). I n s e c t i o n s of t h e T racad i e River where l a r g e a n g u l a r rock (up t o 1 .2 m i n d iameter ) had been p l aced , t h e numbers of j u v e n i l e salmon i n c r e a s e d dramat ica l ly- - in some i n s t a n c e s , from no f i s h p r e s e n t t o between 25 and 50/100 m2 (Narver 1976) . Large rock has been used e f f e c t i v e l y t o enhance salmonid h a b i t a t i n s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s i n t h e John Day River b a s i n i n e a s t e r n Oregon ( C l a i r e 1978c, 1980, unpubl. ).

A c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n of boulder placement i s p r e s e n t l y underway on t h e Keogh River i n B r i t i s h Columbia (Ward and Slaney 1979). made on s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t conf igura- t i o n s of bou lde r s , a l o n e and i n combinat ion w i t h l o g cover . P r e l i m i - nary r e s u l t s from 1 y e a r of e v a l u a t i o n sugges t t h a t g roupings of bou lde r s are most e f f e c t i v e , bo th as t o d u r a b i l i t y and p r o v i s i o n of h a b i t a t . S i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n abundance of both s t e e l h e a d t r o u t p a r r and coho salmon f r y occur red i n improved s e c t i o n s of stream. S t ee lhead t r o u t abundance w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e number of bou lde r s p l aced i n a reach . Placement of bou lde r s by h e l i c o p t e r proved t o be comparable i n c o s t t o placement w i t h heavy equipment, and a l l ows h a b i t a t development i n i nacces s- i b l e stream reaches . Although b e n e f i t / c o s t a n a l y s i s i s very u n c e r t a i n a t t h i s s t a g e i n t h e p r o j e c t , e a r l y r e s u l t s are promising (Ward and S laney 1979).

T e s t s a r e being

stepdams w a s ve ry s h o r t , t h e m a j o r i t y l a s t i n g on ly abou t 1 y e a r (Lund 1976).

REARING PQQLS

Some of t h e e a r l i e s t e f f o r t s i n h a b i t a t development i n t h e West used v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s t o c r e a t e poo l s i n streams of t h e S i e r r a Nevada i n C a l i f o r n i a dur ing t h e e a r l y 1930' s. An e v a l u a t i o n of 4 1 of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s b u i l t on t h e E a s t Fork of t h e Kaweah R ive r i n t h e Sequoia Na t iona l F o r e s t w a s conducted some 1 8 y e a r s l a t e r by E h l e r s (1956). Although most of t h e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s had f a i l e d , 9 of 15 log dams had su rv ived and 6 were o p e r a t i n g p r o p e r l y and p rov id ing added t r o u t h a b i t a t . Flows a s h igh as 70 m 3 / s (2500 f t 3 / s ) were e s t i m a t e d t o have occu r red s i n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Small l o g and rock dams were c o n s t r u c t e d t o p rov ide a d d i t i o n a l t r o u t h a b i t a t i n t h e headwaters of Sagehen Creek, C a l i f o r n i a , i n 1957. No t r o u t were p resen t i n t h i s area, s o brook t r o u t were in t roduced t o t h e newly formed poo l s from t h e stream below. The t r o u t su rv ived and grew w e l l , e s t a b l i s h i n g a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g popula- t i o n (Gard 1961). A f t e r 1 2 y e a r s , t h e area was resurveyed; 6 of t h e 14 o r i g i n a l dams were i n good t o e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n and t h e t r o u t popu la t ion had p e r s i s t e d (Gard 1972) . The t echn ique w a s b e l i e v e d c o s t- e f f e c t i v e i n enhancing headwater popu la t ions . In one Montana t r o u t stream, however, t h e u s e f u l l i f e of

The importance of poo l s as r e a r i n g h a b i t a t f o r j u v e n i l e coho salmon has s t i m u l a t e d s e v e r a l e f f o r t s t o create new poo l s i n t h e Oregon Coast Ranges. Pools are scarce d u r i n g low summer f low i n many streams w i t h bedrock s u b s t r a t e a long t h e c o a s t . The Coos Bay Di s t r i c t of t h e Bureau of Land Management used dynamite t o b l a s t a tes t pool i n a sands tone bedrock s e c t i o n of Vincent Creek, Oregon (Anderson 1973) . I n i t i a l r e s u l t s appeared f a v o r a b l e , and 1 2 a d d i t i o n a l poo l s were c r e a t e d i n 1974. An e x c e l l e n t fo l lowup r e p o r t w a s produced by Anderson and Miyajima (1975) t h a t cou ld p rov ide a model f o r e v a l u a t i o n of many management-oriented p r o j e c t s . Diagrams of t e c h n i q u e s and recommenda- t i o n s f o r improvement accompany a n e v a l u a t i o n of f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e p r o j e c t . Although r e s o u r c e s were a v a i l a b l e f o r on ly one sample i n t h e y e a r be fo re c o n s t r u c t i o n and two i n t h e y e a r a f t e r , some of t h e changes observed were l a r g e enough t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .

J u v e n i l e coho salmon p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e new p o o l s of Vincent Creek i n c r e a s e d 10- fold ove r those i n h a b i t i n g comparable areas be fo re b l a s t i n g (Anderson and Miyajima 1975) . Coho salmon i n t h e newly formed poo l s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r t h a n those found i n t h e c o n t r o l a r e a s be fo re c o n s t r u c t i o n , but f i s h i n t h e c o n t r o l r i f f l e were a l s o l a r g e r t h a n be fo re . No change w a s found i n c u t t h r o a t t r o u t abundance, but t h o s e i n t h e new p o o l s averaged 8 c m l a r g e r t han c o n t r o l s . These b igge r f i s h have provided r e c r e a t i o n f o r s p o r t f i shermen, but t h e y may a l s o have become p r e d a t o r s on j u v e n i l e coho salmon (Anderson, p e r s o n a l communication). The d a t a were t o o l i m i t e d t o assess changes i n o t h e r f i s h species-- age O+ s t e e l h e a d t r o u t , t h e speckled dace , and t h e r e d s i d e s h i n e r . In some poo l- b las t ing p r o j e c t s , t h e r e d s i d e s h i n e r and t h e speckled dace have i n c r e a s e d i n abundance.

14

Water t empera tu re s a t t he bottom of one pool were up t o 2.2"C c o o l e r t han peak tempera tures i n a n a d j a c e n t r i f f l e . Also, t empera tures were above 22°C f o r a much s h o r t e r pe r iod each day i n t h e poo l t han i n t h e r i f f l e (Anderson and Miyajima 1975). Other u n a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t s accrued 'from t h e newly formed pools . of c r a y f i s h were found i n t h e poo l s (Anderson, pe r sona l communication). C r a y f i s h are becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y sought a f t e r f o r s p o r t and food i n some areas of t h e c o a s t . Another b e n e f i t has been t h e occas iona l d e p o s i t i o n of g r a v e l a t t h e t a i l of a pool , which has been used by s t e e l h e a d t r o u t f o r spawning.

High numbers

The Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e c r e a t e d 1 5 pools w i t h dynamite on s ix t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e S ius law River (Hutchison 1973 unpubl . ) . R e s u l t s t h e r e have n o t been f avo rab l e . No s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n popu la t i ons have been observed, a p a r t from small numbers of c u t t h r o a t t r o u t i n pools where none occur red be fo re . One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e f a i l u r e of coho salmon t o respond i n t h i s system may be t h e very low numbers of a d u l t f i s h t h a t have spawned t h e r e -i n t h e l a s t few y e a r s (Hutchison 1978 unpubl . ) .

I n a nearby a r e a , however, r e s u l t s of pool b l a s t i n g appeared more f a v o r a b l e . The USDA Fores t S e r v i c e b l a s t e d seven poo l s i n Cedar Creek, t r i b u t a r y t o t h e S ius law R ive r , i n 1978 and en l a rged f i v e n a t u r a l poo l s i n a t r i b u t a r y of t h e Smith R ive r , Oregon, i n 1979. The poo l s have been s e l f- c l e a n i n g , as planned. Those on Cedar Creek i n p a r t i c u l a r have r e s u l t e d i n s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s i n t h e number of j u v e n i l e coho salmon r e a r i n g i n a n area t h a t w a s predom- i n a n t l y bedrock. Eva lua t i on of t h e p r o j e c t s u g g e s t s t h e need f o r vary ing s i z e and c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e poo l s , w i t h p o s s i b l y g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r small pools c r e a t e d w i t h j u s t a few s t i c k s of dynamite ( H e l l e r , pe r sona l communication).

WINTER HABITAT

Evidence i n c r e a s i n g l y p o i n t s t o t h e importance of w i n t e r h a b i t a t i n c o n t r o l l i n g p roduc t ion of salmonid smol t s i n some stream systems. The p rev ious ly mentioned work of Mason (1974, 1976) wi th coho salmon i n B r i t i s h Columbia p rov ides some of t h e b e s t such documentation.

I n t e r m i t t e n t s i d e p o o l s , back channe l s , and o t h e r areas of r e l a t i v e l y s t i l l water t h a t become inundated du r ing h igh f lows have r e c e n t l y been shown t o provide v a l u a b l e w i n t e r h a b i t a t f o r j u v e n i l e salmonids, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o a s t a l areas (Bus ta rd and Narver 1975a, b; K r a l i k and Sowerwine 1977). Overwinter s u r v i v a l of j u v e n i l e coho salmon t h a t moved i n t o one s ide- channel t r i b u t a r y of Ca rna t i on Creek, B r i t i s h Columbia, i n t h e f a l l averaged 74 pe rcen t f o r f o u r w i n t e r s . Comparable s u r v i v a l f o r t hose f i s h remaining i n t h e main channe l w a s 23 pe rcen t (Narver , pe r sona l communication).

I n t h e e a r l y 1960 ' s , sugges t i ons were made t o use b u l l d o z e r s t o excava te such channe ls i n con junc t i on w i th logging o p e r a t i o n s (Narver , pe r sona l communication), but l i t t l e o r no enhancement work of t h i s type has been c a r r i e d ou t . Recent s t u d i e s on w i n t e r growth and s u r v i v a l of j u v e n i l e coho salmon i n n a t u r a l sp r ing ponds on t h e Olympic Pen insu l a of Washington (Pe t e r son 1980) sugges t t h a t i n c r e a s- i n g t h e area of lowland ponds a d j a c e n t t o salmonid streams has g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r enhancing salmonid abundance. J u v e n i l e salmon t h a t had reared i n streams du r ing s p r i n g and summer moved i n t o t h e s e s p r i n g ponds i n l a r g e numbers du r ing f a l l and w in t e r . F i s h i n t h e ponds surv ived and grew b e t t e r t han those overwin te r ing i n t r i b u t a r y streams (Pe t e r son 1980).

15

Augmentation of low summer f low h a s been a n e f f e c t i v e and inexpens ive approach t o h a b i t a t enhancement f o r r e s i d e n t t r o u t . Most of t h i s work h a s occur red i n t h e S i e r r a Nevada moun- t a i n s of C a l i f o r n i a , where low (1-2 m) flow-maintenance dams have been b u i l t a t t h e o u t l e t s of n a t u r a l l a k e s , The s t o r a g e provided by t h e s e dams m a i n t a i n s permanent s t reamflow i n downstream channe l s t h a t fo rmer ly were d r y dur ing p a r t of t h e summer. The f i r s t dam w a s b u i l t i n 1925 by a p r i v a t e c i t i z e n , and f i v e more s t r u c t u r e s were b u i l t i n t h e e a r l y 1930 ' s a t a c o s t of $5,200 (Burghduff 1934) . By 1954, 40 dams had been b u i l t , enhancing h a b i t a t i n 540 km of stream (Cronemil ler and F r a s e r 1954, Cronemil ler 1955) . By t h i s t i m e , many of t h e most d e s i r a b l e s i t es had been used, and c o s t s had i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y . These small p r o j e c t s have r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n summer p o p u l a t i o n s of r e s i d e n t t r o u t , and f low augmentat ion could be a p p l i c a b l e t o enhancement of anadromous popu la t ions .

Although some ev idence h a s been found t o t h e c o n t r a r y ( H a l l and Knight 1981) , most d a t a p o i n t t o a s t r o n g p o s i t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n of s t reamflow w i t h n a t u r a l p roduc t ion of coho salmon (Smoker 1955, Matthews and Olson 1980, Sca rnecch ia 1981) . Although t h e r e l a t i o n of salmonid abundance t o s t reamflow seems complex, i n c r e a s e d p roduc t ion of anadromous salmonids by supplementing low summer s t reamflow w i t h upstream s t o r a g e might be p o s s i b l e . One such p r o j e c t i s r e p o r t e d on a 28-ha l a k e on Vancouver I s l a n d (Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s and Oceans 1980). An a d d i t i o n a l 0.04-0.06 m 3 / s of f low i s a v a i l a b l e downstream from t h e l a k e dur ing t h e d ry summer. Before any l a r g e- s c a l e development of t h i s k ind goes forward, i n s u r i n g t h a t l i m i t s on c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i n w i n t e r w i l l n o t nega te b e n e f i t s ga ined dur ing t h e summer and f a l l would be impor tan t . A more promising approach might be t o augment f low i n i n t e r m i t t e n t streams suppor t ing anadromous f i s h .

A t l e a s t one a t t e m p t h a s been made t o augment f l o w i n a s t e e l h e a d stream i n e a s t e r n Oregon (West e t a l . 1965a) . Sub te r ranean weirs, c o n s t r u c t e d wi th p l a s t i c s h e e t i n g p laced i n t r e n c h e s , brought ground water t o t h e s u r f a c e and main ta ined s u r f a c e f low f o r s h o r t d i s t a n c e s above and below some of t h e s t r u c t u r e s , where t h e channel had p r e v i o u s l y been d r y . The scheme w a s judged t o be expens ive and i m p r a c t i c a l , hoiJever, because of t h e l a r g e number of s t r u c t u r e s r e q u i r e d and t h e damage s u s t a i n e d dur ing s p r i n g runoff ( C l a i r e 1978b unpubl. ).

Bui ld ing dams may no t be t h e on ly means of augmenting s t reamflow. An unexpected i n c r e a s e i n low f low occur red when a h e a v i l y g razed s e c t i o n of stream i n e a s t e r n Oregon w a s fenced t o exc lude l i v e s t o c k (Winegar 1977). A 4-km s e c t i o n was fenced i n 1966, and 5.6 km of stream channe l were added t o t h e e x c l o s u r e i n 1974. I n s p i t e of t h e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n , summer low f low h a s i n c r e a s e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e stream no l o n g e r c o n s i s t e n t l y f r e e z e s s o l i d d u r i n g w i n t e r (Winegar 1978 unpub l . ) . Although t h e cause of t h e i n c r e a s e d f low i s n o t c e r t a i n , removal of t h e c a t t l e reduced s t r e a m s i d e s o i l compaction, a p p a r e n t l y r e s u l t i n g i n i n c r e a s e d i n f i l t r a t i o n and g r e a t e r ground-water r e c h a r g e (Winegar, p e r s o n a l communication).

Some ev idence s u g g e s t s t h a t chemical p r o p e r t i e s of stream water i n f l u e n c e abundance and growth r a t e of sa lmonids ( H a l l and Knight 1981). A few a t t e m p t s have been made t o i n c r e a s e b i o l o g i c a l p roduc t ion i n streams by a d d i t i o n of n u t r i e n t s . S tockner and Shor t r eed (1978) and Gregory (1980) showed s i g n i f i c a n t response of a t t a c h e d a l g a e t o n u t r i e n t a d d i t i o n i n streams i n B r i t i s h Columbia and Oregon. An ea r l i e r f e r t i l i z a t i o n experiment by Huntsman (1948) i n a n e a s t e r n Canadian stream showed a l i m i t e d response i n abundance of A t l a n t i c salmon and a s s o c i a t e d f i s h s p e c i e s , a s w e l l a s some i n c r e a s e i n i n v e r t e b r a t e numbers.

16

No c o n c l u s i v e ev idence i s a v a i l a b l e on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n enhancing salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s i n streams, bu t f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l work l i k e t h a t now underway by t h e B r i t i s h Columbia F i s h and W i l d l i f e Branch (S laney , p e r s o n a l communication) should be encouraged. T h i s nons t ruc- t u r a l approach t o h a b i t a t enhancement h a s t h e advantage t h a t i t can be e a s i l y t e r m i n a t e d i f i t proves i n e f f e c t i v e o r u n d e s i r a b l e , No commit- ment must be made t o a long- term program, such as accompanies most s t r u c t u r a l enhancement.

RIPARIAN HABITAT

Hynes (1975) h a s e f f e c t i v e l y made t h e case t h a t a stream and i t s v a l l e y are a n i n s e p a r a b l e e c o l o g i c a l u n i t . Many examples are a v a i l a b l e t h a t demonstra te t h i s in te rdependence a s i t relates s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e h a b i t a t of anadromous f i s h . Among t h e e lements of h a b i t a t i n f l u e n c e d by t h e r i p a r i a n zone are tempera ture , c o v e r , and food. S t u d i e s of e f f e c t s of logg ing have shown t h e response of f i s h h a b i t a t t o f o r e s t h a r v e s t i n g n e a r streams ( H a l l and Lantz 1969, Burns 1972, Gibbons and S a l 0 1973) . Most changes i n h a b i t a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t i n a few i n s t a n c e s f i s h and i n v e r t e b r a t e abundance i n c r e a s e d a f t e r opening of t h e canopy

a long t h e stream (Newbold e t a l , 1980, Murphy and H a l l 1981) . One p r o j e c t i n Wisconsin d e l i b e r a t e l y removed r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n as a n enhancement measure f o r brook t r o u t (Hunt 1979) .

Condi t ions of t h e watershed away from t h e stream can a l s o i n f l u e n c e f i s h h a b i t a t , a s no ted i n t h e earlier d i s c u s s i o n of log d e b r i s jams i n streams, I n f a c t , one of t h e more impress ive case s t u d i e s of stream r e h a b i l i t a t i o n invo lved no d i r e c t a c t i o n w i t h i n o r n e a r t h e stream channel a t a l l , s imply p r o t e c t i o n of t h e watershed. T h i s was t h e logging moratorium on t h e South Fork Salmon R i v e r , d i s c u s s e d ea r l i e r i n r e l a t i o n t o c l e a n i n g of spawning g r a v e l ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1975) . Other ev idence t h a t watershed p r o t e c t i o n i s a n e f f e c t i v e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n measure comes from s t u d i e s of t h e impact of l i v e s t o c k g r a z i n g on stream h a b i t a t and salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s ( P l a t t s 1981) .

S e v e r a l s t u d i e s have provided q u a n t i t a t i v e ev idence of t h e s e r i o u s impact of heavy g r a z i n g p r e s s u r e on t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n s ( t a b l e 2 ) . The p o p u l a t i o n s i z e in c o n t r o l s e c t i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e average salmonid abundance might be t r i p l e d by c o n t r o l- l i n g heavy g r a z i n g p r e s s u r e . The evidence i s no t c o n c l u s i v e because few s t u d i e s of f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e same s e c t i o n of stream b e f o r e and a f t e r g r a z i n g . D i f f e r e n c e s i n abundance between grazed and c o n t r o l areas i n t h e s t u d i e s summarized i n t a b l e 2 a r e so l a r g e as t o l e a v e l i t t l e doubt of a r ea l impact , however.

Table 2--Comparisons o f t r o u t populations i n sections o f stream where grazing pressure was absent or l i g h t ( c o n t r o l ) versus those h e a v i l y grazea (modified from C l a i r e 1980. unpubl.)

Percent greater i n

Species Location Uni ts contro l Reference

Brown t r o u t Rock Creek, kg/ha 236 Marcuson

Cut throat and B i g Creek, Duff

Brown t r o u t L i t t l e Deschutes Lorz

Steelhead t r o u t Camp Creek, no/km 2/94 C l a i r e

Montana i/ (1977 unpubl .)

rainDow t r o u t Utah kg/ha 263 (1977 unpubl . ) River , Oregon kg/ha 269 (1974)

Oregon (1980 unpubl .)

1/An e a r l i e r stuay on the same stream by Gunderson (1968) Is not comparable because o f d i f f e r e n t base area.

!/Bases on 5 years of sampling. estimate.

A l l o ther studies based on a s ingle

1 7

An example of t h i s impact i s provided by s t u d i e s i n Camp Creek, a n impor tant producer of summer s t e e l h e a d i n t h e John Day d r a i n a g e i n e a s t e r n Oregon t h a t had been h e a v i l y g razed f o r 70 y e a r s . I n 1964, 0.8 km of stream was fenced t o exc lude l i v e s t o c k . By 1974, 75-80 p e r c e n t of t h e stream was shaded by r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n , which had been v i r t u a l l y a b s e n t be fo re f enc ing . An a d d i t i o n a l 9.6 km of stream were fenced i n 1976. During 1 y e a r , maximum stream tempera tu re i n t h e fenced s e c t i o n w a s 19"C, compared t o 25.5"C i n t h e h e a v i l y g razed s e c t i o n (Cla i re 1978a unpubl. ). Numbers of spawning and r e a r i n g s t e e l h e a d t r o u t have i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Spawning su rveys have been conducted i n t h e d ra inage s i n c e 1956. I n a n 11- year p e r i o d a f t e r f e n c i n g , 10 .5 r e d d s p e r km were counted i n t h e h e a v i l y grazed area and 18.6 r edds p e r km i n t h e fenced s e c t i o n . I n 5 y e a r s of sampling, from 1974 t o 1979, t h e ave rage number of j u v e n i l e s t e e l h e a d was twice as h igh i n s i d e t h e e n c l o s u r e as o u t , and dace p o p u l a t i o n s were 6-7 t i m e s g r e a t e r o u t s i d e the fenced area ( C l a i r e 1980 unpubl. ) e Everes t (1978 unpubl. ) e s t i m a t e d the b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o of t h i s f e n c i n g p r o j e c t t o be between 2 . 3 : l and 3 .3 : l (depending on i n t e r e s t rates and maintenance c o s t s ) . A f a v o r a b l e b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o was a l s o e s t ima ted by Olson and Amour (1979) f o r f enc ing r i p a r i a n zones on a l l l a n d s admin i s t e red by t h e Bureau of Land Management.

I n s p i t e of a p p a r e n t l y c o n c l u s i v e evidence on a d v e r s e impacts of graz- i n g , p r o g r e s s i n r e h a b i l i t a t i n g dam- aged streams h a s been slow. Fencing streambanks i s expens ive and, even where evidence shows t h a t b e n e f i t s exceed c o s t s , r e s i s t a n c e from l a n d managers and owners i s c o n s i d e r a b l e . N o n s t r u c t u r a l measures such as r o t a- t i o n a l g r a z i n g p a t t e r n s may sometimes be a s o l u t i o n , but c o n s i d e r a b l e contro- versy exists now and w i l l p robably c o n t i n u e f o r some t i m e (Cope 1979).

The h i s t o r y of h a b i t a t r e h a b i l i t a - t i o n and enhancement f o r stream- dwel l ing sa lmonids h a s been a mix tu re of f a i l u r e and success . Where adequa te documentat ion h a s been a v a i l a b l e , l e a r n i n g from f a i l u r e h a s been p o s s i b l e and t echn iques and approaches improved. We b e l i e v e t h a t s u f f i c i e n t background i s now a v a i l a b l e t o recom- mend s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d emphasis on t h i s phase of f i s h e r y management. P a s t work i n t h e West h a s been weighted i n f a v o r of spawning h a b i t a t ; f u t u r e work should p u t more emphasis on r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement of r e a r i n g h a b i t a t

From an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e s e t echn iques of h a b i t a t management are soundly based. They are i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o t h e g o a l o f m a i n t a i n i n g such n a t u r a l w i l d s t o c k s as s t i l l e x i s t and p r e s e r v i n g g e n e t i c v a r i a b i l i t y where p o s s i b l e . I n t h e f a c e o f i n c r e a s i n g concern abou t impac t s o f l a r g e- s c a l e h a t c h e r y p r o d u c t i o n on b o t h g e n e t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n of s t o c k s and c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e environment , t h i s r a t i o n a l e may be one of t h e s t r o n g e s t arguments f o r emphasis on improving q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y of stream h a b i t a t .

F i n a l l y , w e j o i n w i t h Reeves and Roe lo f s (1982) and Narver (1973) i n emphasizing t h a t h a b i t a t r e h a b i l i t a t i o n must never be viewed as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r h a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n . Communication between f i s h e r y managers and f o r e s t e r s i s a n e s s e n t i a l element o f h a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n ( s e e Toews and Brownlee 1981, f o r example) e H a b i t a t manage- ment can now be c o s t e f f e c t i v e , and as w e l e a r n more, i t shou ld become more s o . I n a lmos t e v e r y i n s t a n c e , however,

18

0

preven t ing i n i t i a l h a b i t a t deg rada t i on would be more economical of t o t a l r e s o u r c e s t han r e p a i r i n g i t , and some damage s imply i s n o t r e v e r s i b l e . P a s t m i s t akes r e q u i r e e f f o r t s t o r e h a b i l i - ta te many streams, but ou r e f f o r t s i n h a b i t a t management must con t inue t o \

pu t a n e q u a l l y s t r o n g p r i o r i t y on p r o t e c t i o n of wate rshed and stream re sou rces .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thi s paper owes much t o cons t ruc-

t i v e comments of o t h e r s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , we acknowledge t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of Gordon Reeves and Ter ry Roelofs . The i r paper i n t h i s series (No. 13 ) w a s o r i g i n a l l y planned t o be independent from ou r s . When t h e two manuscr ip t s were complete , we reorganized them t o s e p a r a t e e v a l u a t i o n of p a s t work from d e s c r i p t i o n of s u c c e s s f u l t echniques . For a complete assessment of t h e f i e l d , t h e two pape r s must be used t o g e t h e r .

We thank t h o s e b i o l o g i s t s who provided unpubl i shed d a t a f o r t h i s review; i n a d d i t i o n , we a p p r e c i a t e comments on one o r more ve r s ions of t h e manuscr ip t by J. W. Anderson, A. R. C a r g i l l , C , J. Cederholm, E. W . Claire, W . A. Evans, J. M. Hutchison, W. R. Meehan, J. F. Orsborn, and P. A. Slaney. James D. H a l l i s g r a t e f u l f o r u se of space and l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s of t h e F i s h e r i e s Research D iv i s ion , New Zealand Min i s t ry of A g r i c u l t u r e and F i s h e r i e s , made a v a i l a b l e through t h e c o u r t e s y of D r . R. M. McDowall. This i s Techn ica l Paper 6127, Oregon A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n .

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Claire, E. Fencing: Camp Creek. Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. Po r t l and , OR: Oregon Department of F i sh and W i l d l i f e ; 1978a. 1 7 p. (p . 9-10).

Claire, E. Flow recovery . Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. Po r t l and , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978b. 1 7 p. (p. 8) .

Claire, E. Rock work. Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978c. 17 p. (p. 2-3).

Claire, E. W. Stream h a b i t a t and - r i p a r i a n r e s t o r a t i o n techniques :

g u i d e l i n e s t o c o n s i d e r i n t h e i r use. 1980. Manuscr ipt p repared f o r Workshop f o r Design of F i s h Hab i t a t and Watershed R e s t o r a t i o n P r o j e c t s .

Duff , D. A. L ive s tock g raz ing impacts on a q u a t i c h a b i t a t i n Big Creek, Utah. Manuscr ipt p repared f o r L ives tock and W i l d l i f e / F i s h e r i e s Workshop; 1977 May 3-5; Reno, NV; 1977. 33 p.

Engels , J. D. Use of gab ions i n stream h a b i t a t improvement. Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1975. 18 p.

E v e r e s t , F. H. Economics of f enc ing streams t o p r o t e c t f i s h . C o r v a l l i s , OR: U. S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Fo re s t S e r v i c e , F o r e s t r y Sc i ences Labora tory ; 1978. 9 p.

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H a l l , J . D . ; Baker, C . 0. B i o l o g i c a l impacts of o r g a n i c d e b r i s i n P a c i f i c Northwest streams. I n : Logging d e b r i s i n streams: Proceedings of a workshop; 1975 September 9-10. C o r v a l l i s , OR: Oregon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ; 1975. 1 3 p.

Hammer, R. Aquat ic h a b i t a t improvement ( d i s t r i c t summary). Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1976. 2 p .

Hammer, R . F i s h e r y e v a l u a t i o n f o r Eugene Di s t r i c t stream improvement s t r u c t u r e s . Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1977. 3 p.

Heiser, D. W . Rear Rive r r e h a b i l i - t a t i o n : p ink and chum salmon i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Olympia, WA: Washington S t a t e Department of F i s h e r i e s ; 1971, 9 p. P r o g r e s s r e p o r t .

Heiser, D . W. Cedar R ive r g r a v e l improvement: p ink and chum salmon i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Olympia, WA: Was h i ng t o n S t a t e Department o f F i s h e r i e s ; 1972a. 9 p. P r o g r e s s r e p o r t .

Heiser, D. W e Spawning ground improvement--gravel loosen ing , 1971- 1972. Olympia, WA: Washington S t a t e Department of F i s h e r i e s ; 1972b. 6 p. P r o g r e s s r e p o r t .

Hutchison, J . Use of dynamite t o create f i s h r e a r i n g p o o l s i n S ius law Rive r t r i b u t a r i e s . P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission; 1973. 10 p .

Hutchison, J . B l a s t i n g bedrock poo l s . I n : Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978. 1 7 p. ( p . 6-7).

Johnson, D . E . Ana lys i s of p o s t- p r o j e c t t empera tu res and of f i s h s p e c i e s and p o p u l a t i o n s of t h e Sius law Rive r d ra inage . Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1977. 5 p .

Marcuson, P. E. The e f f e c t of c a t t l e g r a z i n g on brown t r o u t i n Rock Creek, Montana. Helena, MT: Montana Depart- ment of F i s h and G a m e ; 1977; Spec. Rep. P r o j . No. F-20-R-21, 2a. 26 p.

Roppel, P . E x i s t i n g and c u r r e n t l y proposed f i s h e r i e s r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement p r o j e c t s i n Sou theas t Alaska . Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of F i s h and G a m e , F i s h e r i e s Rehabi li t a t i o n , Enhance- ment, and Development D i v i s i o n ; 1978. 22 p.

S a l t z n a n , W . 0. A r e p o r t of t h e stream clearance a c t i v i t i e s conducted by t h e Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission on t h e S ius law Rive r system. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e Gane Commission; 1964. 21 p.

She r idan , W . L . ; Wilke , R . W . ; Olson, S. T. The g r a v e l c l e a n e r

( " r i f f l e s i f t e r " ) . Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e , Alaska Region; 1968. 8 p . ,Progress r e p o r t 1967.

S u m e r s , V. C . ; Neubauer, E , K. Clos ing r e p o r t f o r t h e c o a s t a l stream improvement and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n program. P o r t l a n d , OR: F i s h Commis- s i o n of Oregon; 1965. 46 p.

Sweet, M. F i s h h a b i t a t improvement i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e Alaska Region. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e , Alaska Region; 1975. 13 p .

Winegar, H. Fencing. Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978. 1 7 p . (p . 9 ) .

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DIRECTORY FOR PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS Anderson, J. W . (1978)

USDI Bureau of Land Management 333 South Fou r th Coos Bay, OR 97420

Bender, R . ; Mullarkey, W . (1978) Oregon Department of F i s h and

300 F i f t h S t r e e t , Bay Park Coos say, OR 97420

W i l d l i f e

Claire, E , (1978) Oregon Department of F i s h and

W i l d l i f e P.O. Box 1 9 John Day, OR 97845

Cowan, L. (1981)

F i s h e r i e s Washington S t a t e Department of

115 General Admin i s t r a t i on Bui ld ing Olympia, WA 98504

Evans, W. A. (1978) USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e 630 Sansome S t r e e t San F ranc i s co , CA 94111

E v e r e s t , F, H. (1981) USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e Fore st r y Sc i ences Labora tory 3200 J e f f e r s o n Way C o r v a l l i s , OR 97331

Hammer, R. (1978) U S D I Bureau of Land Management Eugene Dis t r i c t O f f i c e 1225 Pearl S t r e e t Eugene, OR 97401

Narver, D o W. (1978)

t h e Environment B r i t i s h Columbia Min i s t ry of

F i s h and W i l d l i f e Branch 400-1019 Wharf S t r e e t V i c t o r i a , BC V8W 221

Nelson, D. C. (1978) Alaska Department of F i s h and G a m e P.O. Box 3150 Soldotna , AK 99669

O l i v e r , F, (1978) USDI Bureau of Land Management Roseburg, OR 97470

Slaney , P. A, (1981) B r i t i s h Columbia Min i s t ry of t h e

F i s h and W i l d l i f e Branch Vancouver, BC V6T 1W5

Environment.

White, R. J , (1981) Department of Biology Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Bozeman, MT 59715

Wilson, D. A , (1978) Washington S t a t e Department of

115 General Admin i s t r a t i on Bu i ld ing Olympia, SJA 98507

F i s h e r i e s

Winegar, H. (1978) Oregon Department of F i s h and

Pau l ina S t a r Route, Box 5 P r i n e v i l l e , OR 97754

W i l d l i f e

Heller, D. (1978, 1981) USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e M t . Hood Na t iona l F o r e s t 19559 Divksion P o r t l a n d , OR 97030

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The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives - as directed by Congress - to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture is an Equal Opportunity Employer. Applicants for all Department programs will be given equal consideration without regard to age, race, color, sex, religion, or national origin.

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station

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