Alexander KlimchoukArthur N. PalmerJo De WaeleAugusto S. AulerPhilippe AudraEditors

Cave and Karst Systems of the World

Hypogene Karst Regions and Caves of the World

26The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesisin the Formation of the Ordinskaya Cave,Fore-Urals, Russia

O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

AbstractThis chapter describes the Ordinskaya Cave in the Fore-Urals region, Russia, which is thelargest underwater cave of sulfate rocks in the world. The explored length of the cave isabout 4900 m. The regional distribution of karst features indicated that a large amount ofrecharge entered the lower passages during all stages of development. The groundwater inthe cave is aggressive with respect to sulfate. Discharge of water with higher mineralizationwas documented during the spring floods. During summer low-flow periods, subaqueoussprings discharge waters under artesian conditions with a lower solute content. In the cave,the degree of saturation of water increases from the bottom to the top in the spring seasonand is the reverse in the summer. Seasonal variations in the groundwater chemicalcomposition reflect the contribution from the artesian system. The geological data indicate astrong relationship between the karst features and the regional fault network. Thecharacteristic features of the Ordinskaya Cave make it a model object of artesian hypogenespeleogenesis.

KeywordsSpeleogenesis in gypsum � Hypogene speleogenesis � Ordinskaya cave � Russia

1 Introduction

In the Perm krai (Fig. 1), gypsum karst is intensely devel-oped in the Lower Permian formations in the southern partof region. This chapter is devoted to the Ordinskaya Cave,the largest underwater cave in sulfate rocks in the world,located in a karstified massif of the Kazakovskaya Gora.

The distribution of karst features throughout the water-shed area revealed that powerful, concentrated recharge intothe sulfate rocks occurred from the underlying formationsduring all stages of the cave development process (Kadeb-skaya and Maksimovich 2009; Sivinskih 2009). Today,recharge also occurs from the river through fractures in the

valley slope and forms surface infiltration. The groundwaterin the cave is aggressive with respect to sulfate.

Studies of the karstified massif of the Kazakovskaya Gorareveal successive stages of karst evolution. The character-istic features of the Ordinskaya Cave make it a model ofartesian hypogene speleogenesis. Studies revealed seasonalvariations in the chemical composition of cave waters and ofcave microclimate parameters.

2 Geologic and Geomorphic Setting

Ordinskaya Cave is located in the western flank of theUfimsky Swell of the East European Platform. The crest ofthe swell dips moderately to the north. Kazakovskaya Gora(Kazakovskaya Mount) is part of the plateau highland and isup to 60 m high relative to the bed of the adjacent KungurRiver. The elevation of the massif above sea level variesfrom 137 m (water surface at the pond in the Kungur River)

O.I. Kadebskaya (&)Mining Institute of the Ural Branch of the RAS, Perm, Russiae-mail: icecave@bk.ru

N.G. MaksimovichInstitute of Natural Science of Perm State University, Perm,Russia

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017A. Klimchouk et al. (eds.), Hypogene Karst Regions and Caves of the World,Cave and Karst Systems of the World, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-53348-3_26

431

to 196 m. According to Gorbunova et al. (1992), this areabelongs to the Irenskaya zone of intense karst in gypsum andanhydrites. It is bounded to the east by a carbonate karst areaof the Ufimskoye Plateau.

According to the classification of evolutionary types ofkarst of Klimchouk (1996), different types of karst are dis-tinguished in the area. Denuded karst develops in areaswhere soluble rock is exposed at the surface. Mantled karstoccurs in areas where eluvial and alluvial sediments coverthe karstified rocks. Intrastratal karst develops locally, wheresulfates lie beneath insoluble sediments of the Solikamskianhorizon. Sinking streams are typical for such areas (e.g.,Turaevka, Yakovka, Sudinka, and Kungur Rivers). The areahosts 77 known caves, the longest of which is OrdinskayaCave with 4.9 km of passages, explored mainly underwater.The Ordinskaya Cave entrance is located on the southeasternslope of the Kazakovskaya Gora near the Orda village of thePermskiy krai (Fig. 1).

Thefirst record of the cave appeared in 1969 (Maksimovich1969). In the beginning of 1990s, speleologists from Perm ledby A. Smolnikov and I. Lavrov surveyed the dry part of thecave. In March 1994, V. Komarov explored the first 100 me-ters of underwater passages (Lavrov et al. 2005). Today, theexplored length of the cave is 4900 m. The dry part of the cavein the entrance area is approximately 300 m long, and the restof cave extends underwater, which makes Ordinskaya Cavethe world’s longest underwater cave in gypsum.

Continuous observations of groundwater flow, hydro-chemical sampling, and petrographic and mineralogicalstudies have been conducted in the cave since 1998. Theauthors together with cave divers (Maksimovich et al. 2006)explored the underwater part of cave. Standard technicaldiving equipment was used for underwater explorations.Surveying of karst features at the surface was performedusing a Nikon DTM-352 Total Station (Kadebskaya andMaksimovich 2009).

Fig. 1 Location map of theOrdinskaya cave

432 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

At the foot of Kazakovskaya Gora, the Kungur Riverbends sharply to the north. In the 1970s, two dam ponds(the upper pond Arsenovsky and the lower pond Ordinskiy)were constructed here. Near the cave, the river valley isnarrow and deep, and the average valley width is approxi-mately 230 m, but the ponds width is 180–210 m (Fig. 2).Downstream of the north Kungur River bend, the valleybroadens and terraces appear (Kadebskaya et al. 2009).

The western part of the Orda village is located on the firstand second terraces at elevations ranging from 140 to 160 m.

Small abandoned channels and boggy areas occur on theseterraces. A dry valley lies between the second and thirdterraces at the northern part of the hill, along the KungurRiver. The valley terminates at the silted depression anddammed Bannoye Lake, whose water is used for householdpurposes. Total dissolved solids in the lake is 150 mg/L,which is a characteristic value for reservoirs recharged byrainfall and snowmelt. The third terrace, visible on thesouthwestern and northeastern parts of Kazakovskaya Gora,has elevations ranging from 160 to 180 m. Karst features are

Fig. 2 Karstic features ofKazakovskaya Gora(a photograph by A. Filimonov;b topographic map): 1 karstsinkholes; 2 quarries; 3 outlineof Ordinskaya cave

26 The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Formation … 433

unevenly distributed. Sinkholes are located mostly to theeast of Ordinskaya Cave, where they were partially leveledduring the operation of construction stone quarries.

Elevations of the fourth terrace are 180–196 m above sealevel. Small dry valleys with sinkholes on their sides andbottoms cut the slope of the fourth terrace. Small sinkholesare saucer shaped with grass-covered slopes (1–5 m indiameter and up to 3 m deep). Large sinkholes, which are5–10 m in diameter and up to 10 m deep are conical andhave rocky, steep walls. During snowmelt, they partially orentirely swallow temporary streams from the hill slopes.

The largest sinkholes on Kazakovskaya Gora are locatedon the fourth terrace, north of the main cave’s galleries. Theyrange from 80 to 94 m in diameter and are about 30 mdeep. They often occur close to each other and have drybottoms and complex shapes. Some sinkholes have freshcollapse features on their slopes. The largest sinkhole(35 × 40 m by 17 m deep) occurred in the fall of 2008 at anelevation of 185 m (the southern ledge). A gypsum outcropwith an apparent thickness of 7 m is exposed at the south

wall of the sinkhole at a depth of 10 m (Fig. 3). This is thebiggest collapse sinkhole that has formed in the Irenskayakarst zone during the last 15 years.

The density of karst landforms within the studied area isapproximately 42 features per square km. Four new collapsesinkholes have been documented during the last 15 years.

Geological mapping in the 1950s in the Permskiy krairegion identified two zones of the Upper Devonian reefstructures located to the west and east of the Ufimsky Swall.Mikhaylov and Buldakov reported that the large hydrogeo-logical zones of increasedwater abundance are related to thosestructures (Fig. 4). The Kishertsko-Irginskaya zone lies to theeast, and the Kungurskaya zone lies to the west of the UfimskySwell (Mikhaylov and Oborin 2006). Springs with high dis-charges occur within these zones along active tectonic faults.

Previously, it was found that the Kungurskaya reef zonewas offset several tens of meters by diagonal normal faults(Fig. 5). One of the faults stretches north of KazakovskayaGora, and another one passes along the southeastern slope.The vertical displacement at the second fault is about

Fig. 3 This collapse sinkhole on Kazakovskaya Gora appeared in July 2009

434 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

17–22 m. The cave, the Arsenovsky Spring, and subaqueoussprings in the bed of the Kungur River are all aligned alongthis fault. An analysis of the neotectonic lineaments (Figs. 4and 5) allows us to assume that these faults are subjugated toconcentric shear dislocations.

3 Stratigraphy

The sulfate rocks are underlain by the Filippovian horizon(P1k

fh) comprised of thin-bedded, locally recrystallized,dolomite. In the cave, the following carbonate and sulfate

Fig. 4 Structural tectonicscheme of the Sylva-Ireninterfluve: 1 neotectoniclineaments related to the Earth’srotation; 2, 3 positive structuresand linear fracture zones; 4 theborder between the East EuropeanPlatform and Urals Foredeep;5 the study area

26 The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Formation … 435

members are identified from bottom to top (Fig. 6). They aremembers of the Irenskaya Group.

1. Ledyanopeshcherskaya member (P1ir1lp), 20–25 m thick,

is composed of gypsum and anhydrite. It is locatedentirely below the water table. The deepest parts of thecave (e.g., the Krasnoyarskiy passage and Podval (Base-ment Chamber) are located very close to the underlyingPhilippovian dolomites.

2. Nevolinskaya member (P1ir2nv), 4–8 m thick, is com-

prised of pelitomorphic and oolitic dolomite with a thingypsum interlayer. The bottom of the member is exposedabove Glavnoye (Main) Lake, just about the entrance inthe underwater part of cave. The Ledyanoy Dvorets (IcePalace) occurs in the upper part of the member, in the drypart of cave.

3. Shalashninskaya member (P1ir3sh) is 12–15 m thick and

composed of the massive and nodular gypsum-anhydriteand anhydrite rock. The bottom of the member isexposed in the Ledyanoy Dvorets (Ice Palace).

4. Elkinskaya member (P1ir4el), 3–4 m thick, consists of

light-gray and gray, fine-grained dolomite.5. Demidkovskaya member (P1ir

5dm), 12–18 m thick, isexposed at the cave entrance and in the collapse sinkhole

on Kazakovskaya Gora and consists of massive andnodular gypsum.

6. Tyuyskaya member (P1ir6ts), total thickness 5–10 m, is

exposed on the grass-covered slope of the KazakovskayaGora and in small quarries. In the lower part, the memberconsists of white and light-gray, fine-grained, locallysilicified dolomite and is characterized by the occurrenceof palygorskite. The upper part of the member consists ofrubbly, cavernous dolomite and calcitic dolomite withboxwork patterns (Fig. 7).

The distribution of residual carbonates in the area sug-gests widespread hypergene alteration with secondarydolomites forming part of the weathering crust. Hypergenealteration consisted in dolomite leaching and recrystalliza-tion. Disintegration of the residual carbonates into boulder-,cobble-, to gravel-sized fragments only in the upper part ofthe section suggests that physical weathering occurred in therock, which was already subjected to the chemicalweathering.

Ordinskaya Cave has a vertical range of 50 m and occurswithin the Tyuyskaya, Demidkovskaya, Elkinskaya, Sha-lashninskaya, Nevolinskaya, and Ledyanopeshcherskayamembers of the Irenskaya Group.

Fig. 5 Tectonic map of the Ordinskaya Cave area: 1 reefs; 2 lineaments of different order affecting the modern relief; 3 faults; 4 cave entrance;5 boreholes and relevant cross sections

436 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

Presently, Ordinskaya Cave is designated as a geologicalnatural landmark of regional significance (Maksimovichet al. 2006). In 2009, it was suggested the area be included asa key part of the proposed “Natural Park of the PermianPeriod.”

4 Cave Morphology

The entrance to the Ordinskaya Cave (Fig. 8) is situated onthe steep south slope of Kazakovskaya Gora at 163 m a.s.l.,40 m above the river. It opened by collapse, forming a

Fig. 7 Left fragment of outcrop of the Tyuyskaya member in Ordinskaya Cave area; right boxwork pattern on recrystallized and leached residualcarbonate rock (the width of the scene is *0.5 m)

Fig. 6 Geologic section across Ordinskaya Cave: 1, 2 Quaternaryalluvial and Neogene-Quaternary eluvial sediments; 3 carbonatemembers of the Irenskaya Suite (Tyuyskaya, Elkinskaya, and Nevolin-skaya); 4 sulfate members of the Irenskaya Suite (Lunezhskaya,Demidkovskaya, Shalashninskaya, and Ledyanopeshcherskaya);

5 limestones and dolomites of the Philippovian horizon; 6 limestonesof the Artinskian horizon; 7 points of discharge of sulfate-hydrocarbonate-calcium waters; 8 Ordinskaya Cave; 9 fault anddirection of blocks displacement

26 The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Formation … 437

sinkhole 40 m in diameter. During winter, the dry part of thecave cools, forming ice stalagmites, stalactites, and subli-mation crystals (Fig. 9a, b).

In the dry part of the cave and the underwater gallerieslocated along the Kungur River (Sverdlovskaya and LevayaMoskovskaya galleries), blocks of sulfate and carbonaterocks have been disrupted by tectonic faults and tiltedtoward the river valley.

Seasonal changes of the groundwater and surface waterlevels have caused deformation of the lower part of theLedyanopeshcherskaya member due to anhydrite hydration.Thin bedrock walls separating major passages were tiltedtoward the river valley opening fresh vertical fractures whereriver water entered the cave. Generally, such major passagesare high (up to 15 m) and relatively narrow (1.5–5 m), andare 25–50 m long. In places, the width of the walls betweenthe adjacent parallel passages is only 1.0–3.5 m (Fig. 9c, d).Thin pillars failed with time and narrow passages coalesced.Remnants of almost destroyed pillars are observed in Bol-shoy Zal (Big Hall) and Mayskiy passage (Fig. 9e, f).

Widening occurs locally at the contact of the rocks ofdifferent structure in the Ledyanopeshcherskaya member thatresults in two-story passages, as observed in the passagessuch as Levaya Moskovskaya, Sverdlovskaya, and Krasno-yarskiy. Widening in the lower story occurs along thedolomite bed in the bottom of the Ledyanopeshcherskayamember. Passages in this story are commonly wide but lowand display the fractured dolomite layer in their walls(Fig. 10a). The upper story of parallel passages occurs in the

nodular gypsum-anhydrite bed, separated from the under-lying bed of massive fine-grained anhydrite by thin layers ofclay-carbonate material (Fig. 10b). In places, rock blocksbetween passages at different levels fall down and obstructthe entrance to lower passages. In large passages, flat ceil-ings formed where breakdown occurred (Fig. 10c). In somecases, the flat ceilings of the major cave passages haveformed along the present water level at the contact of theLedyanopeshcherskaya and Nevolinskaya members.

Underwater video recorded by cave divers, Filimonov A.,Bizyukin A., and Gorbunov A., showed clusters of roundedhollows about 1 m deep in the cave floor. These hollows(Fig. 10d, e) are identified as the rising subaqueous springs,referred to as feeders (following Klimchouk 2007, 2009).The feeders mostly occur in Bolshoy Zal and Podval, inOsnovnaya Gallery, and in Canyon, Krasnoyarskiy, andChelyabinskiy passages. The number of feeders in theseareas is greater than it shown on the cave map (Fig. 8). Asreported by divers, the size of feeders has significantlyincreased during the last 3–4 years. The pulsating watercurrents rise out of the feeders during high water.

Analysis of the distribution of karst features in thewatershed area suggests powerful upward inflow of waterthrough the lower channels along a linear elongated zoneoccurred in all stages of cave development. Thegypsum-anhydrite formation has been dissolved not onlyfrom the top and the sides, but also (perhaps dominantly)from the bottom forming the void-conduit system in thenortheastern part of Kazakovskaya Gora. Based on locations

Fig. 8 Map of Ordinskaya cave(compiled by Osipov D.V. inJanuary 2010 and updated byZhigalov A. in 2016, withpermission): 1 subaqueoussprings (feeders), 2 dry part of thecave with lakes, 3 air cupolas inthe underwater part of cave,4 vertical pipes

438 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

Fig. 9 Morphologic features of Ordinskaya Cave: a Dry part of thecave (photograph by Ya. Zanda); b Stalagmites in dry part of cave(photograph by A. Filimonov); c one of the narrow parallel galleries inLevaya (Left) Moskovskaya passage that often merged laterally due towall collapse (photograph by A. Gorbunov); d blocks of collapsed

pillars between the parallel galleries (photograph by V. Lyagushckin);e large passage formed by coalescence of adjacent passages (pho-tograph by V. Lyagushckin); f remnant of an almost destroyed pillar inBolshoy Zal (Big Hall; photograph by A. Gorbunov)

26 The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Formation … 439

Fig. 10 Morphologic features of Ordinskaya Cave: a Krasnoyarskiypassage (photograph by A. Gorbunov); b Upper and lower parallelgalleries (photograph by A. Bizyukin); c The settling down of rockblocks (photograph by A. Bizyukin); d and e subaqueous springs

(feeders) in the lower part of Ordinskaya Cave, governing the risinginflow of hydrocarbonate-calcium water in the gypsum-anhydriteformation (photograph by A. Gorbunov)

440 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

of ravines and large karst sinkholes (up to 100 m), it can beassumed that most of the underground passages of Ordins-kaya Cave have already been destroyed by collapse.

Hydrogeological observations pointed out the direction ofgroundwater flow. Gorbunov A.A. (pers.comm.) reportedvertical flow occurred during spring flooding in 2009. Watercarrying suspended clay particles flowed from the lowerhorizontal Podval passage through a subvertical channel ofthe Canyon passage into the overlying horizontal Glavnyypassage. Upward water flow is also confirmed by the cavemorphology. A feature referred to as Bolshoy Puzyr (BigBubble) is a dome about 12 m in diameter, located at theintersection of the Canyon and Osnovnaya passages.A number of smaller domes can be seen on the ceiling of theGlavnyy passage and toward the Bolshoy Zal (Fig. 11a).

Different flow directions were observed in the Mos-kovskiy and Sverdlovskiy passages, which are likely relatedto lithostatic unloading along the valley. Groundwater flowin these passages coincides with the Kungur River flowdirection. Intense fracturing of the karst massif contributes tothe influx of muddy river water into distant sections of thesepassages during flooding.

Flood waters reach the dry part of the cave in approxi-mately 5–7 days. Wood debris carried into the cave probablyby flood water has been found in some sections of theMoskovskiy and Sverdlovskiy passages. The muddy waterwas not observed in the Krasnoyarskiy and Chelyabinskiypassages. The suspended material that rises from the bottomof the Moskovskiy passage moves toward the dry part of thecave even during low flow, suggesting a continuous north-eastern flow direction.

Measurements of the water levels in the cave and in thepond in the Kungur River, conducted by Pyatunin M.C.during the summer low-water season (July 23, 2009), indi-cated that the water table in the cave is 27 cm higher than thewater level in the pond. Such a difference in water levelsconfirms artesian water provides recharge to the cave. Thewater influx from the underlying beds, the hydrologicalregime of wells in the southern part of Kazakovskaya Gora,and invariant water level in the cave lakes during ponddewatering in 2005 are direct evidence for subartesianrecharge to the cave.

The oldest part of cave occupies the area from theentrance to the end of the Chelyabinskiy and Krasnoyarskiypassages. This is confirmed by the following lines of evi-dence: occurrence of feeders mainly in chambers of BolshoyZal and Podval, in the Osnovnaya Gallery, and in the Can-yon, Krasnoyarskiy, and Chelyabinskiy passages; lowerelevation of the bottom; the proximity of the underlyingPhilippian dolomites; documented upward water inflow

through feeders; dissolution of the pillars between parallelpassages, and coalescence of the passages into larger fea-tures of up to 60 m in width and up to 150 m in length.Hypogene speleogenesis in this part of cave is confirmedalso by the lack of karst landforms on the surface.

Moskovskaya and Sverdlovskaya galleries are youngerfeatures related to rock dissolution along the fractures causedby entrenchment of the Kungur River valley. There are nofeeders in this part of cave, the galleries are mostly narrow(2–3 m wide), the pillars/walls between parallel galleries arepreserved, and the bottom of galleries is located at higherelevations. The depth of these galleries from the surface isless than 25 m because they are close to the edge of thevalley. Sinkholes on the slope connect to the cave galleriesby the vertical channels formed by infiltration water. Theriver waters enter the karst massif during the spring highwater season, which causes water turbidity. The beddingplanes in this part of the cave are inclined toward the riverwhich is not true away from the edge of the valley.

5 Hydrochemical Characteristicsof the Cave Water

Local groundwater is characterized by SO4-HCO3-Ca andTDS up to 2.4 g/L, which is typical for areas of sulfate karstdevelopment (Gorbunova et al. 1992; Dublyanskiy 2005).Water samples in the cave were collected mostly from thesurface of pools. Sampling conducted by cave divers (Gor-bunov A.A., Mikhalev D.A., and Shchukin A.V.) in themain underwater cave passages and subaqueous feeders ofthe Arsenovsky Spring (Fig. 11d, e) made it possible todetermine water composition at different levels of the caveduring periods of high and low water (Table 1).

The highest HCO3 content (up to 317 mg/L) was docu-mented in water from subaqueous outlets of the ArsenovskySpring (Fig. 11d) and in the Bolshoy Zal in the cave. Thesame or slightly lower values (to 280 mg/L) are obtained forsamples from Chelyabinsliy, Krasnoyarskiy, Moskovskiypassages, Osnovnaya Gallery, and Podval. The lowest HCO3

content (195 mg/L) was observed in the sample from theKungur River taken upstream from the cave.

High HCO3 could be interpreted as an evidence of waterinflow from the underlying limestones and dolomites of thePhilippian and Artinskian horizons, while high TDS mightbe a result of mixing of water rising from the Philippianhorizon and highly mineralized water in the Irenskaya Suite.

The saturation index SIgyp (Ford and Williams 2007)was used to assess the water’s capability to dissolve gypsum.Methodology is based on the determination of the

26 The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Formation … 441

Fig. 11 Morphologic features of Ordinskaya Cave (a through c) andsubaqueous feeders in the Arsenovsky Spring (d and e): a Tall parallelpassages, coalesced in the lower part into a single Glavnyy passage due topartial destruction of pillars. Note a number of smaller cupolas andchannels in the ceiling (photograph by A. Bizyukin); b and c ellipsoidal

and spherical cupolas in the ceiling of theGlavnyy passage (photograph ofA. Gorbunov); d subaqueous springs (feeders) in the Arsenovsky Spring(photograph by V. Lyagushckin); e discharge of hydrocarbonate-calciumwaters on the bottom ofArsenovsky Spring (photograph byA.Gorbunov)

442 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

Table

1Chemicalcompo

sitio

nof

watersin

OrdinskayaCavearea.E

quilibrium

concentrationof

gypsum

andits

comparisonwith

anequilib

rium

equivalent

concentrationof

calcium

sulfatein

water

(study

of20

09)

No.

Samplinglocality

Sampling

date

in20

09TDS(g/dm

3 )SO

4

(g/dm

3 )Ca(g/dm

3 )NSO4

n Ca

CSO4

CCa

Ion

activ

itySaturatio

nIndex,

mol/L

Solubility,

g/L

Solubility

coeff.

1Cave,

Bolshoy

Zal,feeder

Apr

242.43

61.41

30.58

90.01

50.01

473

0.00

6043

0.00

6046

0.00

0037

−0.07

72.0

0.94

2Cave,

Bolshoy

Zal,feeder

May

252.26

51.31

50.58

10.01

40.01

453

0.00

605

0.00

6416

0.00

0039

−0.05

01.92

0.97

3Cave,

Bolshoy

Zal,ceiling

May

252.25

31.29

60.58

10.01

40.01

453

0.00

5991

0.00

6448

0.00

0039

−0.05

31.90

0.97

4Levaya(Left)

Mosko

vskaya

passage,

entrance

May

252.34

41.35

60.58

10.01

40.01

453

0.00

6027

0.00

6199

0.00

0037

−0.06

71.95

0.95

5Levaya(Left)

Mosko

vskaya

passage,

end

May

252.34

41.35

60.58

10.01

40.01

453

0.00

6027

0.00

6199

0.00

0037

−0.06

71.95

0.95

6Mosko

vskiypassage,

botto

mMay

222.17

51.24

80.56

110.01

30.01

4028

0.00

5975

0.00

6449

0.00

0039

−0.05

41.84

0.97

7Mosko

vskiypassage,

top

May

222.34

91.36

50.55

70.01

40.01

3928

0.00

605

0.00

5928

0.00

0036

−0.08

51.91

0.93

8Osnov

naya

Gallery,bo

ttom

May

222.37

71.38

40.56

10.01

40.01

403

0.00

6065

0.00

5901

0.00

0036

−0.08

61.93

0.93

9Osnov

naya

Gallery,top

May

222.44

31.42

30.55

70.01

40.01

3928

0.00

6068

0.00

5701

0.00

0035

−0.10

01.95

0.92

10Po

dval,bo

ttom

May

222.25

71.30

60.56

50.01

40.01

4128

0.00

6028

0.00

626

0.00

0038

−0.06

31.89

0.96

11Krasnoy

arskiy

passage,

botto

mMay

222.29

01.33

50.56

90.01

40.01

4229

0.00

6075

0.00

6214

0.00

0038

−0.06

21.91

0.96

12Bolshoy

Zal,top

Aug

142.21

51.28

70.56

10.01

30.01

4028

0.00

6051

0.00

6333

0.00

0038

−0.05

61.86

0.97

13Bolshoy

Zal,bo

ttom

Aug

142.21

41.28

70.56

90.01

30.01

4229

0.00

6053

0.00

6426

0.00

0039

−0.05

01.88

0.97

14Bolshoy

Zal,feeder

Aug

142.29

61.34

50.56

90.01

40.01

4229

0.00

6104

0.00

6198

0.00

0038

−0.06

21.92

0.96

15Po

dval,feeder

Aug

142.26

61.32

60.58

50.01

40.01

4629

0.00

6093

0.00

6455

0.00

0039

−0.04

81.93

0.98

16Arsenov

skySp

ring

Apr

242.44

41.44

30.58

50.01

50.01

4629

0.00

6147

0.00

5985

0.00

0037

−0.07

42.02

0.95

17Po

dzuevskiySp

ring

Aug

142.23

31.28

70.56

50.01

30.01

4128

0.00

6003

0.00

6328

0.00

0038

−0.06

01.87

0.96

18Glavn

oyeLake,

top

Aug

142.28

31.32

60.55

70.01

40.01

3928

0.00

6048

0.00

6100

0.00

0037

−0.07

31.89

0.95

19Kun

gurRiver,up

stream

Aug

141.94

61.17

90.49

70.01

20.01

2425

0.00

6314

0.00

6386

0.00

0040

−0.03

41.68

0.99

20Kun

gurRiver,do

wnstream

Aug

142.05

41.23

80.51

30.01

30.01

2826

0.00

6279

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6246

0.00

0039

−0.04

61.75

0.98

Samples

2–5werecollected

byU.V.N

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byNaumov

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genicprocessesof

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byMelniko

vaE.A

26 The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Formation … 443

equilibrium concentration of calcium sulfate and its com-parison to measured concentration in water. A comparison ofwater chemical composition in the Bolshoy Zal duringperiods of high and low water at different levels shows nosignificant difference in TDS. Cave waters are aggressive tosulfates (solubility coefficient is less than 1). The degree ofsaturation of water in the spring season increases upwardfrom feeders at the bottom to the top of the cave. In summer,the concentration increases in the opposite direction(downward), this may be the evidence of a seasonal evolu-tion in the chemical composition of the discharging water.

We suppose that during high water, local meteoricwater does not mix rapidly with water from feeders andconcentrates in the upper part of the cave. The water,recharged to the artesian system in the Ufimskoye Plateauduring spring flooding, discharges into the cave during lowflow.

6 Discussion: Speleogenetic Model

During the first stage of speleogenesis of Ordinskaya Cave,groundwater discharged upward along the linear, northeast-ern strike of the fault zone. The subartesian waters from theunderlying Philippian and Artinskian horizons formed theCanyon Chamber and Osnovnaya, Krasnoyarskaya, andChelyabinskaya passages (Fig. 12). Later on, the Moskovs-kaya and Sverdlovskaya passages were formed, followingneotectonic formation of stress release fractures along theKungur River and hydration processes.

With time, the southeastern block rose and the KungurRiver valley shifted northeast. Uplift of the southernleft-bank block relative to the present location of Kaza-kovskaya Gora lowered the groundwater level at the north-ern end causing intense leaching of the sulfate-carbonaterock. Fluorine-enriched waters infiltrated into the

Fig. 12 Conceptual model of the Ordinskaya Cave formation in thefault zone (Chaykovskiy and Kadebskaya 2009): 1 sulfate andcarbonate rocks of the Irenskaya Suite; 2 limestones and dolomites

of the Philippian horizon, 3 Artinskian limestones; 4 fault; 5 modernsurface; 6 direction of artesian water flow; 7 Ordinsakaya cave

444 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich

Kazakovskiy block and precipitated fluorite along the faultin carbonates of the Irenskaya Group (Fig. 13).

7 Conclusions

Kazakovskaya Gora and Ordinskaya Cave represent uniquenatural features of great scientific, aesthetic, and recreationalimportance. The cave, which was traditionally considered theresult of downward infiltration and lateral groundwater flow,is actually formed by upward flow of artesian water alongfaults. The location and configuration of the cave were con-trolled by a diagonal fault system along with northeasttrending normal faults.

Finding upward-flowing feeder inlets in Ordinskaya Cavethat discharge groundwater with high HCO3 content providesdirect evidence that inflow of artesian waters from thePhilippian limestones and dolomites continues today.Recharge to this confined aquifer system occurs in theUfimskoye Plateau. Neotectonic activation induced verticaldisplacement of blocks and opened passageways for thesewaters to rise across the sulfate formation and to form cavesthere. Ordinskaya Cave is an outstanding example of artesianhypogene speleogenesis in the sense of Klimchouk (2016).

References

Chaykovskiy II, Kadebskaya OI (2009) The role of tectonics information of mineralization and karst of the Kazakovskaya Gora. In:Proceedings of the conference Geologiya i poleznye iskopaemyeZapadnogo Urala, Perm State University, Perm, pp 18–24 (inRussian)

Dublyanskiy VN (ed) (2005) Kungur ice cave: results of the regimeobservation. UB RAS, Yekaterinburg (in Russian)

Ford D, Williams PD (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology.Wiley

Gorbunova KA, Andreychuk VN et al (1992) Karst and caves of thePerm region. Perm State University, Perm (in Russian)

Kadebskaya OI, Maksimovich NG (2009) Geological, hydrogeologicaland hydrogeochemical pre-requisites of the Ordinskaya Caveformation. In: Peshchery, v 32. Perm State University, Perm,pp 11–22 (in Russian)

Kadebskaya OI, Maksimovich NG, Zhakova UV (2009) Karst featuresat the area of Ordinskaya Cave (Perm krai, Russia). Speleologiya ikarstologiya 3:60–65 (in Russian)

Klimchouk AB (1996) The typology of gypsum karst according to itsgeological and geomorphological evolution. In: Klimchouk AB,Lowe D et al (eds) Gypsum Karst of the World. Int J Speleol,Theme issue 25(3–4):49–60

Klimchouk AB (2007) Hypogene speleogenesis: hydrogeological andmorphogenetic perspective. Special paper no. 1, National Cave andKarst Research Institute, Carlsbad, NM

Klimchouk A (2009) Morphogenesis of hypogenic caves. Geomor-phology 106(1):100–117

Fig. 13 Model of the formationof fluorite mineralization in thefault zone: 1 sulfate and carbonaterocks of the Irenskaya Suite(P1ir); 2 limestones and dolomitesof the Philippian horizon; 3Artinskian limestones; 4 fault;5 modern surface; 6 direction ofstreams enriched in fluorine;7 groundwater level and waterinfiltration in the vadose zone;8 location of fluorite deposits incarbonate members

26 The Role of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Formation … 445

Klimchouk AB (2016) Types of hypogene speleogenesis. In: Chavez T,Reehling P (eds) Proceedings of deep karst: origins, resources, andmanagement of hypogene karst, NCKRI symposium 6, NationalCave and Karst Research Institute, Carlsbad, New Mexico

Lavrov I, Maximovich E, Maximovich N (2005) Ordinskaya cave—thelongest underwater cave in Russia. In: Proceedings of conferencewater resources and environmental problems in karst, Serbia,Montenegro, 13–19 Sept 2005, Belgrade, pp 771–776

Maksimovich GA (1969) Caves of gypsum karst. In: Peshchery. v 8.Perm State University, Perm, pp 5–29 (in Russian)

Maksimovich NG, Maksimovich EG, Lavrov IA (2006) OrdinskayaCave. The longest underwater cave of Russia. Knizhnyy mir, Perm(in Russian)

Mikhaylov GK, Oborin AA (2006) Underground fresh waters resourcesof Sylvenskiy ridge. UB RAS, PSU, Perm (in Russian)

Sivinskih P (2009) Features of geological conditions of the Ordinskayaunderwater cave, fore-Urals, Russia. In: Klimchouk AB, Ford DC(eds) Hypogene speleogenesis and karst hydrogeology of Artesianbasins. Special Paper, Ukrainian Institute of Speleology andKarstology, Kiev, vol 1, pp 267–271

446 O.I. Kadebskaya and N.G. Maksimovich