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Frameworks for Learning from the Cognitive Domain,Frameworks for Learning from the Cognitive Domain,

Errors in Standard Testing, Assessment in theErrors in Standard Testing, Assessment in the DimensionsDimensions

of Learningof Learning model, as well as in the Multiple Intelligencesmodel, as well as in the Multiple Intelligences

and in the Backwards Design approaches, Movingand in the Backwards Design approaches, Moving

Towards a Multidimensional Assessment modelTowards a Multidimensional Assessment model

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According to N. Gronlund, to design anAccording to N. Gronlund, to design an

effective Evaluation/Assessment System,effective Evaluation/Assessment System,

we must make sure that this system:we must make sure that this system:

Measures all instructional objectivesMeasures all instructional objectives Covers all cognitive domainsCovers all cognitive domains

Uses appropriate test itemsUses appropriate test items

Makes tests valid and reliableMakes tests valid and reliable Uses tests to improve learningUses tests to improve learning

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Errors of Standard TestingErrors of Standard Testing

All measurements are subject to potential error. ComparedAll measurements are subject to potential error. Comparedwith physical measurements, the errors in standard test scoreswith physical measurements, the errors in standard test scoresare enormous. There are many sources of error. These include:are enormous. There are many sources of error. These include:

Mechanical errors in transcribing short answers or multipleMechanical errors in transcribing short answers or multiplechoice answerschoice answers

Consistency errors in scoring essays or extended answersConsistency errors in scoring essays or extended answers Computer errors when calculating or reporting resultsComputer errors when calculating or reporting results Systematic errors from varying difficulty of different test versionsSystematic errors from varying difficulty of different test versions Random errors arising from the physical or mental states ofRandom errors arising from the physical or mental states of

testtest--takerstakers Bias errors: test designs that favor some groups of testBias errors: test designs that favor some groups of test--takerstakers

over othersover others Content errors: test items that do not accurately cover theContent errors: test items that do not accurately cover the

intended materialintended material

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DimensionsDimensions of Learningof Learning

It is an innovative model that usesIt is an innovative model that useswhat researchers and theorists knowwhat researchers and theorists know

aboutabout learninglearning to define the learningto define the learningprocess. Its premise is that five tpesprocess. Its premise is that five tpesof thinkingof thinking --that is, the fivethat is, the five

dimensions of learningdimensions of learning-- are essentialare essentialto successful learning.to successful learning.

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The Dimensions of Learning Are:The Dimensions of Learning Are:

Dimension 1: Attitudes and PerceptionsDimension 1: Attitudes and Perceptions

Dimension 2: Acquire and IntegrateDimension 2: Acquire and Integrate

KnowledgeKnowledge Dimension 3: Extend and RefineDimension 3: Extend and Refine

KnowledgeKnowledge

Dimension 4: Use Knowledge MeaningfullyDimension 4: Use Knowledge Meaningfully Dimension 5: Habits of MindDimension 5: Habits of Mind

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In this framework, a basicIn this framework, a basic

assumption is that:assumption is that:

The assessment should focus onThe assessment should focus on

studentsstudents useuse of knowledge andof knowledge andcomplex reasoning processescomplex reasoning processesrather than on their recall ofrather than on their recall of

informationinformation

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Multiple Intelligences TheoryMultiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner argues that traditionalHoward Gardner argues that traditionalschooling emphasizes only two abilitiesschooling emphasizes only two abilities--

verbalverbal--linguistic (especially in writtenlinguistic (especially in writtenform) and logicalform) and logical--mathematical. Yet, theremathematical. Yet, thereare many other kinds of knowledges orare many other kinds of knowledges ortalents that enrich our lives and help ustalents that enrich our lives and help us

respond effectively to our environment.respond effectively to our environment.He lists the following, while emphasizingHe lists the following, while emphasizingthat there are many others as well.that there are many others as well.

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The Multiple IntelligencesThe Multiple Intelligences

VisualVisual--spatialspatial Capacity to perceive the visualCapacity to perceive the visual--spatial worldspatial worldaccurately and to modify or manipulate one's initial perceptionsaccurately and to modify or manipulate one's initial perceptions

BodilyBodily--kinesthetickinestheticAbilities to control one's body movements andAbilities to control one's body movements andto handle objects skillfullyto handle objects skillfully

MusicalMusical--rhythmicalrhythmicalAbilities to produce and appreciate rhythm,Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm,

pitch, and timbre, and appreciation of the forms of musicalpitch, and timbre, and appreciation of the forms of musicalexpressivenessexpressiveness InterpersonalInterpersonal Capacities to discern and respond appropriately toCapacities to discern and respond appropriately to

the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other peoplethe moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people IntrapersonalIntrapersonal Knowledge of one's own feelings, strengths,Knowledge of one's own feelings, strengths,

weaknesses, desires, and the ability to draw upon this knowledge toweaknesses, desires, and the ability to draw upon this knowledge to

guide behaviorguide behavior LogicalLogical--mathematicalmathematical The abilities to discern logical orThe abilities to discern logical or

numerical patterns and to handle long chains of reasoning.numerical patterns and to handle long chains of reasoning. VerbalVerbal--linguisticlinguistic Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, andSensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and

meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of languagemeanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language

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For Howard Gardner, in the nearFor Howard Gardner, in the near

future:future:Not only will logical and verbal abilitiesNot only will logical and verbal abilitiescontinue to be assessed, but assessmentcontinue to be assessed, but assessment

also will include visual, auditory,also will include visual, auditory,kinesthetic, intrapersonal, andkinesthetic, intrapersonal, andinterpersonal abilities. This meansinterpersonal abilities. This meansassessing students' repertoire of learningassessing students' repertoire of learning

strategies, skills in communicating withstrategies, skills in communicating withothers, and knowledge as it is applied toothers, and knowledge as it is applied todayday--toto--day and culturally diverse contextsday and culturally diverse contexts

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Backwards DesignBackwards DesignWiggins and McTighe, curriculum experts,Wiggins and McTighe, curriculum experts,have created a model that they callhave created a model that they callBackwards Design. Understanding, theBackwards Design. Understanding, the

authors argue, differs from knowledge, and itauthors argue, differs from knowledge, and itcan be difficult to recognize whether we'recan be difficult to recognize whether we'reteaching for deeper understanding orteaching for deeper understanding orshallower knowledge. In order to help identifyshallower knowledge. In order to help identify

the concept of understanding, Wiggins andthe concept of understanding, Wiggins andMcTighe propose Six Facets ofMcTighe propose Six Facets ofUnderstanding that are best described by theUnderstanding that are best described by thecharacteristics of the learner. Truecharacteristics of the learner. True

understanding is present when the learner:understanding is present when the learner:

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Evidence of UnderstandingEvidence of Understanding

Can ExplainCan Explain

Can InterpretCan Interpret

Can ApplyCan Apply

Has PerspectiveHas Perspective

Can EmpathizeCan Empathize

Has SelfHas Self--KnowledgeKnowledge

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Stages of Backwards DesignStages of Backwards Design

WigginsWiggins andand McTigheMcTighe dividedivide thethe

backwardsbackwards designdesign processprocess intointo

threethree stagesstages::

1.1. Identify desired resultsIdentify desired results2.2. Determine acceptable evidenceDetermine acceptable evidence

3.3. Plan learning experiences andPlan learning experiences andinstructioninstruction

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Applying the ModelApplying the Model

With this model, teachers first examineWith this model, teachers first examine

the relevant standards to identify whatthe relevant standards to identify whatenduring understandings they want toenduring understandings they want to

address, then designaddress, then design assessmentassessment toto

show that students reached the desiredshow that students reached the desiredunderstandings, and only then do theyunderstandings, and only then do they

design instruction that will lead to thosedesign instruction that will lead to thoseunderstandings.understandings.

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Towards MultidimensionalTowards Multidimensional

AssessmentAssessmentThe new vision of learning and evaluationThe new vision of learning and evaluationof student learning reflected in the termof student learning reflected in the termmultidimensional assessment is broadmultidimensional assessment is broad--based, relevant to real life, processbased, relevant to real life, processoriented, and based on multiple measuresoriented, and based on multiple measureswhich provide a rich portrayal of studentwhich provide a rich portrayal of student

learninglearning

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CREDITSCREDITS

The information about theThe information about the Dimensions of LearningDimensions of Learningframework was based on the handbookframework was based on the handbook Dimensions ofDimensions of

LearningLearning, by Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering., by Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering.

Errors ofTestingErrors ofTesting appeared inappeared in School Based StandardSchool Based StandardTestingTesting, by Craig Bolon (May 2000), and the topics of, by Craig Bolon (May 2000), and the topics ofMultidimensional Analyses, Howard Gardners theory,Multidimensional Analyses, Howard Gardners theory,

and theand the Types of AssessmentsTypes of Assessmentsdiagram, werediagram, wereellaborated fromellaborated from Why Should Assessment be Based onWhy Should Assessment be Based on

a Vision of Learning,a Vision of Learning, a group effort sponsored bya group effort sponsored byNCREL in 1990, led by M. Kulienko et al.NCREL in 1990, led by M. Kulienko et al.