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EDN 203Human Development Theory
Chapter 2
Cognitive & Linguistic Development
Development: Changes occurring throughout the lifespan that are orderly and adaptive
Can be physical, cognitive, or social in nature
An important aspect of development is maturation, the genetically programmed aspects of development.
What Is Development?
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Basic Principles of Human Development
Development proceeds in a somewhat orderly and predictable pattern. Developmental milestones
Different children develop at different rates. Development occurs via both spurts and
plateaus. Development is continually affected by both
nature and nurture. Temperaments and sensitive periods
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Role of the Brain in Cognitive Development
Learning involves changes in neurons and synapses. Developmental changes in the brain enable
increasingly complex and efficient thought. The brain remains adaptable throughout life.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget was a Swiss psychologist with a background in biology.
He noticed age-related similarities in how children attempted to solve certain tasks. He saw that within specific age ranges there
were specific types of deficits and specific types of strengths in problem-solving skills.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Basic Assumptions of Piaget’s Theory Children are active and motivated learners. Children construct knowledge from their
experiences. Children learn through assimilation and
accommodation. Interaction with one’s physical and social
environments is essential for cognitive development.
The process of equilibration promotes progression toward increasingly complex thought.
Cognitive development is stage-like in nature.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Assimilation and Accommodation
Assimilation entails dealing with a new object or event in a way that is consistent with a currently existing scheme.
Accommodation occurs when new information doesn’t fit into existing schemes; the schemes must be adjusted or accommodated.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Equilibration
Equilibration is the movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium, a process that promotes development of more complex thought and understanding. Students move back and forth between a state
of balance and imbalance. It is the desire for balance that forces students
to construct new schemes or accommodate existing schemes.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget proposed that children move through four stages.
Periods of time are consistent in age and developmental sequence. Age ranges are
averages. Some children are in
transition from one stage to the next.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Characterized by infants using senses and motor skills to explore world Begins with reflexes and ends with a complex
combination of sensory and motor skill combinations
Major cognitive developmental milestones include object permanence and an understanding of cause-effect relationships
Symbolic thought, the ability to represent and think about external objects and events, emerges toward the end of second year.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 Years)
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Characterized by the rapid development of language which allows for more social interaction
Limitations of preoperational thought include: Egocentrism: Inability to view situations from
another’s perspective Lack of conservation: Inability to realize that if
nothing is added or taken away, the amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or appearance
Transductive reasoning (lack of logic): Inference of a cause-effect relationship simply because two events occur close together in time and space
Preoperational Stage (2 Years – 6 or 7 Years)
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Children begin to think more logically and demonstrate deductive reasoning.
Conservation of liquid is evident by 7; conservation of substance is evident by 8; conservation of area is mastered by 9 or 10.
Children are able to learn classification, seriation, and are able to reverse operations which allows for the teaching of mathematics.
However, children cannot apply newfound logic to non-concrete items (abstract concepts).
Concrete Operations (6 or 7 Years – 11 or 12 Years)
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Formal Operations (11 or 12 and Beyond)
Children are now able to reason logically about abstract and hypothetical ideas. Can formulate and test multiple hypothesis
Limitations include excessive idealism. May reflect formal operational egocentrism,
the inability to separate one’s own logical abstractions from the perspectives of others and from practical considerations
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Current Perspectives on Piaget’s Theory
Sequence of the stages is supported, but the ages coinciding with each stage is debated.
Piaget may have underestimated young children’s cognitive capabilities, but overestimated those of adolescents.
Piaget may have overemphasized the importance of interaction with the physical environment.
Social interaction may be more influential than realized.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Applying Piaget’s Theory
Provide hands-on experience with physical objects, particularly at the elementary level
When students show signs of egocentric thought, express confusion or explain that others think differently
Ask students to explain their reasoning and challenge illogical explanations
Be sure that students have adequate knowledge and skills before moving on to more complex topics and activities
Relate abstract and hypothetical ideas to concrete objects and/or observable events
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s ideas are evident in our current views of child development, learning, and instructional practice.
His theory is sometimes referred to as the sociocultural perspective because of its emphasis on the impact of society and culture on cognitive development.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions
Through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adults convey to children ways in which their culture interprets and responds to the world.
Thought and language become increasingly interdependent in the first few years of life.
Complex mental processes begin as social activities and then progress to internalized processes. Cognitive tools
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions
Children can perform more challenging tasks when assisted. Actual developmental level vs. level of
potential development Challenging tasks promote maximum
cognitive growth. Zone of proximal development
Play allows children to stretch themselves cognitively.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
The Zone of Proximal Development
The range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently
Students working on challenging tasks in collaboration with a more competent partner
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Current Perspectives on Vygotsky’s Theory
Educators embrace Vygotsky’s ideas on the role of culture in cognitive development.
Research supports Vygotsky’s beliefs about the importance of language in cognitive development.
Vygotsky’s theory introduces the well-supported concepts of mediated learning, scaffolding, and cognitive tools.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Applying Vygotsky’s Theory
Encourage students to talk themselves through difficult tasks
Provide cognitive tools that students can use to make difficult tasks easier
Present some tasks that students can perform successfully only with assistance
Provide sufficient scaffolding to enable students to attempt to perform challenging tasks
Have students work in small groups on complex tasks Provide opportunities to engage in adult-like activities Give young children time to practice adult roles and
behaviors through playJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Linguistic Development
Humans are born with a predisposition to learn language
Developmental pattern of language development Most first words occur around the 1st birthday. Sentences are usually evident by age 2 and
become more complex during the preschool years.
By age 5 or 6 most children’s language skills are almost completely adult-like
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of Vocabulary
Children learn semantics, the meanings of words and word combinations, through direct vocabulary instruction at school and by inferring meaning from the contexts in which they hear the words.
Common errors include undergeneralization and overgeneralization.
Teachers can promote semantic development by having students define new vocabulary in their own words.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of Syntax
Syntax is the set of rules that one uses to put words together into sentences (often unconsciously).
Syntax becomes more complex during the later elementary years.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of Listening Comprehension
During later elementary school, children learn that good listening requires understanding.
Listening comprehension is influenced by context.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of Oral Communication Skills
Pragmatics is knowledge about culture-specific social conventions guiding verbal interactions.
Both correct pronunciation and pragmatics are necessary oral communication skills.
Pragmatics may not be mastered until high school or beyond.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of Metalinguistic Awareness
Metalinguistic awareness is the extent to which one can think about the nature of language. It involves understanding the literal and
nonliteral meanings of words. It emerges slowly over time. High school work enhances metalinguistic
awareness via the study of literature and second languages.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Learning a Second Language
Early exposure to a second language may be important for mastering pronunciation and complex grammatical constructions.
Bilingualism is correlated with increased cognitive abilities. It results in superior problem-solving skills,
creativity, and cognitive flexibility. Metalinguistic awareness may happen at
an earlier age, and, therefore, bilingual students’ syntax may be superior as well.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Bilingual Education vs. Immersion
Bilingual education Students are instructed in academic subjects in
their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and write in the second language.
Immersion Students hear and speak the second language
almost exclusively in the classroom. Which one is “better?”
There is no clear and easy answer. Some students benefit from bilingual education,
while others from immersion. It may have to do with the available opportunities to
speak the second language.Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Considering Diversity in Cognitive and Linguistic Development
The rate of cognitive and linguistic development can vary from child to child.
Cognitive development may differ somewhat depending on the culture.
Students will vary in the size of their vocabulary and knowledge of complex syntactical structures.
Some students will be advanced cognitively while others will not yet have acquired the skills common to their age group.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Addressing the Unique Needs of English Language Learners
Bilingual education programs are more effective than immersion programs.
Transition to instruction only in English should be gradual.
Adequate mastery of English can take five to seven years.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
The Big Picture
Children tend to think in qualitatively different ways at different ages.
Children actively construct their knowledge. Development builds upon prior acquisitions. Challenging situations and tasks promote
development. Social interaction is critical for development.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.