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Education Without Compulsion: Toward New Visions of Gifted Education

Barry Grant

the aim of this paper is to induce doubt about the ethical rightness of compulsory education laws and inspire educators to imagine and begin to make a world in which there are many different forms of gifted education. the paper does this in three ways. it paints a polemical picture of gifted education as a minor variation on public schooling and describes the contradictions and limitations this entails. it presents a short history of education in the united States to support the claim that compulsory schooling aims to shape the character of children in the interests of religion, government, corporations, and other groups. it argues that compulsory schooling is inconsistent with the liberal democratic value of the right to self-determination. the paper also offers a conception of education for self-development as one vision of what gifted education could be were it freed from the strictures of compulsory schooling.

Theworst,themostdifficultthingthataffectsusaspeopleisthefailureofimagination.Wedonotrealizethatvariousthingsarepossible,whichistosaythatwedon‘trealizethatmosteverythingiscontingent,thatthingscouldbedifferent.

—AlexanderNehemas(Carrier,1998,para28fromend)

IntheUnitedStates,mostchildrenages6to16,must,underpenaltyoflaw,attendschooloralegislatedequivalent.Thefailureofpar-entstoadheretostatelawsgoverningschoolattendancecanresultinfinesandimprisonment(Novello,1998).Thefailureofadolescentstoattendschoolcanresultinlossofadriver’slicense,fines,jailtime,orcommitmenttocourt-mandatedtruancyprograms(e.g.,SuperiorCourtofArizonainMaricopaCounty,n.d.).

Giftededucatorsshowlittleawarenessthatstatesmandateuni-versalcompulsoryeducation,thatcompulsoryeducationlawsareethicallyinconsistentwithsignificantvaluesofgiftededucation,thatcompulsoryeducationsetsseverelimitsoneducationalpracticesand

BarryGrantisthechairofthemaster’sinprofessionalcounselingprogramatArgosyUniversityinDallas,TX.

Journal for the Education of the Gifted.Vol.29,No.2,2005,pp.161–186.Copyright©2005PrufrockPressInc.,http://www.prufrock.com

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philosophies,orthatalmostallofthewaysinwhichgiftededuca-tion“servestheneeds”ofgiftedchildrenarebackedbystatepower.Theaimofthispaperistoinducedoubtaboutthevalueandethicalrightnessofthecompulsoryeducationlawsandinspireeducatorstoimagineandbegintomakeaworldinwhichtherearemanydifferentformsofgiftededucation,allfreedfromthestricturesofcompulsoryschooling.Thisisanambitiousaim.Inthemindsofmany,compul-soryschoolingis education(Buckman,1973).

Thefirstsectionofthispaperoffersapolemicalpictureofgiftededucationasaminorvariationonpublicschoolinganddescribesthecontradictionsandlimitationsthisentails.ThesecondsectionisabriefsketchofthehistoryofpubliceducationintheUnitedStatesthatillustrateshowcompulsoryschoolingservestheinterestsofreli-gion,government,corporations,andothergroups.Thethirdsectionattemptstounderminetheethicalfoundationofpubliccompulsoryeducationbyshowingthatitisincompatiblewithliberaldemocraticvalues.Thefourthsectionpresentsavisionofgiftededucationasself-development.

Gifted Education and Public Schooling

Giftednessaswediscuss it inour journals, investigate it inourresearch, and identify it in our protocols is primarily a publicschool-basedphenomenon.Giftededucationexiststoaccommo-datecertain“special”studentsinpublicschools(cf.Borland,1997;Sapon-Shevin,1994).Gallagher(2002)arguesthatgiftededucationisdefinedalmostentirelybysocialpolicysetbylaw,courtdecisions,andadministrativerules(professionalgroupsarethefourthsourceofpolicy).Thepracticesofgiftededucationare,notsurprisingly,mostlyminorvariationsonregularpublicschoolprogramsandmethodsthatleaveuntouchedthemainstructures,values,andgoalsofpubliceducation.Enrichment,acceleration,leadershipandcre-ativitytraining,abilitygrouping,specialcurricula,andotherformsandmeansofgiftededucationareconservativeintheirunderlyingtheoriesandphilosophies.Theyarepublicschooltweaks.Theydonotaddresstheroot,theradical,ofeducation.

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Thebureaucracyofpublicschoolsleadsgiftededucatorstoinor-dinateworriesaboutbookkeepingmatters.Doweenterachildinthecategoryofgifted,talentedinmath,creativebutlearningdisabled,or...?Giftededucationalresearchwithitsinvestigationsoftheeffectsofgrouping,effectivenessofnewidentificationprotocols,causesofunderachievement,characteristicsofgiftedstudents,andimpactofcurriculumcompactingonachievementtestscoresrarelyleavesthepublicschoolroom.Giftededucatorstakeseriouslya nation at risk,Goals 2000,national Excellence,NoChildLeftBehind,andothergovernmentreportsandlawsasofferingimportantandmeaningful(thoughsometimescontroversial)guidanceforeducation.Many,includingsomeofthemostprominent,acceptthe“giftedasthenation’sgreatestresource”(recentlyrepackagedas“giftedassocialcapital”)justificationforgiftededucation(e.g.,Benbow,Lubinski,&Sanjani,1995;Dai&Renzulli,2000;Feldhusen,1998;Renzulli,2002;Schwartz,1994;Tannenbaum,2001;Treffinger,1998).Theyjustifypublicfundingforgiftededucationonthegroundsthatgiftedchildrenorallchildren,properlycultivated,makeessentialcontri-butionstotheculturalandeconomiclifeofthecountry.Indoingso, they implicitlyacceptgovernmentconceptionsofeconomichealth,culturalassets,andnationalwell-being(Howley,Howley,&Pendarvis,1995).Ihavefoundnodiscussion,nomentioneven,ofalternativeorradicaleducationphilosophiesofeducationingiftededucationliterature,saveinhomeschoolingliterature(e.g.,Kearney,n.d.;Rivero,2002),anarticlebyPiirto(1999)discussingpostmod-ernpedagogy,andapresentationbyPiirto(2000)ontheideologyofgiftededucation.Criticalpedagogy(Freire,1968),themodernschoolmovement(Avrich,1980),deschooling(Illich,1970),andtheworkofJohnHolt(1976),PaulGoodman(1964),A.S.Neill(1960),MurrayRothbard(1999),andothercriticsofpublicschool-ingseemnottoexistforgiftededucators.

Giftededucationisaninnocent,ignorantofthehistoryofpub-licschooling,itsownhistory(Borland,1990),andtheroleofideol-ogy,corporations,foundations,industrygroups,religions,andotherinstitutionsininstitutingcompulsoryschoolingandshapingschoolagendas(Gatto,2001;Howleyetal.,1995;Spring,1994).Buffetedbychargesofelitism,favoritism,discrimination,andineffectiveness

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(e.g.,Treffinger,1998)anddoubtsabouttherealityof“giftedness”(Borland,1997),weworryaboutourfundingandfutureandstrug-gletoreinventourselvestobeabletocarryon“meetingtheneeds”ofthegifted—throughcompulsorypublicschooling.Whenweestab-lishprivateschools,welargelyrecreatepublicschoolingassuperiorcollegepreparation.

Noneofthecontributorstoarecentvolumeaimedatrethinking Gifted Education(Borland,2003)proposeeducationalmodelsthatchallengecompulsoryschoolingorevenacknowledgethatschoolingiscompulsory.Mostoftherethinkingisjustthinkinghowgiftededu-cationcanbetterfitintopublicschools.Heng(2003),themostradi-caloftheauthors,callsforgiftededucationthatis“beyondschool,”butnotbeyondcompulsoryschooling.Shedefends“alearner-cen-teredvisionforeducation....inwhichchildrenareregardedasendsnotmeans”(p.59),butshedoesn’tseethecontradictionbetweencompellingstudentstoattendschoolandtreatingthemasends.

Theconsequencesofthe limitedvisionsofgiftededucatorsincludeimpoverishedviewsoflife,constrictedandnarrowdevelop-mentofchildrendesignatedasgifted,anacceptanceofthestatusquoworkingsofgovernmentandcorporatepower,andmoralcon-tradictions.Giftededucationcouldbeameansofintellectualandpersonalliberation,butitismostlyatoolofpower(cf.Howleyetal.,1995;Margolin,1994;Pendarvis,Howley,&Howley,1999).Wewantschooltobeforchildren,butaslongaswe compelattendance,schoolisnecessarilysomethingwedotochildren.Giftededucatorswantgiftedchildrentodeveloptheirselves,realizetheirpotentials,createnewandamazingartandideas,deepentheirspirituality,andevendeveloptheirintellectsandcriticalfaculties.But,theyneverchallengethelimitsplacedonthesetasksbypublicschoolsandcom-pulsoryschooling,andtheydon’tfacethemoralcontradictionofcompelling studentstoattendschoolandthenhelpingthemdeveloptheirselvesandtalents.

Personalgrowthandtalentdevelopmentconcerncoreaspectsofchildren’sbeing,theirdeepestselves.Attemptstoinfluencetheseinsituationsthatchildren,aloneorguidedbytheirparents,arenotfreetorejectarecoercion,nothelp,insults,notexpressionsofrespect,nomatterhowwell-meant.Imagineifweadultswereforcedtoattend

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institutionsinwhichwewere“helped”torealizeourselvesbypeoplewhoreallycaredaboutus.Wewouldloudlyobjectthatourlibertytodevelopourselvesaswechoosewouldbeviolated,nomatterthegoodintentionsofourhelpers.

Oneexplanationforthelimitedvisionsofgiftededucatorsmaybethatgiftededucationissimplyparasiticuponuniversalcompul-soryschooling:Ithasnootherraisond’êtrethantoadvocateforandserveasmallgroupof“exceptional”childreninpublicschools,whichareassumedtoserve“average”childrenprettywell.Ifpubliceduca-tionreallywasindividualized,asBorland(2003)advocates,“gifted”educationand“gifted”childrenwouldbecomemoot.But,theaspira-tionsofgiftededucatorsandeventheimplicationsofindividualizedschoolingpushagainstthepracticalandethicallimitationsofcom-pulsoryschooling.Somegiftededucatorshaveeducationalvisionsthatcannotberealizedincompulsorysettings,thoughtheyseemunawareofthis.Forexample,Roeper’s(1990)visionofeducationforlife;Schultz’s(2002)visionofcharactereducationasa“processwhereadults,adolescents,andothersengageinthedevelopmentofcommunity”(p.10);Piechowski’s(1998,2000)workonspiritualgiftedness;Schultz’sandDelisle’s(1997)workontherelationshipsamongcurricula,self,andvisionsofthegoodlife;andHeng’s(2003)calltoservechildren’ssearchformeaningcannotberealizedpracti-callyorethicallyincompulsorysettings.Giftededucationisripeforarticulatingeducationalvisionsthatexplicitlyrejectcompulsion.

Seeforyourself.Takeanyconceptionofgiftedness:asynchronousdevelopment(Silverman,1997),aminimumIQscore,Renzulli’s(1977)threerings,ortalent—ifyoubelongtothenewwaveingiftededucation(e.g.,Feldhusen,1998).TakeanyconceptionoflifeandTheMostImportantThings(Grant,2002;Schultz&Delisle,1997)andanythingelseyouthinkisimportanttothegrowthandeduca-tionofyoungpeople.Now,imaginegiftededucationindependentofcompulsorypubliceducation.Imagineitwithoutgovernment-mandatedlearningobjectives,standardizedtests,minimumseattime,agegrouping,schoolaspreparationforthenextgradelevel,andtextbookschosenbyaTexasschoolboard.Imagineitwithoutthenecessityofpreparingindividualsforschool,college,andcareer(Grant,2002;Roeper,1990).Imaginegiftededucationsthatplace

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thedevelopmentoftheindividualinthegreatrealitiesoflife—self,sex,ethics,power,spirit,meaning,community,nature.Ithinkyouwillseethatyourvisionofgiftededucationismorevitalandimpor-tantthanthevisionsoperatingincompulsorypublicschools.

The History and Goals of Compulsory Education

Compulsorypubliceducation,byitsnature,existstochangechil-dren,toshapetheirminds,character,values,skills,andconduct.ThefoundersoftheUnitedStatesandthefoundersofpublicschool-ingknewthis,arguedaboutit,anddefendedoropposedgovern-mentrolesineducationforthisreason.ThehistoryofeducationinAmericadeservesatreatmentthatshowsmultiplepointsofviewontheforces,rationales,hiddenagendas,andphilosophiesthatinflu-encedpubliceducation.WhatIofferonlytouchesonhighlightsandafewmajorpointsofviewsontheforcesdrivingpubliceducationintheUnitedStates.Ihopeitissufficienttoincitedoubtaboutthegoodness,necessity,andinevitabilityofcompulsoryeducation.

The first compulsory education law in the colonial UnitedStates was passed in 1642 by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Itrequiredparentsandmasterstoprovideaneducationinreadingandtrade.Amongthereasonsforthislawwere“concernsthatyouthreadilyacceptthedevelopingreligious,politicalandsocialpatternsandbecomegoodcitizensofthestateandofthenewlyestablishedchurch”(Kotin&Aikman,1980,p.12).TheMassachusettsBayColonywaslargelypopulatedbyCalvinistPuritanswhowerekeentokeeptheirkidsfirminthefaith(Rothbard,1974).By1671,allcoloniesexceptRhodeIslandhadpassedcompulsoryeducationlawsbasedonthemodelofthe1642MassachusettsActanda1648refinement(Kotin&Aikman).“Forthefirsttimeinhistorythestateassumedclearresponsibilityfortheeducationandtrainingofallchildren”(Kotin&Aikman,p.14).In1647,theGovernorsofMassachusettsBayColonypassedalawthattownsofacertainsizemusthaveanelementaryschoolwherechildrencouldlearntoreadtheBible.Thisact,alsoknownastheOldDeluderSatanAct,waspassedtoensurethatchildrenwerearmedwiththeknowledgeof

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scriptureintheirbattleagainstSatan(Kotin&Aikman).Children,however,werenotcompelledtoattendschool.

The United States Constitution, written in 1787, does notmentionschoolsoreducation.Parentswereresponsiblefortheirchildren’seducation,andlikelytheywouldnothavetoleratedstateinterference(Boss&Wurtz,1994).AftertheRevolution,supportforpubliceducationgraduallyincreased.Massachusettsagainled,establishingthefirstmandatoryschoollawsin1789,creatingthefirstpublichighschoolin1820,makingallgradesofpublicschoolfreetoallpupilsin1827,and,in1852,passingthefirstgeneralcom-pulsoryattendancelaw.Thiswasthefirstlawtocompelparentsandothersresponsibleforchildrentosendchildrenofacertainage(8–14)toschoolforacertainnumberofweeksayear(Kotin&Aikman,1980).By1918,allstateshaduniversalcompulsoryattendancelaws.Universalcompulsoryschoolingisaveryrecentphenomenoninthehistoryofhumanbeings’effortstoshapeandmaintainsocieties(Boss&Wurtz).

Thebasicstructureofmodernpublicschoolswascreatedinthemid1800s,theeraofthecommonschoolmovement(Spring,1994).The most prominent advocates of this movement were HoraceMann,thefatheroftheAmericanpublicschool,andHenryBarnard(Spring).Thecommonschoolmovementbeganthestandardizationandsystemizationofpubliceducation:(a)Allchildrenreceivedthesamesocialandpoliticalideology,(b)schoolswereaninstrumentofpublicpolicythataimedatfixingsociety’sproblems,and(c)stateagencieswerecreatedtocontrollocalschools(Spring).Glenn(2002)arguesthatthe

“commonschoolagenda”...thedeliberateefforttocreateintheentireyouthofanationcommonattitudes,loyalties,andvalues,andtodosoundercentraldirectionbythestate....[is]deeplyrootedinourthinkingabouteducation.(pp.4–5)

Whatdrovethecreationofmoderncompulsoryschooling?Howleyetal.(1995)intheirimportantcritiqueofAmericanschoolsandgiftededucation,echoJ.S.Mill(1859/1978)intheirclaimthat“schoolingaims,asithasforaverylongtime,toinculcatejustthosehabits,attitudes,andskillsthatlegitimateitintheeyesofpowerful

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economicinterests”(p.6).Spring(1974)agrees:“Schoolingmeans...shapingthetotalcharacteroftheindividualtomeetthepoliticalandeconomicdemandsofthestate”(p.139).Gatto(1993)arguesthatcompulsory schoolingwasnot instituted inorder tomakepeoplemoreliterate,thoughtful,knowledgeable,orintellectuallyskillful,buttomakethemmoremanageable.Curti(1959)seesthehistoryofAmericaneducationasthehistoryofconflictbetweenthosewhowanttouseeducationtomaintainpowerandthosewhowanttouseittoimprovelifeforeveryone.Reitman(1992)alsoseesAmericaneducationastheresultofstrugglebetweenincompatiblegoals:promotingdemocracy,supportingeconomiccompetitiveness,andteachingmoralvalues(ascitedinMiller,n.d.).

KotinandAikman(1980)mentionanumberofreasonsorforcesbehindthecompulsoryeducationlaws:toassimilateimmigrantsandtrainthemforjobs,tomakeimmigrants“uniformAmericans”withstandardvaluesandgoals,toenablealltoenjoythebenefitsofdemocracy,toprovideanintelligentelectorateandleadership,toeliminateilliteracy,topreventcrimeandpoverty,toforestallrevolu-tion,totrainskilledworkers,tokeepchildrenfrombeingexploited,toequalizeopportunitiesforeconomicsuccessforpooranddisad-vantagedchildren,andtopromoteinternationaleconomiccompeti-tiveness.GeorgeCheever(ascitedinRothbard,1974)eloquentlyexpressedamid-1800sbeliefinthesalutarypowerofteachingtheBibleinfreepublicschools:

Weareingreatdangerfromthedarkandstolidinfidelityandviciousradicalismofalargeportionoftheforeignimmi-gratingpopulation....Howcanwereachtheevilatitsroots...[and]defeattheworkingofthatmalignant,social,anti-Christianpoison?Howcanthechildrenofsuchapopula-tionbereachedexceptinourfreepublicschools?(p.21)

HoraceMannsawfreepubliceducationasanequalizer.Heini-tiallyopposedcompulsoryattendancelaws,butseeinga“tremendousdiscrepancybetweenthewealthoffactoryownersandpovertyofthelaborers”(Boss&Wurtz,1994,p.265),hecametosupportthem.Healsowanted“todriveoutofthelowerclassesanythoughtofviolenceorrebellion...[and]‘toinformandregulatethewillofthe

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people’”(Rothbard,1974,p.22).Tyack(1966)arguedthatpromi-nentintellectualsofthepost-RevolutionaryWarperiod—BenjaminRush,ThomasJefferson,andNoahWebster—wereanxiousaboutfreedomandwantedtocreate“anewunity,acommoncitizenshipandculture,andanappealtoacommonfuture . . . [a]uniformAmerican”(p.31).Rush(ascitedinTyack,1966)wasveryexplicitinhisbeliefthatAmericansmustbecomeuniformandpliable.Heproposed“‘onegeneral,anduniformsystemofeducation,’whichwillrenderthemassofthepeoplemorehomogeneousandtherebyfitthemmoreeasilyforuniformandpeaceablegovernment”(p.33).Writing75yearslater,J.S.Mill(1859/1978)acknowledgedRush’ssuccess:“Stateeducationisamerecontrivanceformoldingpeopletobeexactlylikeoneanother;andasthemoldinwhichitcaststhemisthatwhichpleasesthepredominantpowerinthegovernment”(p.105).Manyofthemostinfluentialvoicesinpubliceducationfromthemid-1800sintothiscentury—forexample,HoraceMann,G.StanleyHall,CalvinStowe,DallasBachet,HenryDwight,andHenryBarnard—wereinfluencedbythePrussianeducationsystem(Gatto,2001;Rothbard,1974).ThePrussiangoalofeducation,pre-cipitatedbyanembarrassinglosstoNapoleonin1806,wasobedientsoldiersandworkers,well-subordinatedcivilservantsandclerks,andcitizenswhothoughtalike,exceptforasmallelitewhoweretrainedtothinkandlead(Gatto,1996).

Compulsoryschoolingcannothelpbuthavepoliticalandmoralgoals.HoraceMann(ascitedinGoldberg,1996)saidthat“noideacanbemoreerroneousthanthatchildrengotoschooltolearntherudimentsofknowledgeonly,andnottoformcharacter”(p.85).Mannwasrightinhiscentralclaim,butnaiveincounterposingtheneutralrudimentsofknowledgewithmorallychargedeffortstoshapecharacter.Therearenorudimentsofknowledge,onlywhatparticularcommunitiesandgroupsconsiderthebasics.Themeansandconditionsforteachingthesebasicsshapecharacter.Besser(1993) showshowthemilitary,government, corporations, andhighereducationleaderswereinstrumentalincreatingournewest“basic,”computerliteracy,andhowtrainingincomputerskillsfos-tersworkhabitsdesiredbybusinesses.Evensuchseeminglyinnocentsubjectsasnumeracyandliteracyhaveimplicitpoliticalandmoral

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agendas.Whatshouldstudentsread?Whatshouldtheycalculate?Howshouldtheybetaught?Therearenovalue-neutralanswers.

Compulsory universal schooling was by no means univer-sally accepted. Today, most Americans accept the justice ofcompulsoryschoolingandseeitassynonymouswithpublicedu-cation(McGhan,1997),butitwasnotalwaysthisway.The1852Massachusettslaw

wasresisted—sometimeswithguns—byanestimatedeightypercentoftheMassachusettspopulation,thelastoutpostinBarnstableonCapeCodnotsurrenderingitschildrenuntilthe1880s,whentheareawasseizedbymilitiaandchildrenmarchedtoschoolunderguard.(Gatto,1992,p.25)

Indeed,

Manyfeltthatsuchlegislationdeprivedparentsoftheirinalienable right to control their children, and was anunconstitutionalinfringementuponthelibertygrantedbytheFourteenthAmendment....Claimsthatthelawswere“un-American”andinimicaltothespiritofafreedemocraticinstitutionwereraised.(Kotin&Aikman,1980,p.27)

Eventoday,manypeopleresistcompulsoryschooling.Homeschoolers,parentsofcertainreligiousfaiths,anarchists,andfreethinkersresisttheintrusionofthegovernmentintotheirchildren’smindsandchar-actersandinsteadchoosetheirownwaysofeducatingchildren.

A Principled Critique of Compulsory Education

Whetherwesupportthegoalofcreatingliteratecitizens,butnotthegoaloftrainingworkers;whetherweliketheideaofteachingreading,butnottheideaofteachingChristianvalues;whetherwewanttouseeducationtomaintainpowerforasmallgroupofpeo-pleortoimprovethingsforeveryone;whetherwebelieveschoolsshouldpromotedrug-freefamilyvaluesorlibertarianatheism;wemustanswerthequestion:Isitrightforthestatetocompelstudentstoattendschool?Many,asIdo,answerthequestioninthenegative

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(e.g.,Gatto,1992;Illich,1970;Novello,1998;Richman&Kopel,1996;Rothbard,1999).

Thecontexts foransweringthequestionareasmanyas thenumberofourpoliticalphilosophies,religions,andvisionsofthegoodsociety(Miller,n.d.).Wecananswerfromthepointofviewofanarchism,orPlato’sRepublic,orthetheonomyofthe“extremeChristianright.”Thereisnoneutralstartingpoint.Anargumentcanonlybeeffectiveinsofarasitspeakstotheassumptionsandvaluesofitsaudience.IaddressthequestionfromwithinthetraditionofpoliticalliberalismthatoriginatesinthephilosophiesofJohnLockeandJ.S.Mill.Manyofusfindthistraditioncongenial.Itscentralclaimisthatoneisfreetoliveone’slifeasonechooses,aslongasonedoesnotharmorlimitthefreedomofanother.Thecoreideaofliberalismisthatfreedomisthebasicpoliticalconditionofhumanbeingsandthatanylimitationonfreedommustbejustified(Gauss,1996).

Thestate’sdemandthatallstudents,ages6to16,attendapublicschoolorsomelegislatedequivalentisprimafacieinconsistentwiththisright.Ittakesauthoritythatproperlybelongstochildrenorpar-entsandputsitinthehandsofthestate.Indeed,fromitsbeginning,compulsoryschoolingwasbasedontheideathatchildrenbelongtothestate,nottotheirparentsorthemselves(Gatto,1996;Rothbard,1974).BenjaminRush(1786)wrote,“Letourpupilbetaughtthathedoesnotbelongtohimself,butthatheispublicproperty”(ascitedinTyack,1966,p.34).CompulsoryschoolingpatentlyaffrontsthebasiccivillibertythatisthefoundationofAmericandemocracy.JusticeMarshallwrote,“Ourwholeconstitutionalheritagerebelsatthethoughtofgivinggovernmentthepowertocontrolmen’sminds”(Stanley v. Georgia,1969).

Therighttodetermineone’sownlife,however,isnotabsolute.BossandWurtz(1994)describetwobroadreasonsinfavorofthegovernmentdenyingindividualliberty:ifthedenialofindividuallib-ertybringssubstantialbenefitstosociety,andifthedenialoflibertyprotectsindividualsfromharm.Lawsprohibitingsuicideanddruguse,lawsmandatingmilitarydrafts,andmanyotherlegallimitsonfreedomhavebeenjustifiedononeorbothofthesegrounds.Liberalargumentsinfavorofuniversalcompulsoryeducationacknowledge

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thatschoolsshapethemindsandsoulsofchildrenandtakethisastheveryreasonwhychildrenshouldbecompelledtoattendschool:Theviolationofchildren’sandparents’libertiesisacceptablebecauseofthebeneficialeffectsofuniversalcompulsoryschoolingforsoci-etyasawholeandforindividualchildren.Iwillarguethatthereisnocompellingliberaldefenseofcompulsoryschooling:Compulsoryschoolingisnotarationalandefficientmeansofdeliveringspecificbenefitstosocietyorofpreventingspecificharmtochildren;com-pulsoryschooling’spositiveeffectscannotoutweighthedeprivationofindividuallibertyitentails.

The Debatable Benefits of Compulsory Schooling

Theresimplyarenodangers—tohealth,safety,orphysical,emo-tional,moral,orintellectualdevelopment—thatthreateneverychildfromwhichcompulsoryschoolingoffersprotection.Compulsoryschooling,then,cannotbejustifiedongroundsthatitpreventsharm.Argumentsaboutthepossiblebenefitsofcompulsoryschoolingquicklygetboggeddowninamiasmaofconflictingviewsofgoalsandbenefits.Shouldschoolsproduce“competent,caring,loving,andlovablepeople”(Noddings,1995,p.99);peoplewhobelieveinthe“workethicandobediencetolegitimateauthorityandtheimpor-tantnonreligiousthemesarticulatedintheTenCommandments”(Wynne,1989,p.19);peoplewiththeskillsneededina21stcen-turylabormarket;peoplecapableofusingtheirtalentstothefullest;peoplewhorealizetheirtrueSelves;orpeoplewho...?Somemayapplaud“left”educationalmovementscriticalofmainstreamvalues,forexample,socialjusticeeducation,queerpedagogy,andfeministpedagogy.OthersmaydamnthemasharboringthebeginningsoftheendoftheAmericanwayoflife.

Thesevererestrictionsonfreedomofspeech,freedomofmove-ment,freedomofassociationandaccesstopoliticallydissidentideas,andtheenforcedobediencetoauthoritycharacteristicofpublicschoolingcanbecitedwitheitherapprovalordisapproba-tion.Goodsfromonepointofviewareevilsfromanother.HoraceMannfacedthisproblem150yearsago.Inanattempttoavoidconflictoverthecontentofeducation,heproposedthatschools

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teach“onlythosearticlesofrepublicanfaiththatwereapprovedby‘allsensibleandjudiciousmen,allpatriots,andallgenuinerepub-licans’”(Spring,1994,p.69)andnon-denominationalChristianvalues.Hefailed,ofcourse.Withoutagreementonthegoalsandbenefitsofschoolingamongthecitizensofastate,compulsoryschoolingisameanswherebysomevotingcitizensforceyearsofalienandrepugnantvaluesandideasuponthechildrenofothercitizens.

Theargumentthatcompulsoryeducationisneededtopreparechildrenforparticipationinaliberaldemocracyrunsafoulofthesameproblemofdisagreementoverthegoalsofschooling.Theargu-mentbegsthequestions:• Whatexactlyisademocraticsociety?• Whatskillsareneededtomaintainit?• Howaretheskillsbesttaught?

Theseareallmattersofcontention.JohnDewey,ourgreatphilosopherofdemocracy,isofnohelp

here.Insofarasheisrightthateducationisanexpressionofacom-munity’sviewoflife,itsvalues,aspirations,andvisionsofimprove-mentandtotheextentthatourcountryiscomposedofamultitudeofoverlappingcommunities,manywildlyatoddswithothers,therewillbenoagreementontheendsofschooling.Indeed,wehavenoagreementontheendsofschooling.Toputthepointanotherway,insofarasDeweyisrightthat“ademocracyismorethanaformofgovernment;itisprimarilyamodeofassociatedliving,ofconjointcommunicatedexperience”(InstituteforLearningTechnologies,1994,chapter7,para.2), wecannotagreeonthemeansandendsofschoolinginademocracyifwelackacommonmodeofdemocraticlife.Welacksuchamode.

Asanempiricalclaimaboutanecessaryconditionofdemoc-racy,theargumentthatcompulsoryeducationisneededtopreparechildrenforparticipationinaliberaldemocracyfoundersononeprominentcounterexample:TheUnitedStatessurvivedasademoc-racyformanyyearswithoutuniversalcompulsoryschooling.Thisfactmakesitverydifficulttoarguethatcompulsoryschoolingisanecessaryconditionfordemocracy.Perhapsexperimentationwould

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showthatdemocracyisbestservedbyallowingchildrenfreedomfromstate-mandatededucationbutrequiringitofadults.Itisveryhardtoseehowcurrentcompulsoryschoolingwithitsanti-intel-lectualism(Howleyetal.,1995)andrestrictionsonfreedom(Boss&Wurtz,1994)providesstudentswiththeskillsandvaluesneededforthoughtful,informedexerciseoffreedominademocraticsoci-ety,yetwearecarryingon,insomefashion.Theempiricalrela-tionshipbetweenformsofeducationandformsofsocietyisnotstraightforward.

The Inefficiency and Irrationality of Compulsory Schooling

Argumentsthatcompulsoryschoolingisalegitimategovern-mentinfringementonindividuallibertyalsofalterongroundsofefficiencyandrationality.Universalcompulsoryschoolinglawsrequireall individualsofcertainagestospendafixednum-berofhoursanddaysinschooldoingroughlythesamesortsofthingsatroughlythesametimeforroughlythesameamountoftime.Thisfactleadsdirectlytotheconclusionthatcompulsoryschoolingcannotbearationalandefficientmeansofdeliver-ingspecificbenefitstosocietyorofpreventingspecificharmtochildren.

Rationalityandefficiencyarguethatschoolingshouldservespecificgoals.Ifstatelawshadspecificpurposesandwererational,somechildrenwouldnotneedtoattendschoolbecausetheywouldbeabletoaccomplishthepurposeofschoolinotherwaysandallchildrenwouldbefreetoleaveschoolwhenthepurposeshadbeenaccomplished.Patientsarefree,indeedrequired,toleavehospitalswhenthepurposeofhospitalizationisaccomplished.Evenprison-ersgenerallygetthebenefitofsentencesthataddresstheirparticu-larcrimeandcircumstances.And,wedon’trequireallchildrentoattendstate-runcafeteriasonthegroundsthatsomewouldoth-erwisegohungry.Lawsrequiringindividualstoremaininschooluntiltheycandemonstratespecificcompetenciesmightberationalandmightjustifydeprivationoflibertyifwecouldagreeonthegoalsofschooling.Giftedchildrenandtheirparentsmaywelcomesuchlaws.Theonlygoalthatcompulsoryschoolinghasrational

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andefficientmeansofachievingisthatofpreventinglargenum-bersofpeoplefromspendingthousandsofhoursoftheirlivesastheyortheirparentsseefit.

Compulsory Schooling Is an Unjustifiable Infringement on Liberty

Theconclusionoftheforegoingisthatcompulsoryschoolingisanunjustifiableinfringementonindividualliberty.Itisnotrationalorefficient;itcannotprotectallchildrenfromharm,becausetherearenoharmsthreateningthemall;andits“benefits”aretheposi-tivevaluesandbeliefsofsomeandtheevilsofothers.But,mostparentsandeducatorssupportcompulsoryeducationnotbecausetheyhavebeenpersuadedbyargumentstothecontrary(probablyfewhaveheardthemoreventhinkofschoolingascompulsory),butbecausetheybelievethatschoolingisnecessarytogettingadecentjob(Collins,1979).Thisisnotareasonforcompulsoryschooling,butforjobpreparationinmanyforms.Compulsoryschoolingmaywellperpetuateinequalitiesbetweenrichandpoorratherthanequalizeincomesorgiveallanequalchanceatgoodjobs(Collins).VanGalen(1988)

Theenormousexpansionofeducationsincethemid-nineteenthcenturyhashadnoeffectsatallforincreasingsocialmobility....therehasbeenthesamelevelofcorrelationbetweenfathers’andsons’occupationswitha largeeducationalsystem,amoderate-sizedone,orvirtuallynoeducationalsystematall.(Collins,p.182)

Incomeshavebeenequalizedonlytotheextentthatthetop10%ofincomeearnersmakelessandthenexttwodecilesmakemore. Incomes at the bottom and middle have not increased(Collins,1979).VanGalen(1988)writesthat“evidencemountsfromcriticsofbothpublicandprivateschoolsthattheformalandhiddencurriculumsofschoolcontributetothereproductionofsocialinequalitiesratherthanequalizingopportunity”(p.52).Morerecentdatasuggestthattheincomegapbetweenthemostwealthyandtherestofthepopulationhasincreasedsincethe1970s(Krugman,2002).

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Toward the End of Compulsory Schooling

Gatto(1992)writes,

Itisthegreattriumphofcompulsorygovernmentmonopolymass-schoolingthatamongeventhebestofmyfellowteach-ers,andamongeventhebestofmystudents’parents,onlyasmallnumbercanimagineadifferentwaytodothings.“Thekidshavetoknowhowtoreadandwrite,don’tthey?”...‘Theyhavetolearnhowtofollowordersiftheyeverexpecttokeepajob.”(p.12)

WhenItalktopeopleaboutendingcompulsoryeducation,theyimmediatelythinkofitendingtomorrow.Theyimaginesocietyasitisnowminuscompulsoryeducationandinanxietyandangerask:Wherewillkidsgowhenparentswork?Whataboutallthereallyterribleparentswhowilllocktheirkidsupathome?Whataboutthestupidparentswhowilltrytoteachandfail?Whataboutkidsfromchaotichomesthat“need”thestructureofschool?Whataboutthepoorkidswhoseparentswon’tteachthemanythingofvalue?Whataboutallthebadinfluencesthatwillgouncorrected?Thatsocietyisfilledwithills,somecausedbypublicschooling,andthefactthathardlyanyonereallyconsidersevidenceorargumentwhenaskingthesequestions,seemstomakenodifference.Wehavefaiththatschoolswillmakethingsbetterandarenotinclinedtolookatwhatschoolsactuallyaccomplishorimaginenewwaysofeducatingchildren.

Compulsorypublicschoolingwillendwhenweseethatitisnotnecessarytosuccessandhappiness,whenage-segregationbar-riersbreakdown,whencommunitiesbecomemore importantthanprofits,whenadultsstopthinkingtheycanimprovesocietybytryingtomoldchildreninsteadofchangingthemselves,andwhenpeoplecreativelydevisemany,manyalternativestoschoolandpublicschoolsystemsthatcannolongersupportthemselves.Somethinglikethishappenedonce.Forabout100yearsfromthelate1600stothelate1700s,NewEnglandgraduallyremovedallcompulsoryeducationlawsfromitsbooks(compulsoryeduca-tionlawsrequiredmastersandparentstoprovideaneducation;they did not require that students attend school). Education

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lawsbecamebothirrelevantandimpossibletoenforce(Kotin&Aikman,1980).Growingfrontierliferequiredchildrentoworktosupporttheirfamilies,peoplelefttownsforthecountry,familiesandgovernmentswereweakenedbyIndianWars,religiousplural-ismgrew,Puritanismlostinfluence,andreligioningeneralbecamelessimportant.Circumstanceschanged,interestschanged,andasystemoflawsandasetofbeliefsfellaway.

Thereareafewsignsthattheeraofuniversalcompulsoryschoolinginthiscountrymaybeending.Theincreasingnumberofhomeschooledchildren“from50,000to1.5–1.9millionin15years”(Talbot,2001,p.136),callsforvouchers,a25%dropoutrateinhighschools,athirdofallteachersleavingtheprofessionafter2years,theriseoftheuseofdrugstomanagestudentsinclassrooms(Goldberg,1996),theriseofunschoolingmovements(e.g.,Griffith,1998),andothersignsofdissatisfactionwithpub-liceducationpointtogrowingdisillusionmentwiththeprom-isesofcompulsoryeducation.Critiquesofcompulsoryschoolingthatwereleveledlargelybyintellectualsinthe1960sand1970sarebecomingmainstream.Llewellyn(1998)haswrittenthethirdeditionofabookforteenagersthattellsHow to Quit School and Get a real life and Education. Wolfthal (1986), a teacher inBronx,NY,writes:

Itisdifficulttoimaginethat[compulsoryschooling]wasonce considered a boon to mankind. Students, for themostpartnormal,healthyyoungsterscontinuetotuneout.Teachers,forthemostpartintelligent,decentadults,con-tinuetoburnout.Thewasteoftime,energy,andpotentialiscolossalonbothsides.Itwasagiantleapbackwardswhenthecauseoffreeuniversalpubliceducationturnedintoamovementforcompulsoryschooling.(p.108)

McGhan (1997), a retired teacher of 33 years, writes,“Compulsoryschoolattendance isa19th-century ideathathasapparentlyout-liveditsusefulness”(p.135).Compulsorypublicschoolingisnotanaturalforce,notanimmovablefeatureofthelandscape.Wecreatedit.Wecanendit.

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Gifted Education and the Meaning of Life: One Vision of Gifted Education

Ifgiftededucationisaboutanythingotherthanpromotingmoreefficientwaysofhelpingasmallgroupofgiftedchildrendevelopinstitutionallyapprovedtalentsandgetintogoodcollegesandgetgoodjobsandbecome“good”citizens,itisabouthelpingchildrenandadolescentsrealizethemselves.Thisismyvisionofwhatgiftededucationcouldbeifitwerefreedfromthestricturesofcompulsoryschooling.Iaskmyself:Whatelsearethedeepgoalsofgiftededuca-tion?Ifnotthedevelopmentoffreeminds,ofcreativepersonswhoknowthemselves,knowtheirstrengths,andcanusetheirintellec-tualtoolsandtheirsensibilitiesaccordingtotheirownphilosophyoflife,whatelsecantheybe?Anygoalofeducationotherthanthefreedevelopmentofthechildmeansusingchildrentoservesomegoalwehaveforthem—tobecomeleaders,yieldreturnsaspreciousnationalresources,preserveandcarryforwardcivilization,andsoon(cf.Grant&Piechowski,1999).

Educationforself-developmentisnotaboutacademicachieve-ment,socialization,schooling,careerpreparation,servingthenation,orjobtraining.Thetaskofeducationisthetaskofliving:findingorcreatingaselfandasenseoftheworldofthings,people,andotherbeings,andfindingmeaningfulwaysoffittingselfandworldtogether.Educationisaboutlivingoutone’spassionsandpurposesandcreatingacoherentlife,aworkableindividuality.Itispremisedontheperennialhumanistideathattheonlylifeworthlivingisone’sownlife,notacopyofsomeoneelse’s,notonemadeofanunexam-inedhodgepodgeofstufffromstate-mandatedcurriculaandtheyouthculturecreatedbypreventingchildrenfromfullyparticipatinginciviclife(cf.Decarvalho,1991;Goodman,1983;Maslow,1962;Rogers,1983).

Roeper(1990),thefirsteducatorinthefieldtoofferadetailed,coherent,andprincipledalternativetomainstreamgiftededucation,describesasimilarview.Herphilosophyofeducationforlifeisbasedonthebeliefinrespectingself-actualization,thegrowthandunique-nessofeachmemberofthecommunity,andtherealityofinterde-pendence.“Itisaconceptofself-actualizationforall,asopposedto

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theconceptofeducationforoutsidesuccesswheretheprimaryfocusisonwhatonecandoratherthanonwhooneisasahumanbeing”(p.1).

Thecommonviewofeducationas jobpreparationandasameanstosocialandfinancialadvancement,aswellaslearninghowtofitinandgetalong,isshallowandself-defeating.Itrobslifeofmeaningandvitalitywhileofferingthefalsepromisethatwewillgetthesethingslater.Roeper(1990)asks:

If[achild]learnsalltheso-calledbasicskillsandgoesobedi-entlyandsuccessfullythroughthesystemandentersapres-tigiouscollege,wills/hebehappy,wealthy,andwise?....Education...hasbecomeisolatedandalienatedfromlife.Ithasbecomebasedonnarrow,short-termgoals,whichwesomehowbelievewillfulfillmankind’spromises...weraiseilliterateswhenitcomestomasteringthescienceorartofliving....Wearereallyengagedinpreparationforcollege.(p.7)

Roeper(1990,1995)hasalreadyrevisionedgiftededucation.Thoughshedoesnotrejectcompulsoryschooling,herphilosophyisconsistentwithnoncompulsoryeducation.Morerecently,Schultz&Delisle(1997),whodescribeaneducationfortheGoodLife,“theprocessofself-examinationandreflection—makingsenseofone’sexistenceinrelationshiptoothersandbeingabletoliveconscience-free[withoutviolatingone’sprinciples]withtheresults”(p.99),ReynoldsandPiirto(2005),whoargueforbringingdepthpsychol-ogyintogiftededucation,andHeng(2003),whoarguesfora“cur-riculumofconscience,”haveadvancedviewsthathaveimplicationsforrejectingcompulsoryschooling.

Theideathatthegoalofeducationisindividualself-actualiza-tionisnotnewtogiftededucation.Ithasbeenapartofitsincethemiddleoflastcenturywhenhumanistpsychologistsfirstproposedtheconceptof self-actualization.Roeper’s (1990,1995)radicalalternativetomainstreamgiftededucationshowsthatcreatingone’sownlife,actualizingoneself,andstrivingforthegoodlifecannotbedoneinconditionsofunfreedom.WeseethisalsoinSchultzandDelisle(1997),whotryunsuccessfullytofitaviewofeducation

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asthedevelopmentoftheSelfintotheconstraintsofcompulsoryschooling,whichtheytacitlyaccept.Theyargue,forexample,that“ifstudentsarenotinvolvedin[curriculumdevelopment],educa-tionbecomessomethingthatisdonetothem,notwiththem”(p.99).Ifthisistrue,howmuchmoreiseducationsomethingdonetostudentswhentheyarecompelledtoattendschool?Theessentialelementsofself-creation,choice,andfreedomarenecessarilyseverelylimitedincompulsoryschooling.Ifyourthinkingabouteducationbeginswiththeideaofeducationasself-actualizationorself-real-ization,youendwitharejectionofcompulsoryeducation.Ifyourejectcompulsoryeducation,youendupwithakeyconditionforself-realization—freedom.

Conclusion

Ifoneacceptstheargumentsandevidencepresentedabove,onecannolongeracceptgiftededucationinmostofitscurrentforms.(Ofcourse,theseargumentsapplyequallywelltotheeducationofallchildren.)Nothinginthenatureoflearning,democracy,orcreat-ingcommunitiesrequiresuniversalcompulsoryschooling.Universalcompulsoryschoolingisnotaneffectivemeansofaccomplishinganythingexceptfixedseat-timeexposuretostate-approvedideas,segregatedagegroupings,andhamperedrealizationsoffullandmeaningfullives.Itdoesnotandcannotprovideakeyconditionforself-realization.Ifeducationistoservetheindividual,itmustserveself-realization.But,thisisbutoneview.Endingcompulsoryedu-cationwouldallowmanydifferentvisionsofeducationtoflourish.Giftededucationwouldbemuchricher,diverse,andsignificantifmoreeducatorsbegantothinkaboutandcreatewaystoservegiftedchildrenthatdidnotrequireforce.

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