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Graduate Studies Legacy Theses

1998

Educational planning in east Africa: The role of

imported planning technology

Itaaga, Nicholas

Itaaga, N. (1998). Educational planning in east Africa: The role of imported planning technology

(Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/20622

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THE UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

Educational Planning in East AfEca:

The Role of Imported Planning Technology

Nicholas ltaaga

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE S TUDIES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF GRADUATE DNISION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH.

CALGARY, ALBERTA.

OCTOBER, 1998.

O Nicholas Itaaga 1 998.

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ABSTRACT

Educational planning, just like the entire educational systems in Africa, was

imported from the West. The historical techniques developed in the West - social

demand, manpower and cost-benefit analysis - have been discouraged and are being

replaced with approaches such as participatory planning, strategic planning and

micro- planning.

The study sought to establish the applicability of Western models in East

Africa, given the social, economic and political realities. This was accomplished

through content analysis of the educational policy documents of Kenya, Tanzania and

Uganda. Results indicate the adoption of the contemporary planning methods and

adaptation of the methods to suit East African realities. Much as technology transfer

tied to aid has its own disadvantages, it should be encouraged to ensure adequate

educational financing and therefore development.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the important role Dr. Alice Boberg played as my

supervisor, providing all the necessary support and assistance. I would like to thank

the members of the examination committee Dr V. Bohac-Clarke and Dr. Hatt for their

input that made the final copy of the thesis.

Secondly I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the International

Council for Canadian Studies (ICCS) for fimding my entire program at the University

of Calgary and specifically for financing my research.

I cannot forget to thank my professors - Dr. Bruce Clark and Dr. Jim Field -

for their educative courses in research design, without which I would not have been

able to write this thesis. In a special way, I would like to thank Mr. & Mrs. Isabirye

for their support, John Lazimah and David Ediau Peko for getting me the documents I

needed for my research.

Finally I thank my fiancCe Lydia for her encouraging words despite her being

thousands of miles away. Special thanks go to my sister Phider for all she has done

for me that I cannot mention here.

Dedication

This work is dedicated to my fiancee Lydia for her patience during the two years

when I was away pursuing this masters program.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval page Abstract Acknowledgements Dedication Table of contents List of tables List of figures

CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Introduction Educational planning in a historical perspective Statement of the problem Research questions Definition of terms Significance of the study

CHAPTER TWO: L I T E R A T U m REVIEW Approaches to educational planing

The manpower approach The social demand approach The cost-benefit analysis approach Contemporary approaches to educational planning

Participatory planning Strategic planning Micro planning

Educational planning and policy making in East Africa since independence

The period of insufficient skilled manpower supply The period of increased demand for education The role of educational policy review commissions The limited role played by the planning units

Peculiarities which affect educational planning in East Africa summary Statement of research questions

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD Introduction Design and procedure Data collection, analyses and interpretation Limitations Problems Delimitations

ii ... 111

iv v vi

viii

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Introduction Answers to specific research questions Other findings from the study summary

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction Discussion of key findings Conclusions Personal and professional insights Recommendations Implications for further research summary

BIBLIOGRAPHY

vii

List of tables 2.1 Public expenditure on education in East Africa (1980-90)

viii

2.1 The project cycle List of figures

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

Planning in general and educational planning in particular takes place almost

always under high-pressure conditions: at crossroads between a myriad of wants and

needs on the one hand and a limited choice of possibilities and solutions on the other;

between politically viable promises and technically impossible ambitions; between a

long-ranging mirage of an ideological paradise and a short-ranging focus on

immediate hurdles and limitations. OAen when people and nations struggling to

succeed fail to differentiate and separate the two sides of a situation, they inevitably

fail to plan.

The reasoning which has dominated educational planning over the past twenty

years is essentially of an economic nature (Carron 1984). According to this logic, the

individual, or the government is assumed to operate with rational behavior - to seek

maximum results through optimal utilization of resources. In planning this implies

that clear objectives are fixed and quantified, all possible combinations of means are

examined on the basis of existing information and, fmally, a rational choice is made

by comparing the outcomes which each combination of means is likely to produce. It

is from this logic that a practical and simple planning design has resulted. This takes

the form of a linear process comprised of the fixing of objectives on the basis of

preliminary diagnosis; planning itself, including programming of specific projects and

budgeting; implementation; and finally evaluation which is supposed to enrich the

diagnosis of the next plan.

1.2 Educational planning in a historical perspective

When the International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) opened its doors in

1963, educational planning was little more than a sparkling new international label

searching for a definition (Coombs 1984). Since then educational planning has come

a long way as demonstrated, for example, by the bulging annals of IIEP's research

and training activities, by the wealth of closely allied activities elsewhere around the

world, and by the fact that virmally ail developing countries today are practicing

some form of educational planning. There is today a large international literature on

educational planning where none existed before. Research on the subject has become

rooted in a variety of social sciences; numerous problems associated with educational

planning and development have been investigated; and a new body of planning

concepts and methodologies has emerged. As a consequence a sizeable international

community of educational planners now exist.

African countries do not claim to have an endogenous system of educational

planning. In most parts of Africa educational planning was institutionalized in the

1960s and 1970s. For example, in Uganda the planning unit was established in 1963

while in Tanzania it was established in 1962. According to Chinapah (1995) the

development of educational planning in Africa was greatly inspired by the

achievements and progress made in other parts of the world mainly with regard to its

organizational structures, functions, techniques and innovations. Organizational and

functional activities in the field of educational planning have, over the years,

2

expanded tremendously in most Afiican countries in response to the rapid

quantitative and qualitative developments in their educational systems which for

decades were blocked by the colonial authorities.

Starting with a small unit, a bureau or department located at the ministry of

education, planning was given a too pretentious and ambitious task. It resulted in the

current situation in many African countries - the need to compartmentalize

educational planning units, bureaus or directorates into divisions, departments or

sections specializing in various aspects of educational planning at the central level.

Over the years, many conventional macro-level educational planning

strategies have given way to more microsriented ones, as evidenced through the

importance being attached to school mapping and micro-planning (IIEP 1983),

strategic planning (World Bank 1994), and decentralization or planning by projects

and programs (Chinapah 1995). These models are developed in the West and

exported to e c a For example, Samoff & Sumra (1994) observed that education

policy in Tanzania is not a solely Tanzanian activity. Like their colleagues elsewhere

in Africa, Tanzanian education policy-makers look to the North Atlantic for models,

analyses and diagnoses and approval. Often subtle, this deference to external

authority conditions policies - from specifying what is problematic to designing

intervention strategies, to evaluating outcomes. Lourie (1995), however, suggests that

in a context in which all the components of an overall policy are mobile the only

realistic educational strategies are differentiated strategies, no longer rooted as before

in theory, which is planning-oriented, systematic, predictable and linear, but in a

precise knowledge of the factors which are vectors of change and are characteristic of

3

any society studied in depth. How far educational planning in Africa has responded

to this state of affairs is the question of this research.

1.3 Statement of the problem

The problem of this study is to assess the role of foreign planning technology in the

educational planning activities of the three East African countries of Uganda, Kenya

and T&a. In other words, the study seeks to establish the degree of congruence

between educational policy formulation in East Africa and the theories of educational

planning which originate f h m the western world. More specifically, the study seeks

to ascertain how f i c a in general and East Africa in particular has responded to the

move away from macro-level strategies to micro-oriented strategies being encouraged

in contemporary educational planning the world over.

1.4 Research questions

The above problem will be investigated basing on the following research questions:

1. Have the three East African countries adopted the micro-oriented strategies being

advocated in contemporary educational planning?

2. How have the three East African countries modified the contemporary educational

planning techniques to suit the realities in their countries?

3. How does the Western World influence educational planning technology transfer

to the East African countries?

These questions will be addressed through qualitative analysis of the educational

policy documents of the three countries under study.

4

1.5 Definition of terms

Educational danning. UNESCO describes educational planning as

A continuous systematic process, involving the application and co-ordination of social research methods, and of principles and techniques of education, administration, economics and finance, with participation and support of the general public in private as well as state activities, with a view to securing adequate education for the people with definite aims, and in well-defined stages, and to providing everyone with an opportunity of developing his potentials and making the most effective contribution to the social cultural, and economic development of the country. (UNESCO 1963, p. 13).

In the current study, however, the researcher will consider the more current definition

by Caillods (1991, p.1). He defined educational planning as the application of

rational, systematic analysis to the process of educational development with the aim

of making education more effective and efficient in responding to the needs and goals

of its students and society. Educational planning therefore entails well-defined tasks

such as estimating future changes in enrollment, programming investments, arranging

to train an adequate number of teachers, overseeing the production of teaching

materials, negotiating with aid agencies for fhding of projects, and monitoring and

evaluating the implementation of various programs and projects.

Partici~atory planning.

Mayer (1985) describes participatory planning as the process utilized to increase the

fit between the interests reflected in the plan and those held by individuals on whose

behalf plan making is undertaken. The aim is to ensure that the assertion of a

collective interest warrants overriding individual interests that may be involved.

Strategic vlanninq.

Simerly (1988) defined strategic planning as a process that gives attention to (1)

designing, (2) implementing, and (3) monitoring of plans for improving decision

making. Dooris & Lozier (1990, p.7) defme strategic planning as a systematic effort

to define and possibly alter the organization's identity. It is a dynamic, ever-changing

process designed to improve the fitme of the organization, in this case the

educational system. It involves thinking strategically, evaluating alternatives,

allocating resources dynamically and orienting management externally. It gives

everyone in the organization a chance to participate in decision making and thus

make a personal impact on the organization's fbture.

The phrase micro planning embraces both project and program planning. A project is

a set of investments and of other planned activities aimed at achieving specific

objectives within a predetermined time frame and budget. A program on the other

hand is a series of planned activities with a broader scope than a project (Magnen

1991, p. 15). The domain of activity of a program can be an entire sector (for example

education), or a sub-sector (for example primary education), or a major function of

the system (for example, the elaboration of school curricula and textbooks).

Normally, the execution period of a program is longer than that of a project. Micro-

planning requires the direct involvement of regional and sub-regional education

officers in the preparation and implementation of educational plans and projects, as it

implies also some participation of the various parties involved in the decision making

process - local authorities, teachers, parents, pupils, etc. The current study focuses on

project planning as the major component of micro planning.

The West

In the current study the tern West or Western region will be used to mean the

capitalist countries of Western Europe, the United States of America and Canada.

1.6 Significance of the study.

Since this study is intended to examine the process of educational planning and policy

making in East Africa, it is hoped that the fmdings will be useful in improving the

education policy making process in the three countries studied and point out better

ways of modifying imported educational planning techniques to make them suitable

to the realities in East Africa.

Secondly this study of the applicability of contemporary education planning

and policy formulation models to the East African arena is the first step toward

carrying out the much-needed reforms in curriculum.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Understanding the process of educational planning and policy making in East f i c a

necessitates taking a close look at educational planning in general and the conditions

under which the educational planner in East Africa operates. Relevant literature in

regard to the above is hereby reviewed.

2.1 Approaches to educational planning

Educational planning tends to be presented as a set of Iogical, rational technical

processes, and as a series of interconnected stages. These stages include diagnosis of

the state of the educational system, its results and the available means, identification

of objectives, policy-framing, calculation of the necessary resources, selection of

indicators, participation of the different representative groups, implementation of the

plan, projects and budgets, revision of the plan, and overall assessment. In carrying

out educational planning activities three approaches namely manpower, social

demand and cost-benefit approaches have been suggested by scholars in the field

(Jolly 1969; Coombs 1970; Thompson 198 1 ; Bertrand I 992).

2.1.1 The manpower approach

This approach is based on the notion that the education system is primarily called

upon to supply the economic system with the qualified personnel required at all

levels. Using this approach, educational planning involves analyzing the skilled

manpower requirements of the economy from which a calculation may be made of

8

the kinds and levels of education necessary to meet these requirements (Thompson

198 1).

Note that the basic idea of the manpower approach is to compare manpower

recruitment with the output of the training system. This, however, does not make

sufficient allowance for the proportion of recruitment that is accounted for by

mobility, that is to say people who were previously in different jobs or unemployed,

or inactive. The other problem with this approach is that it does not take into account

the conditions under which manpower supply is actually matched to manpower

demand, in particular where remuneration is concerned (Bertrand 1992).

2.1.2 The social demand approach

In this approach education is considered a consumer good which should be available

to all as rapidly as possible. This involves, on the one hand, a calculation to determine

what the situation in respect of costs, supply of teachers, plant and resources, and

school leaver output will be at the end of a specified planning period if existing

school provision remains more or less as it is; and, on the other hand, to a calculation

of what the situation would be and what would be required if various kinds of social

demand were acceded to (Thompson 1981). The calculations' provide a baseline for

projecting desirable changes in the system, notably the scale. However, where

resources are acutely limited, as in most African countries, and where we are seeking

to provide those kinds and quantities of education which will offer the greatest

benefits to the majority such planning techniques, while useful, cannot offer all the

guidance we need as to how best to meet identified needs.

9

2.1.3 The cost-benefit analysis approach

This approach regards education as an investment, the benefits of which must be

calculated and if possible maximized. It advocates for economic profitability as a

basis for educational expenditure decisions. It involves analysis of the costs and

benefits of educational investment and attempts to spell out how the demand for and

supply of educated people are currently matched (Thompson 198 1).

Jolly (1969) observed that even if the cost-benefit analysis might be

appropriate in a developed country, in a third world country which depends on

agriculture it is difficult to believe that the assumptions about "market forces and

competition" are even approximately valid. Furthemore, limited labor mobility;

enormous fluctuations of income, employment and economic activity dependent on

world export prices; and, above all, the fact that a comparison of educational cost and

discounted returns cannot answer the practical questions most vital to the economics

of educational planning in the third world render the cost-benefit approach

inappropriate.

It is important to note that planning methods are one thing, their ability to

influence reality is quite another. There has been growing skepticism about the

applicability of the above three approaches particularly in the developing countries.

According to Thompson (1981) skepticism stems fiom the generally acknowledged

failure of many apparently well-constructed educational plans, leading to a

consequent questioning of the assumptions and techniques on which they were based.

For example, the social demand approach ignores the situation of the students after

school, their chances of getting jobs, and the benefits they may possibly enjoy fiom

10

their education. Similarly, the manpower approach does not examine the costs of

producing the manpower, nor does it tell us whether the investment will pay for itself.

Jolly (1 969) emphasizes that the test of any approach is how well it works and

in what ways it is capable of further development. Similarly Lourie (1995) is of the

view that an educational strategy cannot be devised on the basis of calculated

projections or forecasts but it must be rooted in an overall knowledge of the complex

present day situation which often carries withh it the embryo of hture trends. This he

called "forecasting the future". By implication, the most appropriate planning

technique is influenced by the environment in which the planner operates. In view of

this, the following are some of the techniques being advocated in contemporary

educational planning.

Contemporary approaches to educational planing

Participatory Planning

This approach essentially involves public participation in policy making. Public

participation does not merely involve decentralization of planning and the

involvement of regional and local bodies in the process but also the involvement of

the people who will be affected by the planning decisions. The participation of

teachers, pupils, and parents in decision making, it is argued, will help them to

understand what is intended and, moreso, will win their acceptance of the changes

and develop their commitment to making the changes work. Thompson (1981)

argues that when people are involved in planning, it is likely that they will develop

their capacity to contribute to effective decision making and thereby increase the

1 1

likelihood that decisions will be soundly based. Participatory planning may be based

on either the advocacy or the cellular model (Mayer 1985).

The advocacy model is rooted in Davidoff s (1965) ideas. The model assumes

that there is no unitary public interest: what exists is a pluralism of interests and these

are of two types: (1) Those held by groups, which are in control of government

institutions and which can therefore be declared to be interests of the public.

(2) Those held by groups that are not in power, the poor and the minorities, which go

unrecognized. The model then suggests that in order to equalize the opportunity for

all groups in society to have their interests reflected in public plans or policies, the

process by which they are developed should be an adversary one. If citizens are to be

included in the planning process, they should be given the opportunity not only to be

heard but also to propose alternative plans (Mayer 1985).

Note that this model advocates for a network of publicly supported planners

assigned to all organized groups in society to help them prepare plans to be advocated

for public adoption. In a country where trained planners are not available, the model

fails and, furthermore, the model competes with the function that politicians are best

equipped to perform, that is to advocate on behalf of constituent groups.

The cellular structure model on the other hand argues that individuals and

planners hold different perspectives on the same interests. The perspectives of

individuais derive from their experience with the singular, concrete events. The

perspectives of planners derive from symbolic abstractions of concrete events. They

constitute processed knowledge. In order to bridge this disparity, planning is a

transactive process of mutual learning in which individuals and planners through

12

continual dialogue translate their respective perspectives into each other's and thereby

achieve a fusion of personal and processed knowledge that leads to a recognition of

common interests (Mayer 1985).

In M c a , examples of participatory planning approaches include the

University based Sierra Leone Education Review of 1974, the educational dialogue

between the ministry and the people in Lesotho in 1978, and the more diffise models

of discussion and consultation which were used for over ten years in Tanzania

(Thompson 198 1).

It is important to note that although participatory planning is promising, it

makes the process of decision-making more complex, attenuated and possibly more

expensive. Above all, participatory planning demands very efficient multi-directional

communication between all those involved. Finally, it calls for genuine willingness

on the part of politicians to consult and to listen, and on the part of the planners to

modify and explain their techniques. How East Afiica has modified the above theory

to suit their conditions is what the current study intends to establish.

2.1.4.2 Strategic Planning

Basically, strategic planning is a proactive method for dealing with change. The role

of strategic planning is to establish what could be done, when and how, in relation to

the adopted educational philosophy. It involves generating a mission statement and

beliefs, followed by priorities or goals to address. Action plans are then generated,

implemented, and evaluated over time. The process' final product is a plan (the

document) to be implemented. According to Saint (1 992) such a product should:

13

be short and readable, spelling out operational objectives;

demonstrate the institution's ability to plan and manage its future and to provide a

basis for government and donor investment decisions;

be produced through an institution's strategic planning exercise and incorporate

extensive internal consultation and consensus-building with staff through

management audits and self-studies; and

integrate attention to educational quality, output mix, finances, curriculum, staff

development, research, access, governance and management.

Strategic planning is applied at the institutional level and one of its purposes is

to adjust the organization to its environment. This is more successful if it is assumed

that the institution already has a considerable measure of autonomy to manage its

own affairs, to determine both the ends and the means (Farrant & Lioudmilla 1997).

The main advantage of strategic planning is that it can enable the institution to

determine its own priorities and find donors to fund projects consistent with those

priorities. Experience with the use of strategic planning in OECD countries indicates

that there are three main obstacles: (1) the failure of planning units to dominate

uncertainty, thus permitting it to dominate policy planning; (2) the inability of policy

planning to make full use of available research and development outputs; and (3) the

failure of policy planning, on many occasions, to resist short-term political pressures

and in many respects, being conditioned by the strategic plans (Sournelis 1989,

p. 179). What is the experience of strategic planning in Africa?

Farrant and Lioudmilla (1997, p.25) assessed the applicability of strategic

planning in African universities and cautioned that even if it is a realistic prescription,

14

"any attempt to treat management science as suitable for a mechanical transfer of

technology is bound to meet with failure" and "we can be reasonably certain that

techniques imported fiom the west will fail unless they are revised quite

fimdarnentally". The reason they give is that the assumptions upon which strategic

planning is based - commitment to collective, formal, organizational goals; and the

assumption that economics is the fundamental social process - are not universally

valid, and that their application is even more limited in Afiica than in the West.

Furthermore, lack of autonomy in educational institutions in Africa may limit

the applicability of strategic planning. Britain exported the "state supervising model"

to its colonies in Africa. But in the first three decades of independence, the trend was

relentlessly toward "state control" epitomized in the president as ex oftic0 (and

active) chancellor. In Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, the president is the chancellor

and the universities are not autonomous.

The other limitation is that it is desirable that academic staff participate in the

strategic planning process and that the strategic plan has a substantial academic

component. But as Farrant & Lioudrnilla (1997) discovered at the University of Dar

es Salaam, enlisting the co-operation of the academic community is consistently

difficult. The main reasons lie in the widespread demoralization of academic staff

who have seen their conditions of work and standard of living deteriorate; in the

novelty of the opportunity to shape the university's future; and in the deep reluctance

to choose priorities at levels above the basic unit (the department). There is deep

skepticism about whether another bout of planning will achieve anything.

Finally, in their study of five Afiican universities, Farrant & Lioudmilla

(1997) observed that all the five universities were assisted by consultants from the

North indicating that there is a lack of trained and experienced educational planners

in Africa. Although the above study was canied out at universities, its findings have

implications for the successll adoption of strategic planning at other levels and

educational institutions in Africa. Under conditions of government control, apathy on

the part of academic staff, and lack of qualified planners strategic planning appears to

be problematic in East Africa.

2.1 $4.3 Micro planning (project planning)

Micro planning seeks means of achieving broad goals and determining resource

allocation at a much lower level in particular sectors of the economy, in particular

kinds of occupations, and in particular regions of the country. In this way planning

becomes a cyclical and on-going process of inquiry and illumination intended to

inform and facilitate decision making. As noted in chapter one, micro planning

includes both project and program planning. What project planning entails is

described below.

The life of a project is divided into several successive stages with each stage

as the logical successor of the preceding one, while the last stage prepares the first of

the next. This is diagrammatically represented as shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 The project cycle

c -

Identification

Preparation

Appraisal

I Negotiation I

I Implementation

* Retrospective Evaluation

Source: Magnen, A. (1 991, p. 26).

Identification

Project identification involves selection of one or several projects with high priority

for the country's development, and then definition of their objectives, strategy and

main characteristics (Magnen 1991). The main purpose of identification is to justify

the priority of identified projects. To justify an education project is to show that it is

likely to substantially improve the performance of education. It is also to demonstrate 17

that the project is in conformity with the national development and education policies.

The responsibility for identifjmg education projects usually falls on the ministry of

education and in particular the unit entrusted with planning.

Preparation.

Project preparation studies all the aspects (technical, institutional, socio-political,

economic, and financial) that have a bearing on the project's success. The purpose of

project preparation is twofold: studying in detail all the aspects of the project so as to

ensure that it is reasonably feasible; and planning its execution so that it can start

without any delays. It involves a detailed account of the necessary items, their costs

as well as the additional recurrent expenditure generated by the project. It finally

envisages the organization to be provided and the measures to be taken for project

execution as well as the subsequent functioning of the institution concerned.

Appraisal.

This is more or less an in-depth study of the project by government or organizations

that are to arrange for financing (ministry of finance, external aid agencies) before

approval is given. In Magnen's (1991) words, appraisal must verify that the project

has been sufficiently well prepared for implementation to start as soon as the project

has been approved.

Negotiations.

These are negotiations between representatives of the ministry of education and the

financial decision-makers. The negotiations often result in an agreement as to the

project's objectives, design, content and mode of financing.

Implementation / management.

This is the time when the entire project plan is put into action. It includes the

implementation of all the investments and other actions provided for by the project,

for example, construction of buildings, purchase of equipment, training of staff,

technical assistance, miscellaneous services, etc. This stage only ends when the

schools or other institutions developed by the project can function normally.

Retrospective evaluation.

This involves studying the project's results after its completion and hence when its

final costs are known. It compares actual outlays and results achieved with the

project's original estimates. Its main purpose is to identify the reasons for apparent

successes and failures so as to inform. the competent authorities and to draw lessons

for future projects (Magnen 199 1).

Apparently, the identification, preparation and management of projects are

complex tasks requiring the availability within an educational planning unit of an

adequate number of experienced specialists having received appropriate training.

Furthermore, Darniba (1992) argues that success of the project method is affected by

the economic, social and general political context. In the case of Africa, the economic

crisis of the 1980s, the structural adjustment programs and the search for immediate

profitability have led to a cutback on the education budget, hence limiting the success

of the project approach. The next section examines the process of educational

planning and policy making in East Africa since their independence.

2.2 Educational Planning and policy making in East Africa Since

independence

At the time of independence and immediately afterwards, African countries found it

imperative to have a prospective rather than a retrospective outlook when planning

their education systems to meet the needs of nation building. Elitist and restrictive

access to, and provision of educational services were in general replaced by a populist

system of education.

In the aftermath of their independence, political leaders in A f k a followed

international conventional wisdom in the belief that the most important priority was

to train as many qualified people as possible in professional fields relevant to the

needs of the economy (Salmi 1992). In other words, they adopted the manpower

approach. Even when they lacked teachers, curriculum materials and stationery, there

could be new schools nearly everywhere in a relatively short period, especially where

local communities were willing to donate materials and labor (Samoff 1987).

The expansion of educational opportunities included higher education too.

Whether as part of a genuine effort to democratize higher education in the process of

overcoming manpower shortages, or simply for demagogism and complacency

reasons, many governments created unlimited expectations mbng the population by

allowing automatic access to higher education for all secondary school graduates, and

by offering a public sector employment guarantee to all university graduates (Salmi

1 W), thus following the social-demand approach.

Note that although scan nations were following the manpower and social-

demand approaches in expanding their educational systems, as Salmi (1992)

20

observed, these techniques were flawed fiom both the methodological and theoretical

standpoints. As regards the manpower approach, apart fiom the difficulties of finding

the necessary data, it has many other limitations. It assumes that technology alone

determines the relative mix of occupations in each industry and that as a result, there

is a rigid technical relationship between occupations and training programs, ignoring

the possibility of horizontal and vertical substitution between different categories of

manpower. In reality, however, it has been observed that except in very specialized

fields several qualifications may lead to the same occupation and also that a given

form of training can prepare one for a number of different occupations. Furthermore,

with the rapid growth of the supply of university graduates, there is a process of

downscaling or vertical substitution whereby occupational positions end up being

filled by people who are overqualified in relation to the skill requirements of the job.

Secondly, there is the problem of duration of the period under consideration.

In economic planning this duration is normally equated with the duration of the

overall economic development plan which is usually four or five years. In educational

planning this is a problem because it takes much longer to put a policy into effect and

for it to produce results. For example, Bertrand (1992) asserts that it takes about ten

years to establish guidelines, make the necessary capital investments, train teachers,

complete a stage of education, and bring the trained individuals in to the labor market.

Finally, since manpower forecasts extrapolate on past trends, by definition

they fail to take into account potential technical change, its likely impact on the

industrial and occupational mix of employment, and the corresponding shifts in skill

requirements and training needs. In Ivory Coast the manpower planning approach was

2 1

the basis for the projections made in 1982 concerning the evolution of the modern

sector up to 1990. The results led to the conclusion that in a developing country,

consideration of the modem sector gives only a partial picture of employment as a

whole and its future prospects (Bertrand 1992). There are even considerable inflows

and outflows of workers (poorly skilled immigrants fiom neighboring countries and a

large number of Europeans in high-level jobs) which cannot easily be fitted into the

picture and whose evolution is uncertain.

The social demand approach on the other hand raises issues of equity and

accessibility. Bertrand (1992) argues that this approach enables the most privileged

social categories to benefit most fiom education. This is true in Afiica where

universal primary education is still a dream yet to be realized. It is important to note

that taking social demand into account is not a scientific and objective way of

estimating training needs, though it is an essential factor which has to be borne in

mind by planners in so far as planning is not an academic desk-top exercise but a

largely political process of reconciling conflicting interests and priorities.

In the three East Mican countries, the activities related to educational

planning and policy making can be conveniently analyzed from the viewpoints

addressed below.

2.2.1 The period of insufficient skilled manpower supply.

Immediately after achieving their independence (1 96 1 for Tanzania, 1 962 in Uganda

and Kenya in 1963) there was an urgent need to reorganize their educational systems

with the aim of producing the required skilled manpower. The most pressing need

22

was to fill up all the posts that had been left vacant by the colonialists, and to replace

all categories of expatriates with locally trained indigenous people - a process many

preferred to call CbAfricanization" of the labor force. Educational planning therefore

followed the manpower planning approach. Belief in human resource development

was inspired by the human capital theory put forward at the beginning of the 1960s,

which held that education is a productive investment at the individual and society

levels. At such a point in time, the manpower approach was simply the most

appropriate given the shortage of skilled manpower and the optimism of the political

leaders about economic growth.

In Kenya, following the Ominde commission report of 1964, the two post

independence plans (1 964-70 and 1 970-74) stated that education should be

considered a service intended to train a pool of skilled people to sustain the

development of the national economy. The commission drew government's attention

to the need to expand post-primary education in an effort to train highly skilled staff

needed for government service and the modem economy (Rharade 1997, p. 164).

In Tanzania, similarly, far more emphasis was placed on the secondary and

tertiary levels of the education system than on primary. Such a policy was designed to

produce indigenous personnel for middle and upper echelons of government and

business. The education agenda was based on the leaders' firm belief that lack of high

level skills was a major obstacle to development goals. With a very small pool of

adults who had completed secondary school and an even smaller number of university

graduates, Tanzania had to assign its highest priority to human resource development

especially at the higher levels (Murray 1 992).

23

Uganda was not in any way different. The first five-year development plan

charged education with providing high-level skilled manpower needed to Afi-icanize

the government administration and meet the demands of a growing economy. The

plan therefore stressed secondary and technical education, and left primary education

to continue pretty much as it was (Evans & Senteza 1994). The second five-year

development plan similarly emphasized growth in post-primary education to produce

high level manpower. Note that for almost a whole decade after their independence,

the three East scan countries were still looking at manpower supply without due

consideration of manpower demand.

Toward the end of the decade, however, skepticism about the applicability of

the manpower approach began to crop up. Chesswas (1969, p.24) cautioned that:

"Manpower forecasts in Uganda being based on assumptions and models derived

fiom the experience of more developed countries contain a certain margin of error".

Similarly Thompson (1 98 1) discussing the applicability of the manpower forecasting

model in Africa concluded that it is subject to a wide range of technical deficiencies -

weaknesses of data, crude assumptions, and methodological inadequacies.

2.2.2 The period of increased demand for education.

With the reorganization and restructuring undertaken to meet their manpower needs,

rapid increase in enrolment was witnessed in the three countries. This culminated in

the need to focus educational planning activities on meeting the increased demand for

school places.

In Kenya, the restructuring which followed the recommendations of the

Ominde commission led to increased demand for school places. For example,

whereas in the past only 50,000 primary school pupils used to go on to intermediate

schools, the number of pupils reaching the end of primary education rose to 500,000

(Rharade 1997, p. 166). Government was therefore forced to increase the number of

secondary schools.

Popular demand was also expressed through the harambee (a Swahili word

that can be translated as 'Toining forces") movement inherited fiom independence

struggles. Harambee schools were built at the community level in response to the

growing demand for greater educational opportunities in disadvantaged areas. These

schools were not covered by government planning programs and the standard of

education provided was very low because of the lack of teaching materials and

qualified teachers. At one time government tried to discourage the harambee schools

by making it compulsory to collect 2,000 Kenya Shillings before opening a school but

the population rose up against this measure which was considered a colonial and

imperialist practice. Eventually, the government gave in under popular pressure and

undertook to improve the quality of education by providing qualified teachers for the

harambee schools and by taking some of these schools into the state system.

The final landmark in school expansion was initiated by non-governmental

organizations on realizing that secondary school graduates who did not join university

could not readily get a job. Religious organizations therefore set up technical

institutions like the National Christian Council of Kenya which launched polytechnics

and the YMCAs and YWCAs which provided vocational training. The government

25

too took up the challenge and drew up a policy for the diversification of education

with emphasis on technical education. Several public institutions were set up on the

lines of non-governmental organizations and they offered courses in carpentry, brick

laying, mechanical engineering, etc. (Rharade 1997).

In Tanzania, popular demand came in the wake of Nyerere's pronouncements

of "Education for self-reliance" in 1968 and its supporting policies. In education for

self-reliance, Tanzanian education was to abandon the earlier emphasis on higher

level skills and now focus on basic education - a program so complete in itself that it

would equip young people to function effectively as productive adults and citizens in

their communities - and adult literacy. Every child between the ages of 7 and 13 was

to be enrolled by 1977, the party declared. The result was nearly to double the

primary school intake in a few years. Ironically, post-primary education was now a

privilege, not a priority. According to Nyerere, "these priorities (secondary education)

are regarded as a privilege, not a right and carry with them obligations to the

community" (Murray 1 992, p.235).

Note that education for self-reliance implicitly aimed at forcing school

graduates back to the village particularly to join the agriculture sector. Such a

school's graduates would be well prepared to enter the rural labor force and form a

hard-working, efficient and enthusiastic citizenry. Only a few primary school leavers

would enter secondary and tertiary level institutions to acquire the technoIogical skills

needed for building the nation's modernizing economic establishment. This was

completely unacceptable to the indigenous Africans to whom education was supposed

to be a route off the farm to a modern sector job in the city. Parents therefore started

26

their own private secondary schools. This apparently was an embarrassment to the

government. As a response to this tide of popular demand for advanced schooling,

government sought to maintain its image of legitimacy and of control by making it

official policy in national plans to extend secondary and post-secondary educational

facilities well beyond projected manpower needs. Educational planning had therefore

shifted to the social demand approach with school expansion being geared toward

meeting the demand for school places.

Uganda, on the other hand, suffered a setback in all sectors of the economy

throughout the 1970s due to the excesses of the Idi Amin regime and the political

turmoil in the first half of the 1980s. For example the report of the Educational Policy

Review Commission 1977 had to be shelved; ministers of education came and went

in rapid fashion; resources available for education were very limited; and the

administrative structure needed to provide supplies and learning materials and

effective training and support for teachers functioned only sporadically. Amidst all

this, however, the early 1980s saw a rapid expansion of secondary education,

somewhat contrary to the emphasis of the Educational Policy Review Commission

report, which had given priority to primary education and suggested a variety of

mechanisms for creating alternatives to absorb the great demand for secondary

education (Evans & Senteza 1994).

Although the social demand approach is a simple and popular planning

approach, it is flawed by its inability to project fuhue demand for skilled labor.

Furthermore, use of the social demand approach does not consider the costs and

benefits of individuals availing themselves of a given level of education. These

27

aspects may partly explain the increased graduate unemployment which has hit most

African countries in the 1990s.

2.2.3 The role of education policy review commissions.

In East Africa, education policy review commissions have played a significant

role in formulating and directing education policy. For example, before independence

the Phelps Stokes commission visited the British colonies in East and Southern Africa

and recommended government participation in education through supervision and

financial assistance to strengthen and control missionary efforts.

In Uganda, the post-independence era has been characterized by three education

policy review commission activities. The Castle commission of 1963 was basically

charged with setting the country's education agenda after independence.

Recommendations of the report emphasized self-sufficiency in skilled manpower.

The education policy review commission of 1977 was chaired by Professor Senteza

Kajubi with members drawn from government, educational institutions and the public

sector. The commission adopted procedures that involved widespread consultations,

formation of a number of study groups, and extensive deliberations. Unfortunately,

Uganda was soon to be engaged in the liberation war with Tanzania which ousted Idi

Amin. The findings of the report had to be shelved. Ten years later the same professor

Senteza Kajubi chaired the educational policy review commission of 1987. Note,

however, that the commission's report has never been officially published or

distributed, although copies were generally available to senior officials, commission

members, and to various donor teams that visited the country during that period

28

(Evans & Senteza 1994). In 1992 government appointed a white paper committee of

eleven members to examine the Education Policy Review Commission report and to

identify the recommendations which were acceptable and feasible to implement and

to make amendments where necessary. After several consultations and discussions,

the committee produced its report and this is the most recent education policy

document in Uganda that the current study will review.

In Tanzania, education policy review commissions do not have a long history.

Political leaders have instead been more influential in formulating education policy,

perhaps due to the fact that the country's fiat and second presidents after

independence (J.K Nyerere 1963 - 85 and A.H Mwinyi 1985 - 95) were former

schoolteachers.

The first education policy review commission, however, was appointed in

1980. Its task was to evaluate the past 19 years of education and plan the next twenty

years. The commission was appointed by the president and was comprised of

significant political leaders with educators comprising its professional staff.

Significant, however, is the fact that the commission was responsible to the president

and through him to the cabinet and National Assembly on the one hand and to the

party and its National Executive Committee (NEC) on the other (Sarnoff 1994). Thus,

the commission was not accountable to the public which education is supposed to

serve but to the political leaders.

Furthermore and similar to the Uganda case, the commission offered analyses,

projections and recommendations but the report was released and then abruptly

withdrawn (Samoff 1994). Such an act leaves a general feeling of uncertainty about

29

the future of education. The next national education commission was appointed by

the education ministry in 1990. Its members were primarily academics, not political

leaders, and it reported to the education minister, not the parliament and the party.

Note, however, that although the commissioin's work was to outline the direction of

education for Tanzania, it was driven by foreign assistance. The way it specified the

important issues, the constructs it employed, and the data gathering and analytic

strategies it applied, all reflect the influence of the World Bank - now the most

prominent educational research institution in the world (Samoff 1994).

Kenya, just like Uganda and Tanzania has reviewed her education policy

from time to time to enhance effective planning and development. Following the

Ominde commission of 1964, a study of curriculum development in Kenya was

conducted by an advisog mission in 1972. Shortly after, the University Grants

Committee 1972-75 considered the expansion of the two universities in relation to

projected manpower needs of the country (Eshiwani 1990).

In 1976, the government appointed the National Committee on Educational

Objectives and Policies (NCEOP) to redefine Kenya's educational objectives and

recommend policies to achieve these objectives within the financial means available.

A major policy change in Kenya's education system is found in the report of the

Presidential Working Party on the Second University 1981. Apart fiom

recommendations on the establishment of a second university, it recommended a

restructuring of the education system from the 7-4-2-3, to the 8-44 system (Eshiwani

1 990; Rharade 1 997).

It is important to note that in doing their work, all the education policy review

commissions noted above did not consult the public. It is only the education policy

review commission 1987 in Uganda that called upon the public to submit memoranda

but, unfortunately, as noted above the report has never been officially released, and

the public has never been given a chance to discuss the recommendations.

A second important factor to note about the work of commissions is that the

members of the commissions are not responsible for finding ways to implement their

recommendations or identify sources of financing in the context of severe resource

constraints. Rather, their work constitutes a mere reflection of what in their best

judgement is a set of normative targets for the nation as they deem appropriate in

view of national ideologies.

Finally, the commissions are dissolved as soon as they submit their report.

This has the advantage of reducing government's expenditure since such members

will not be paid thereafter but it has an overwhelming disadvantage in that it leaves a

gap in W e consultations and amendments of the policies the commissions

recommended. The other shortfall is that it limits accountability since the commission

members will not oversee the implementation and perhaps evaluation of the policies

they recommended. Finally, there is a danger of lack of continuity when it comes to

the next education policy review.

2.2.4 The limited role played by the planning units.

In each of the three East African countries, there is a planning unit or department at

the ministry of education headquarters. It is therefore expected that such a department

3 1

should handle all matters to do with education policy planning and formulation.

Available literature, however, points to the peripheral role played by the planning

bureaus in policy making. In most cases the planning departments handle statistics

regarding teacher and student flows, and implementation and management of foreign

assistance. In Uganda, for example, an education officer from the planning unit of the

ministry of education served as a secretary to the education policy review commission

of 1977. In the 1987 commission, the unit again provided the secretariat but

surprisingly the unit was not even in a position to provide a substantive data base and

documentation for the commission (Evans & Senteza 1994).

In Tanzania, according to Samoff (1994), the department of educational

planning is both powerful and somewhat misnamed since much of its effort is focused

on project implementation and the management of foreign assistance. Does this partly

explain why in many cases policies are not clearly stated and not fully implemented?

Does it not perpetuate lack of accountability since the department code-named for the

task of planning does not directly deal with planning? Is it due to lack of trained and

qualified educational planners? Is it part of the worldwide loss of confidence in

planning in general and educational planning in particular?

It is important to note that the educational planner in Africa and East Africa

for that matter, operates under special conditions. These may limit the applicability of

Western models to Africa.

2.3 Peculiarities which affect educational planning in East Africa

2.3.1 High graduate unemployment has been documented by scholars like Odaet

(1990), Caillods (1989) and Coombs (1984). The ubiquitous skilled manpower

shortages at independence have been replaced by growing surpluses leading to under-

and unemployment. Passi (1990) indicated that graduate unemployment is rampant in

Uganda. Makau (1985) observed that in Kenya between 1974 and 1983, the number

of educated aspirants for employment in the modem sector consistently far

outstripped the creation of new employment positions. In most cases, the high

graduate unemployment is attributed to the irrelevant curriculum that in most cases

has not been changed since independence. This affects educational planning and

policy making in the sense that the planner is under constant pressure for cunicula

reforms but curricular reforms need financial and human resources which are in short

supply. The other dimension of the problem is that with many graduates on the streets

unemployed, many parents and indeed students think twice about schooling since

chances of reaping the expected benefits are limited. This means that the planner's

attention has to shift fiom a mere focus on providing supply to aiming at motivating

learners (and indeed their parents too), creating and sustaining demand for school.

2.3.2 Special too in Africa is the poor information base for planning. The

performance of educational planning depends largely on the nature, coverage, quality

and relevance of the information base. However, in the majority of African countries,

including East Afiica, there is a lack of accurate and complete data for a systematic

and comprehensive analysis of the present education system (Chinapah 1995). If a

33

planner is to project the firture student and teacher flows based on inaccurate

statistical data, dangers of under and over-estimation cannot be ruled out. This then

disqualifies the use of the manpower, social demand and cost-benefit analysis

approaches which depend heavily on statistical data and mathematical models.

Similarly what the researcher has termed the pragmatic techniques may not auger

well in East AfKca because they too need an accurate information base. The planner

is left with nothing but to depend on "intellectual guess work".

2.3.3 There are differences in perceptions between parents and pupils on one hand

and educators and planners on the other. While it is impossible to predict the hture, it

is clear that extension of western style schooling into new areas, or bringing more

children into existing schools - which educational planning deals with - will increase

the rate of social change. But parents particularly in rural communities consider

schooling a sacrifice; instead of leaming how to "live properly", the child is sent to

school to learn how to earn a living (Rowley 1971). Parents and pupils therefore

expect a return in status and cash for the decision taken. No wonder the Mijikenda, a

tribe in coastal Tanzania, wanted their children to be paid by the missionaries for

attending school. The planner who might be aiming at socialxhange through school

expansion is at a loss when parents shun school because their children will not get

jobs at the end of school. This calls upon the planner to emphasize demand for

education which is a lot more complex than planning mere provision of school places.

It implies designing new financing mechanisms; it implies consulting and involving

stakeholders in the management of the institutions concerned, thus contributing to

34

making the education provided better and more relevant. Such planning requires

different instruments (proper incentive structuresy new ways of channeling existing

resources to the users and adequate monitoring mechanisms), and a change of

approach emphasizing partnership as much as control, process as much as product.

2.3.4 Inconsistency between programs and objectives. In Africa, education was

intended to produce "cadres" instead of "thinkers". According to Diambomba (1 989)

Mean universities were meant to train cadres, it is not appropriate for them to model

their structures and programs on those of industrialized countries where the main

hc t ion of universities is to train thinkers. The result is that Afiican universities have

neither produced cadres nor thinkers effectively. Under such circumstances the

planner is faced with the task of rethinking the role of education, specifying its

objectives before embarking on the actual planning.

2.3.5 The financial and economic crisis in East AGca and indeed Afkica has led to

stagnation and in some cases decline in the value of the money available for

education. For example, the table below shows the percentage of public expenditure

on education in the three East African countries over the last decade.

Table 2.1

Public expenditure on education in East M c a (1 980-90)

As percentage of government Country

Note that although the above statistics indicate some increases, given the high rate of

As percentage of GNP

Kenya

Uganda

Tanzania

inflation, the increase in enrollment and the period under consideration (1 0 years), in

1980

18.1

11.3

real terms there was a decline in public expenditure on education. Under such

conditions, fimding agencies like the IMF and World Bank have become important

I

1980

6.8

1.2

1990

16.7

22.5

Source: Wright & Govinda (1994)

4.4

and indispensable partners in the financing of the development of education. But, as

1990

6.8

2.9

Caillods (1997, p. 21) noted, the consequences of this trend on educational planning

5.8

and more generally on the process of policy formulation have been devastating. Some

agencies impose their own agendas by making financial support subject to certain

11.2

conditions without engaging in a proper dialogue with the government and the

11.4

different players in the host country. Some countries, for example, Tanzania have

even turned from planning to marketing, adopting indifferently programs and projects

that are proposed and financed by an aid agency (Samoff 1994). In this way, the

educational planner remains a mere code-name, but whose tasks are driven by the

financial coffers,

2.3.6 Demographic characteristics also put special pressures on the educational

planner in East Africa High population growth is one of the major obstacles to the

achievement of universal primary education and the eradication of illiteracy in East

Africa (Caillods 1 99 1). The annual population growth rate for Uganda was 3.5, that

for Tanzania was 3.8 while the figure for Kenya was 4.2 percent between 1980-90.

The illiteracy rates for the three countries in 1990 for children under the age of 15

years were 31% for Kenya; 51.7% for Uganda and the figure for Tanzania was not

available (Ishumi 1994, p. 1%). In Uganda 50 percent of the population are children

under the age of 15 years (Passi 1994). Mammoth resources are therefore required to

accommodate this population, but given constant budgetary cutbacks the planner is

left with little room to maneuver.

2.3.7 There has been an increase in the number of non-governmental organizations

providing education and training services. In East Africa, the 1980s and 1990s have

seen an increase in companies, associations, non-governmental organizations and

local communities taking a hand in organizing various types of training courses that

are more flexible and better targeted to individual needs than those found in the

conventional school system (Caillods 1991). The ministries of education have ceased

to have an absolute monopoly over training even in the public sector. This calls for a

wider scope of application of the planning process in order to keep pace with such

diversification.

2.4 Summary

Planning education is no easy task particularly in the developing countries where such

planning is supposed to influence the course of social change. The historical

educational planning techniques have more or less been discarded due to their

inadequacies. In their place new methods that, apparently, are more relevant to the

economic hardships of the 1 !NOS, are being advocated.

The three East Afi=ican countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania have in their

histoxy of educational planning tried the manpower, social demand approaches, plus

the contemporary techniques of participation, and project planning. It is important to

note that success of a particular method depends largely on the circumstances under

which it is applied. In East Africa major obstacles which may hinder successll

educational planning include economic hardships, demographic characteristics,

society's perceptions beliefs and attitudes, unreliable information base, the lack of

skilled personnel and a host of other problems which characterize third world

countries in general. These put special pressures and demands on the educational

planner. How the contemporary educational planning techniques have been modified

to suit the conditions in East Africa is the focus of the cunent study.

2.5 Statement of research questions.

The current study will seek to answer the following research questions.

(1) Have the three East African countries adopted the contemporary approaches in

their educational planning and policy making? In this regard, the study will seek to

establish answers to: (I) Is there evidence of using participatory planning? (ii) Is there

evidence of using strategic planning? (iii) Is there evidence of using project planning

in East Africa as far as educational planning is concerned?

(2) If the three East African countries have adopted the contemporary educational

planning techniques how have they modified them to suit their conditions? In other

words do the East African countries apply the contemporary planning techniques the

way they are laid out theoretically as outlined above?

(3) How does the Western world influence educational planning technology transfer

to the East African countries? In other words do the countries under study use foreign

planning technology as a precondition for receiving external assistance in the form of

funds or skilled manpower?

CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

3.1 Introduction

The study is based on the educational planning and policy making activities in 3 East

African countries: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. This region has been chosen by the

researcher for the reasons outlined below.

Historically, the educational system in each of the three countries under study

grew out of a popular belief in the existence of a positive correlation between the

educational level of a given generation and the socio-economic performance of the

society over the corresponding period. However, the three countries are currently

facing problems of high rates of graduate unemployment, high dropout rates, high

illiteracy rates, declining educational facilities, inequitable distribution of educational

services, and inability to finance their education budgets, etc. The researcher felt that

an analysis of each country's educational policies would be beneficial to the whole

region.

Poiitically, the three countries under study have been independent for at least

25 years. It was therefore assumed that this time frame is long enough to allow the

countries as national sovereign states to formulate and implement their own

educational policies.

On the economic front, the three countries are at more or less the same level

of development (or underdevelopment). For example their GNP per capita in 1991

were as follows: Kenya USS270, Tanzania US$ 110 and Uganda US$ 190 (World

Bank Technical paper No. 326, p.38). This has resulted in inadequate educational 40

financing consequently leading to dependence on foreign donors as indicated in

chapter two. The researcher felt that in a way this foreign dependence could have a

bearing on the educational policy making process in the region hence making it worth

investigating.

In terms of education the three countries structured their educational systems

based on the British educational system, their former colonial master. They share

common traditions and governance structures in their educational systems. This

commonality was expected to facilitate cross-referencing to and cross-comparison of

aspects of the educational system during analysis and interpretation of educational

policies. Furthermore, English is used as a medium of instruction in educational

institutions and it is the official language in the three countries, though Kenya and

Tanzania are bilingual with Kiswahili as their second language. This, it was assumed,

would mean that the educational policy documents are written in English to enable

the researcher to analyze them.

Finally, the researcher is a Ugandan who has contacts with friends from

Kenya and Tanzania. This enabled him to get the relevant educational policy

documents needed for the study. Note however, that there has been no study carried

out on the process of educational policy planning in this region. The researcher

therefore felt that conducting such a study might uncover some useful facts as far as

education in East Afica is concerned.

3.2 Design and procedure

This is a qualitative study. Gay (1996, p.208) defined qualitative research as the

collection and analysis of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into a

situation of interest not possible using other types of research. The qualitative

researcher is interested in the quality of a particular activity other than how often it

occurs, or how it should othewise be evaluated.

The design used in the study is content analysis. In Gay's (1996) words,

content analysis is the systematic description of the composition of the object of the

study. It is a process of inductively establishing the contents of a document and

placing the information into categories. In the current study the researcher read the

education policy documents of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda in order to establish

categories, patterns and themes thus enabling the researcher to answer the questions

that he set out to investigate. The documents reviewed were:

1. The Republic of Kenya. (March 1988) "The Report of the Presidential Working

Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond''.

2. Tanzania. (February 1995). Education and Training Policy. Ministry of Education

and Culture.

3. Education Policy formulation in Tanzania: Coordination between the government

and international aid agencies by Lene Buchert.

4. Uganda (April 1992) Government White Paper on the report of the education

policy review commission.

5. Ministry of Education Kampala. (1989). Report of the Education Policy Review

Commission entitled: Education for National Integration and Development.

42

3.3 Data Collection, analyses and Interpretation

As indicated above, the study is based on the education policy documents of the three

East &can countries. The researcher organized the data by coding. Coding involves

critically analyzing the data and identifying themes and topics that represent

categories into which numerous pieces of data can be classified (Gay 1996, p. 228).

The researcher read and analyzed the educational policy documents with the aim of

answering the following questions:

1. What evidence is there in each of the policy documents to show that the countries

have adopted the contemporary approaches to educational planning identified in

chapter two?

2. How have the countries under study modified the contemporary theories of

educational planning identified above to. suit the conditions in their countries?

3. What role do foreign financing agencies play in the adoption of foreign educational

planning technology in East Africa?

4. How can the process of educational planning and policy making in East Africa be

improved?

3.4 Limitations

1 . Due to time and financial constraints the researcher did not carry out any

interviews on the process of educational planning and policy formulation. The

researcher was studying the process of educational planning in East Africa from

Canada, and he had only two years to complete both coursework and the thesis. This

could have limited the data available to the researcher since all the findings were

43

based on documents and the researcher's personal knowledge of the region under

study.

2. The documents that the researcher obtained were not written at the same time. For

example in the case of Kenya, the most recent educational policy document was

written in March 1988, while in Tanzania a similar document was written in 1995.

This could have been a problem in comparing but since the study was more interested

in the process than the product, the findings were not significantly &ected.

3.5 Problems

1. Government policy documents are not easily accessible, in addition to being very

expensive to purchase. In fact, for Tanzania and Uganda, the researcher had to request

the people he contacted to photocopy the documents since the originals could not be

sold. As indicated above, some of the documents had been released and later

withbwn.

2. Some of the documents, for example, the Education and Training Policy

(Tanzania) did not give enough details of the process of making the policies. This

made it difficult to identify whether stakeholders participated in the process, and the

mode of participation.

Despite the above obstacles, the researcher managed to get the most recent

educational policy documents of the three countries. This then enabled the researcher

to conduct the study whose findings are indicated in the next chapter.

3.6 Delimitations

The study was based on only three countries in East Africa. Its findings cannot

therefore be applied to the whole of Africa (53 states) part of which is Francophone

and the other Anglophone. Furthermore, the study was qualitative and Gay (1996,

p.229) cautions that findings from a qualitative study are tentative. Generalizations

were therefore limited to the countries studied.

CHAPTER FOUR

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

4.1 Introduction

The researcher set out to analyze the educational planning and policy-making

processes in East Afica. Specifically, the study sought to answer the research

questions identified in chapter two based on the three East African countries - Kenya,

Tanzania and Uganda. Each policy document covers the entire education system in

that country. The educational policy document for Kenya among others covers the

cultural, social, economic and political context of education in Kenya; pre-primary,

primary, secondary, vocational, special, university and teacher education;

management, curriculum and financing of education. In total, the document has 230

recommendations on a wide range of issues in education. The central theme in the

document is educational quality, relevance, expansion and manpower production for

the future.

Tanzania's educational policy document similarly covers the entire education

system. Its emphasis is integration of education and training in order to guide and

harmonize structure, plans and practices; to ensure access, equity and quality at all

levels; as well as proper and efficient mechanisms for management, administration

and financing of education. The document contains 149 recommendations on the

future of education in Tanzania.

In the case of Uganda, the Government White Paper on education deals with

the entire educational system. Among others, it covers the goals and objectives of

education; pre-primary, primary, secondary, higher, vocational and teacher education;

46

planning and management of education and international cooperation in education.

The document focuses on education for national integration and development. In total

the document contains 216 recommendations divided into short term, medium and

long term recommendations. Each recommendation is followed by an implementation

strategy.

After reading and analyzing the above documents, the findings of the study

are presented on a question by question approach.

4.2 Answers to the specific research questions

Question l(a). Have the three East African countries adopted participatory planning

in education?

There is evidence to suggest that in each of the countries under study there was

participatory planning or the involvement of stakeholders in the policy planning

process.

In the case of Kenya, there is overwhelming evidence pointing to the use of

participatory planning. In the introduction the committee indicated that they visited

the provinces to gather views and to receive memoranda and presentations from the

members of the public.

"In carrying out our work, we visited all the provinces, held interviews and

discussions with senior administrators, leading educationists and professional

personnel, religious leaders as well as members of the public and visited educational,

training and research institutions. In addition, we held meetings with and interviewed

government ministers and members of parliament" (Kenya 1 98 8, p. iii).

47

Furthermore, the committee also sought the public's opinion and views on specific

issues such as curriculum: "The working party received submissions fiom the general

public indicating overwhelming acceptance of the aims and objectives of this

curriculumy' (Kenya 198 8, p. 3 1).

Finally, curriculum design in Kenya involves several stakeholders comprised

of the Director of Education, subject panels, course panels, schoolteachers, inspectors

and the Kenya National Examinations Council. In the words of the committee, "this

wide participation ensures that curriculum content meets the national objectives of

education and addresses itself to the needs of the child, interested organizations and

the society" (Kenya 1988, p. 100).

In Tanzania, similarly, there is evidence of public participation in the planning

and policymaking process. "Some 80 people, including Ministry of Education and

Culture (MOEC) officials, education experts, administrators and general

educationists, academics, politicians, including principal secretaries, and agency

representatives gave inputs which had an impact on the content of the documenty'

(Buchert 1997, p. 47). Even at the sub national level there was participation fiom

stakeholders such as education officers at different administrative levels (regional and

district education officers), headmasters, teachers, parents add stakeholders outside

the public education system, for example, national and international NGOs, church

organizations and community organizations. These people had an input in the making

of the policies.

In Uganda, several interest groups and individuals had a hand in making the

policies. In writing the policy document entitled Education for Integration and

48

Development, the Education Policy Review Commission (EPRC) received

memoranda fiom the general public, held public discussions, meetings and plenary

sessions (Ministry of Education (MOE) Kampala 1989, p. iii). Even the composition

of the commission came from a cross-section of people fiom various disciplines.

"The membership of the commission was drawn from a wide cross-section of the

people representing educationists, economists, administrators, representatives of

employers' associations etc (MOE Kampala 1989, p. ii).

Furthermore, the EPRC shows evidence of public input in their report:

". . . . .... the commission noted that the overwhelming plea throughout the country

was.. ..."; "There was widespread feeling that.. . . . ..."; "In the course of its work, the

commission received many requests for.. . . . . ..". (MOE Kampala 1989, pp 25 & 12 1) .

In writing the White Paper, which was supposed to be government's reaction to the

recommendations of the EPRC, several interest groups participated in the exercise.

. . . ..... the White Paper committee consisting of eleven members .. . . . . co-opted forty

more people fiom different parts of Uganda. The committee carried out consultations

as extensively as possible and discussed all aspects of the recommendations of the

Education Policy Review Commission report.. . . . . .. (Uganda 1992, p. xii).

From the above evidence it would appear that participatory planning was at least one

of the methods used in educational policy planning in East Africa.

Question l(b). Have the three East African countries adopted strategic

planning?

According to the documents that the study was based on, there is evidence of strategic

planning. Note, however, that it differs fiom the theory reviewed in chapter two.

In all the three countries, strategic planning was applied at the level of the

entire educational system. Mission statements were generated and the process ended

in the writing up of the educational policy plans which, according to Saint (1992), is

part of strategic planning.

In the case of Tanzania, the mission statement was "Education and training"

which implies that the policies in the document are aimed at integrating formal, non-

formal, vocational, tertiary and higher education and training as well as promotion of

science and technology in the country (MOEC 1995, p. Xiv). Furthermore, the

education and training policy while focusing on the whole education system puts

emphasis on two areas namely: (1) pre-primary, vocational and technical education

and training; and (2) on the need to integrate formal and non-formal education. The

researcher interpreted this to be strategic planning since in a way the policies are

trying to identify what could be done, when and how.

In the case of Uganda, the mission statement was "Education for National

Integration and Development" (MOE Kampala 1989, p. ii). The statement was arrived

at after an identified problem: "So far education has not been based on any

continuous systematic planning; it has developed largely as a result of uncoordinated

response to social demand, and this partly accounts for the wide disparities between

what the educational system is tuning out, what the economy can absorb at the

moment, and what the nation needs for its future growth" (MOE Kampala 1989, p. ii).

Lastly, the Government White Paper has an implementation strategy for each

of the 216 recommendations. This essentially means that the policy makers were

trying to establish what could be done, when and how in relation to the adopted

educational philosophy - the mission statement - hence the researcher felt that there

was an element of strategic planning in fomulating educational policies in Uganda.

In Kenya similarly, the guiding principle was "Education and manpower

training for the next century and beyond" (Kenya 1988). This was rooted in the

philosophy that education and training should prepare Kenyans to be nationalistic and

patriotic toward national independence and values (Kenya 1 988, P 1 25). Kenya's

educational policy document like the other countries in the study also contains

priorities and goals for all sectors of the education system, hence the researcher

interpreted that Kenya adopted strategic planning.

Given the analyses provided above, it is apparent that the three East African

countries adopted the strategic planning approach in writing their educational plans.

Question I@). Is there evidence of applying micro planning in East Africa?

As indicated earlier on, the documents the researcher obtained fiom the three

countries each cover the entire educational system on a sub sector by sub sector basis.

For example, each level of education is critically examined before setting up policies

to guide educational activities for that particular level. This, the researcher

determined, is a form of microplanning which, as mentioned in chapter two, intends

5 1

to establish means of achieving broad goals and determining resource allocation at a

much lower level in particular sectors and regions of the country. There is therefore

evidence of the sub sector approach, but scanty evidence of particular projects,

perhaps because of the nature of the documents the researcher based the study on.

In Uganda, the particular sub sectors of education tackled included pre-

primary, primary, secondary, higher, vocational and teacher education; special

education for the disabled, education for the gifted, education for women, distance

education, planning and management of education, educational financing, and

international cooperation in education (Uganda 1992). For each of the above sub

sectors, the current state was analyzed, problems were identified, and consequently

policies for h t w e action were laid out with an implementation strategy for each

policy. "Every recommendation is followed by statements of government's response

to it in the form of comments, clarifications, amendments or additions to that

recommendation, followed by the proposed implementation strategy in which the

phasing plan is clearly indicated" (Uganda 1992, p. 2). At the back of the document

are appendices which include enrollment projections and financial implications of the

policies, among others: "In general, appendix XX shows the estimated recurrent and

development cost of implementing all the recommendations that have been accepted

by government for phase one" (Uganda 1992, p. 2).

As far as the project cycle is concerned, the White Paper Committee

recommended: "A strong project identification, preparation, implementation and

management unit should be set up within the directorate of planning, statistics and

evaluation of the ministry of Education" (Uganda 1992, p.226). Further to that, they

52

recommended that: "Multilateral donor agencies should be requested to help Uganda

to increase her capacity for sectoral planning, project identification, preparation,

implementation, management and training which are essentially the responsibility of

the Uganda government" (Uganda1 992, p. 226).

It is therefore possible that Uganda has adopted micro planning in education.

As regards the possibility of adopting the project planning approach, the available

evidence indicates that if the policies contained in the documents have been

implemented, project planning is one of the methods currently in use. The documents

did not include any project plan.

In Tanzania, similarly, microplanning in education was applied in the form of

sub sectors. Among others Tanzania's educational policy document covers pre-

primary, primary, secondary, higher, vocational, teacher and non-formal education;

girls' education, education for the gifted, medium of instruction, curriculum,

examinations, management and financing of education and training (MOEC 1 995).

As far as project planning in particular is concerned, there is very little

evidence of project planning: "quality of education is the key focus in the district-

based education projects conducted by Danida, General Directorate for International

Co-operation (DGIS) of the Netherlands, Irish Aid and UNICEF (Buchert 1997, p.

72).

Finally, Kenya equally took a sub sector approach in formulating her

educational plans. Among others the document contains policies for pre-primary,

primary, secondary, vocational, special, teacher, university and adult education;

curriculum, examinations, management and financing of education (Kenya 1988).

53

Each sub sector is analyzed with a view to identifying possible areas of intervention.

Policies are then established to guide action in that particular sub sector.

The evidence above points to the possible adoption of micro planning in

education in the three countries. The documents that the researcher based the study on

covered the entire educational systems of each country, hence they were not detailed

enough to the level of perhaps projects.

Question 2. How have the countries adapted the contemporary planning

techniques to suit their conditions?

In answering this question, the researcher analyzed the policy documents for each

country. The following information was revealed.

In the case of Uganda, participatory planning was modified in three ways: (1)

the use of subcommittees, (2) discussions with people's representatives, and (3)

memoranda received fkom several institutions, individuals and groups of individuals.

"The commission began its work by setting up ten sub-committees for appropriate in-

depth study of the relevant sectors of education. Apart fiom the members of the

commission, 16 individuals were co-opted to work on these sub-committees" (MOE

Kampala 1989, p. iii). This apparently was intended to address the problem of

i n ~ ~ c i e n t data about the particular aspects of the educational system. Furthermore,

participation was achieved through involvement of people's representatives: "the

report was thoroughly debated by cabinet and further changes and enrichment carried

out" (Uganda 1992, p. xii). Finally, the Education Policy Review Commission

(EPRC) received contributions fiom the public on a wide variety of issues pertaining

54

to education in the country: "The methods used to solicit information and data

included memoranda fiom the general public------------- "; and appendix 5 shows a list

of persons and organizations (496 of them) that submitted memoranda and resource

papers to the EPRC (MOE Kampala 1989, p. 179).

As far as strategic planning is concerned, Uganda's education policies cover

the entire educational system with guidelines on what could be done, when and how

in relation to the enhancement of "Education for National Integration and

Development" which apparently is the mission statement. The approach in Uganda,

however, slightly differs fiom the theory reviewed in chapter two in a way that

strategic planning was applied at the entire educational system level other than at the

institutional level as the theory suggests. Furthermore, Uganda's education policy

document has an implementation strategy immediately following each

recommendation. This is part of strategic planning. The document finally addresses

the issue of plan monitoring and evaluation, but from the point of view of establishing

such mechanisms: ". . . .government has decided that in order to enhance the process of

planning for the resources required and implementing the new educational policy, and

to monitor closely and effectively that continuous process, the minister of education

and sports will establish a planning and monitoring committee. . . .."(Uganda 1992, p.

In addition, "The committee will be a standing committee and it will ensure that

every five years there is a comprehensive review of the progress in the

implementation of the new policy and all the major plans related to the educational

system in this country" (Uganda 1992, p. 223).

5s

As regards micro planning, the adaptation Uganda made was to apply it at the

sub sector level as indicated above. The traditional project approach was only

recommended for adoption in fbture educational planning: ". . . . . . . . .it is essential to

follow the various discrete stages of the traditional prograndproject

cycle. . . . . . . . . ..identification and preparation; appraisal; negotiation; procurement of

funds; implementation, disbursement and; evaluationy' (MOE Kampala 1 989, p. 1 67).

This was taken up by the White Paper committee and recommended for immediate

implementation through establishment of a directorate of project implementation

(Uganda 1992, p. 226).

Tuming to Tanzania, participatory planning to them involved conducting

seminars, and holding discussions and meetings with various stakeholders. The

process started in February 1993 with the setting up of a policy drafting committee

consisting of 16 members. In September 1993 an internal seminar was held in Dar es

Salaam, the capital, with all directors of education and later in Morogoro with 60

representatives of the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC), Ministry of

Science Technology and Higher Education (MSTHE), other ministries, agency

officials, and one representative of the University of Dar es Salaam. Finally, a

reworked draft was presented at a number of meetings with key stakeholders in the

education sector: headmasters, principals, regional education officers and district

education officers (Buchert 1997). This process to a large extent, conforms to the

theory of participatory planning advanced in chapter two.

As regards strategic planning, Tanzania, like the other countries applied

strategic planning at the entire educational system level. As noted above, a mission

56

statement was generated for the entire educational system followed by policies to

guide action in the direction of the identified needs, though the document left out

implementation strategies. Application of strategic planning at the highest level - the

entire educational system - could have resulted from lack of planners at each

educational institution, lack of detailed data and lack of autonomy at the educational

institutions.

Lastly, micro planning in Tanzania was applied at the educational sub sector

level instead of project by project. This, apparently is program planning. The use of

program planning instead of project planning could also be attributed to the lack of

trained and skilled educational project planners.

Kenya, like Uganda and Tanzania adopted participatory planning by obtaining

views fiom and holding discussions with government ministers, members of

parliament, educationists, and the general public. As quoted in the answer to question

l(a), the committee solicited people's views through interviews, discussions and

onsite observation. In a way this method conforms to the theory of participatory

planning reviewed in chapter two. Note, however, that students as a separate group

were not mentioned as having contributed to the policy making exercise, though they

could be assumed to be part of the "general public". In the policy document there is

evidence that the working party received some input fiom the public: "The working

party received submissions on the. .. . . ..."; "The working party received submissions

fiom the general public indicating overwhelming acceptance of the aims and

objectives of the curriculum" (Kenya 1988, pp. 17 & 3 1 ). This implies that the public

was given a chance to propose alternative plans and that is participatory planning

according to Mayer (1 985).

As regards strategic planning, Kenya also differed fiom the theory identified

in chapter two. The Presidential working party examined all aspects of the entire

educational system fiom pre-primary up to university including examinations,

curriculum design, educational management, etc. Policy guidelines were then

developed for action. Apparently all the policies are tailored to the mission statement

- an aspect of strategic planning. Note, however, that Kenya like Tanzania and

Uganda applied strategic planning at the entire educational system level, instead of

applying it at the institutional level as Saint (1992) suggests. It is possible that this is

due to lack of planners at the institutional level, lack of autonomy in educational

institutions, or perhaps the document the researcher obtained was for the entire

educational system yet financial, time and accessibility limitations could not allow for

other documents to be obtained.

Finally, Kenya's micro planning also differed fiom the micro planning

identified in chapter two. This was similar to the way Uganda and Tanzania

undertook micro planning at the sub-sector level other than the project by project

approach. It is important to note, however, that there is some evidence to suggest that

educational project management exists. For example, in the development plan 1994-

96, it is indicated that most of the projects are harambee (therefore private) projects,

perhaps that is why they were not mentioned in the education policy document:

"Harambee continues to be an important self-help movement in social and economic

development. The movement has been responsible for the mobilization of large

5 8

quantities of capital development resources, and continues to place greater emphasis

on social development projects like education.. . . . . . . ." (Kenya 1994, p. 250). There is

even an example of a foreign-fbnded project in education - the Education Assessment

and Resource Services (EARS) project (Kenya 1994, p. 21 8). The implication is that

it is possible that project planning as a method of educational planning is being

applied in Kenya, but the current study was based on a policy document for the entire

educational system that is why it did not show much evidence of the project method.

The document instead took a sub-sector approach and covered the entire educational

system.

Question 3. How does the Western World influence educational planning

technology transfer to the East African countries?

The Western World's influence in the third world is basically through financial

assistance administered by institutions like the World Bank, UNDP, UNICEF, SIDA,

etc. These agencies have played an important role in educational financing in the third

world following the economic hardships that resulted in budgetary cutbacks. In regard

to influencing educational technology transfer, the following information was

revealed by the documents the researcher analyzed.

The EPRC 1989 acknowledged that: "donor agencies have provided not only

financial assistance but also technical and material assistance for different levels and

types of education. Among the important donor agencies are World Bank, UNESCO,

UNICEF, UNDP, WHO, USAID, Rockfeller Foundation, FAO, etc" (MOE Kampala

1989, p. 166). The White Paper also acknowledged the role of external assistance:

"International aid has played an important role in financing some education projects

59

in Uganda in the past, and it is expected to continue playing a constructive

role.. . . . . . . .". Furthermore, they also pointed out that: "In education, assistance fiom

the World Bank, the African Development Bank and other donors has also helped in

improving the ini'iastructure and providing some essential equipment, textbooks etc in

schoolsy' (Uganda 1992, p. 225).

. The committee, however, identified a problem: "there is an urgent need for

adequate measures to streamline the processing, administration and control of foreign

aid so that precious foreign exchange resources are not misused or wasted". It is then

on the basis of this that the committee recommended the establishment of "A strong

project identification, preparation, implementation and management unit.. . . . . ." and

"multilateral donors should be requested to help Uganda increase her capacity for

sectoral planning, project identification, preparation.. . . . . . . ." and finally, "after

preparing detailed projects for the education sector and the training needs,

Government should explore the possibilities of assistance from various donor

agencies for technical assistance" (Uganda 1 992, p. 226).

By implication, the above suggests that Uganda adopted the project planning

approach as a way of soliciting financial and technical assistance fiom the donors.

This constitutes evidence of the flow of educational planning technology fiom the

West to Uganda as a way to enhance the flow of external assistance. The White Paper

even categorically stated that "The unit (project management) will also constantly

endeavor to arouse the sensitivity of the donor community to the development needs

of Uganda so that all the projects they support are adequately and effectively related

to those needs" (Uganda 1992, p. 227).

Tuming to Tanzania, there is evidence of foreign influence in educational

planning and directing educational policy with the World Bank as the key player.

This supports the observation by Samoff (1994) that Tanzania displays a pattern of

%om World Bank to World Bank". At the time of independence in 1961, the World

Bank was a key player in directing educational policy in Tanzania Between 1967 and

the late 19809, it was dropped following the president's (Julius Nyerere)

pronouncements of "Education for Self-reliance". However, starting fiom the early

1990s, the World Bank returned to Tanzania, directing the future of education.

According to Buchert (1997) the World Bank's entry point is through the Ministry of

Finance, the Planning Commission and the Prime Minister's Office in order to settle

the borrowing conditions for specific projects. This normally follows discussions with

the line ministry - the Ministry of Education and Culture (Buchert 1997, p. 45).

As far as foreign influence is concerned, it is important to note that the

Education and Training Policy document did not include information on international

cooperation in education. However, Buchert (1997) pointed out that "The impact of

international aid agencies on policy formulation and implementation is partly exerted

directly by themselves and partly indirectly in their use of a wide range of co-

operating ministerial partners". Furthennore, "the specific entry point is ofien

predetermined by the nature of the assistance (loans versus grants) or how

bureaucratic procedures are perceived to be working most smoothly and effectively

by the individual agency seen in relation to the individual project" (Buchert 1997, p.

45).

There is also evidence to show that the Education and Training Policy

document was produced because of an internally felt need by the Tanzanian

government and agency pressure. "Pressure was due to the fact that some of the

national agencies found it untenable to provide assistance without an explicit policy

b e w o r k to determine the direction of aid, while in other cases it was impossible

for agencies to increase the amount of aid and move toward sector program support

without a policy to guide such work"@uchert 1997, p. 46). Finally, "the World Bank

provided comments fiom their headquarters------ which helped to sharpen the

thinking in the policy document"; and above all "during 1994 and 1995, the World

Bank held a number of education seminars in Africa and in Washington for key

Tanzanian educators which had a direct impact on Government thinking on

education" (Buchert 1997, pp. 50-2).

The implication of the above findings is that the necessary condition for

receiving aid is that the country draws her educational plans, and the suflicient

condition is that such a country uses the techniques that are more palatable to the

donor. In other words to ensure that a country gets foreign assistance, it should not

only produce a plan but also use the planning technology recommended by the

intending donors. This then constitutes a form of technology transfer tied to aid.

Kenya finally did not mention anything about intemational cooperation in

education in her education policy document. The only point where there is some

evidence of international involvement in education is in the Development Plan 1994-

96 where it is mentioned that "possibilities will be explored to strengthen and

enhance the capacity of school inspection and supervision and collaborate closely

62

with donor agencies in education" (Kenya 1994, p. 2 18). The statement, however,

does not contribute much to the current study.

4.3 Other findings from the study.

The study came up with some other interesting findings about educational policy in

East Africa. The following are worth mentioning.

All the three East African countries are moving toward decentralization of

management in their educational systems. Kenya has already taken measures to

implement decentralization. "The district focus strategy for development has resulted

in the District Education Officers assuming greater responsibility for the management

and administration of all education services in their respective districts" (Kenya 1988,

p. 1 06). In Tanzania, decentralization was recommended by the working party.

"Ministries responsible for education and training shall devolve their responsibilities

of management and administration of education and training to lower organs and

communities" (MOEC 1 995, p. 26). Similarly, Uganda's policy document has

decentralization of educational administration as one of its recommendations, "As

regards the administration of educational services, the commission has favored

decentralization and devolution of power to district and local authorities to enable

them to run the schools more efficiently and to plan for educational development

according to their local needs" (MOE Kampala 1989, p. 2 1).

As regards educational financing, the three East African countries are in favor

of encouraging partnerships. In the case of Uganda, government policy is to share the

financial burden with the communities. "It is estimated that the total development

63

expenditure in phase one (1992/93-1996/97) will be about Shs. 264 billion, of which

one-sixth (Shs 53 billion) will be borne by government and the rest (Shs 21 1 billion)

by the community" (Uganda 1992, p. 2 1 7). In Kenya similarly, educational financing

is to be shared. "---- in order to maintain development and expansion of education

and training, there will be need to sustain and enhance existing partnership between

the government, communities, parents, individuals and organizations in the financing

of education and training" (Kenya 1992, p.15). In Tanzania, the trend is not very

different: "Financing and training shall be shared between government, communities,

parents and end-users" (MOEC 1995, p. 1 16).

Tuming to the process of educational policy planning, Kenya recommended

establishment of a National Advisory Council on education in place of commissions

to review education policies on a continuous basis (Kenya 1988, p. 116). In Uganda,

the EPRC observed that "the work of the planing unit has suffered from undue

political interference, shortage of qualified staff and lack of funds" (MOE Kampala

1989, p.128). In this regard, the White Paper committee recommended a

computerized system for efficient storage and retrieval of statistical information.

4.4 Summary

The study yielded the following findings.

(1) There is evidence to show that the three East Ahican countries have adopted the

contemporary approaches in educational planning.

(2) The three East African countries adopted the cellular structure model of

participation in educational planning, though students were not involved. Strategic

64

planning was adapted by applying it at the entire educational system level instead of

at the institutional level; while micro planning was applied at the sub-sector level

instead of the project level.

(3) There is evidence to show that there is foreign influence on educational planning

in East Africa. More specifically, there is evidence to show that if East African

countries are to receive aid, they must have their educational plans clearly laid out,

and it is more desirable by the donors that the countries employ the educational

planning techniques fkom the West.

(4) Finally, the study also revealed that East Africa is tending toward decentralization

in educational management; encouraging partnerships in educational financing and

strengthening the educational policy planning process.

C W T E R FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMFNDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter elaborates on the findings in chapter four with a view to establish their

implications so as to make recommendations for the process of educational planning

in East Afiica.

5.2 Discussion of key fbdings

The questions the researcher set out to answer were:

(1) Have the three East African countries adopted the contemporary approaches

(participatory, strategic and micro planning) in their educational policy planning

processes?

(2) If the three East f i c a n countries have adopted the contemporary approaches to

educational policy planning how have they adapted them to the realities in East

Afiica?

(3) How does the Western World influence educational planning technology transfer

to the three East Afiican countries under study?

In reading the educational policy documents, additional interesting findings were

revealed. These were reported as "other interesting findings of the study" in chapter

four. The above questions were answered in turn and the findings are hereby

discussed.

Question 1. Have the three East African countries adopted the contemporary

approaches (participatory, strategic and micro-planning) in their educational policy

planning processes?

The three components of question 1 - participatory, strategic and micro

planning were investigated one at a time and the findings are hereby so discussed. As

far as participatory planning is concerned, there was evidence to show that all three

countries adopted this approach in making their educational plans. There was

evidence in all three cases of public involvement in policy planning. Specifically, the

documents indicate that cabinet ministers, members of parliament, district education

officers, headteachers, teachers and the general public were involved in one way or

the other. Note, however, that no document mentioned having received input of any

kind from the students, although these are the ultimate beneficiaries of the process.

In all the three cases participation was in the form of discussions,

consultations, brainstorming sessions and memoranda received fiom individuals and

groups of individuals. The method of participation conforms to the "cellular structure

model" which argues that planning must be a transactive process of mutual learning

in which individuals and planners, through continual dialogue translate their

respective perspectives into each other's and thereby achieve a fusion of personal and

processed knowledge that leads to a recognition of common interests (Mayer 1985).

It is important to note that the adoption of participatory planning made the

process of educational policy planning long and time consuming. For example, in the

case of Uganda, the White Paper constituted government's reaction to the

recommendations of the Education Policy Review Commission's report. While the

67

commission consulted several stakeholders, the White Paper committee also

consulted more or less the same stakeholders. This apparently made the process

complex and even expensive. Furthermore, the White Paper was only released in

1992 yet the EPRC report was completed in 1989. This is a very long time lag and

that is one of the disadvantages of participatory planning. In Tanzania, the process

started in February 1993 with the formation of a 16-member policy drafting

committee. The h a 1 product only came out 2 years later in March 1995 after several

seminars, presentations and discussions. Similarly, in Kenya, the "Working Party"

was appointed in August 1985 but the policy document came out in March 1988. This

lengthy process was identified by Mayer (1985) as one of the disadvantages of

participatory planning.

Turning to strategic planning, there was evidence that strategic planning was

also one of the approaches adopted in formulating educational policies in East Africa.

As indicated in chapter four, mission statements were generated, goals were set and

action plans were put in place. The processes ended in the plans (the documents)

which the researcher analyzed. According to Saint's (1992) characterization of a

strategic plan (the document) identified in chapter two, the documents analyzed do

not have all the requisite characteristics. Although the policy documents did integrate

educational quality, output mix, finances, curriculum, staff development, research,

access, governance and management, they are long with not less than 150

recommendations in each of them. Note, however, that they are readable and spell out

their objectives in operational terms. Furthermore, the documents demonstrate the

education sector's (not the institution's) ability to plan and manage its future and to

68

provide a basis for government and donor investment decisions. Finally, the

documents were produced after consultations with several stakeholders and the public

instead of solely the staff in an institution.

The major difference between the theory of strategic planning reviewed in

chapter two and the practice of strategic planning in East Afiica is that in East Africa,

strategic planning was applied at the educational system level instead of the

institutional level. This perhaps is due to lack of autonomy characteristic of

educational institutions in East Africa and lack of trained and qualified educational

policy planners as indicated in chapter two. According to Fmant & Lioudmilla

(1997) strategic planning is more successll if the institution is autonomous, if it can

manage its own affairs, and if it can determine both the ends and the means.

The third and last part of question 1 was to identify whether micro planning as

a planning technique has been adopted in East Africa. According to the documents

the researcher analyzed, there was evidence of using micro planning in all three cases.

As indicated in chapter one, micro planning embraces both project and program

planning, with the latter comprising of a series of planned activities and having a

broader scope than the former. Project planning is therefore at a more detailed level

than program planning.

Evidence From the documents analyzed indicates that micro planning was

adopted but only up to the level of program planning. The policy planning

committees examined the entire educational system in their respective countries sub

sector by sub sector. Objectives were identified and action plans laid out, followed by

implementation strategies, for example in Uganda. This apparently is program

69

planning since, according to Magnen (1991), the domain of activity of a program can

be an entire sector (for example education), or a sub sector (for example primary

education), or a major function of the system (for example school curricula).

It is important to note that in the three cases there are some indications of the

adoption of project planning when the recommendations in the policy documents are

implemented. For example, in Uganda the White Paper recommended "a strong"

project management unit as part of the reorganization in the Ministry of Education.

On the side of Tanzania, Samoff (1994) observed that in the 1990s educational

planning in Tanzania has increasingly taken the form of marketing projects to

external assistance agencies and that those agencies have consequently become more

influential voices in setting the educational agenda. This in itself is an indication of

project planning though the document does not give the details of the planning

process and of the various projects in the education sector.

Question 2. If the three East African countries have adopted the contemporary

approaches to educational policy planning how have they adapted them to the realities

in East Afica?

This question was analyzed on the basis of the individual countries, that is, how each

country has adapted contemporary approaches to educational planning. Results

indicated that in the three countries, participatory planning involved use of the

cellular structure model, though students were left out, and sub-committees were set

up for in-depth study of particular aspects of the educational systems in each of the

countries. It is possible that participation was easily adopted in East Africa because of

the peculiar conditions mentioned in chapter two, for example, different perceptions

70

on the role of education, lack of adequate data and the fact that several organizations

are today providing educational services, hence breaking government monopoly.

Furthermore, it is possible that the students were not involved as a separate group in

all the three cases because of the authoritarianism that still prevails in African

education and indeed in all spheres of life. Samoff (1994, p. 109) observed that

"classrooms in Tanzania (as in most of Africa) remain authoritarian, hierarchical and

teacher-centered, with relatively few student-initiated activities and little tolerance for

dissent and deviation". Unless this practice, which was introduced by the colonialists,

is discarded it might be difficult to achieve full participation in planning including the

students who are the ultimate beneficiaries of the policies.

In the area of strategic planning, all three countries adopted it in formulating

their educational policies. They differed, however, fiom the theory advanced in

chapter 2, by taking the entire educational system approach instead of the institutional

approach according to Farrant & Lioudmilla (1997). Explanations for this may not be

very different fiom the "peculiar conditions" in East Afiica. The high graduate

unemployment which necessitates curricula reforms instead of planning at the

institutional level, the lack of trained planners to plan at the institutional level,

inconsistency between programs and objectives, and the financial and economic crisis

that has resulted in educationd underfunding all limit the adoption of strategic

planning at the institutional level. Furthermore, apathy on the part of academic staff,

and lack of autonomy may account for the limitation of strategic planning to the

education sector level instead of the institutional level.

Finally, there was evidence that the three East African countries adopted

micro planning in their policy planning processes. The adaptation they made was to

apply it at the sub-sector level instead of the project level. More specifically, micro

planning in East Africa was applied in the form of program planning instead of

project planning. The use of micro planning at the program level could have been due

to lack of skilled personnel to carry out the project by project planning. Shortage of

staff was mentioned in Uganda's educational policy document as one of the problems

limiting the effectiveness of the planning unit. Secondly, the study was based on

documents that covered the entire educational system of each country. They could not

be detailed enough to the level of individual projects. The other aspect is that most of

the projects are privately funded. This could also explain their exclusion fiom the

government policy documents. Lastly, the Uganda education policy document

recommended use of the project approach, an indication that if the recommendation

was implemented the project method could be one of the approaches currently in use.

Question 3. How does the Western World influence educational planning

technology transfer to the three East African countries under study?

This third and last question called for an analysis of international cooperation in

education in the three countries. Results indicated that the three countries have

adopted the cellular structure model of participatory planning with minor

modification; they have adopted strategic planning but applied it at the entire

educational system level and they adopted micro planning but they applied it at the

sub sector level (program planning) instead of project planning. These three

approaches originate fiom the West and since they have been adopted in East Africa,

72

their adoption constitutes educational planning technology transfer and as indicated,

technology transfer is part of aid. Although foreign aid helps to close the gap between

what is desirable and what is feasible in educational financing, it has several

disadvantages.

Implications of foreign aid.

One important effect of dependency on external assistance in educational

financing is that it leads to changes in power and control over policy decisions. In

Costa Rica, Senegal and Tanzania, dependency on foreign funding in education has

affected education priorities and policies and has led to a considerable effect on the

way those policies are determined (Woodhall 1994, p. 1 90). Camoy & Torres (1 992)

argue that massive external aid from bilateral and multilateral sources has made Costa

Rica more dependent on foreign expertise in the design of its policies and that the

lack of a strong domestic capability in research and policy analysis means that

accountability and power have shifted.

Dependency on foreign aid also leads to unbalanced growth within and

between sectors and even between and within educational institutions. For example,

at the University of Dar es Sadam in Tanzania, some departments receive substantial

foreign funding and consequently have modem equipment, adequate stationery and

supplies and opportunities for their students and staff to travel and study overseas

(Sarnoff & Sumra 1994). Departments that have proved to be less attractive to

external agencies must operate within the university budget which results in

dramatically inadequate equipment and supplies. Provision of sectoral support that is

increasingly being favored by most donor agencies intensifies and compounds

external influence in education.

Lastly, although foreign assistance is usually organized and administered by

officials with hctional responsibilities (for example, educators) it is usually

negotiated and formally transferred through ministries of finance. Often no individual

or office knows exactly how much has been received for a specific purpose (Samoff

& Sumra 1994). There is therefore a problem of accountability.

The study revealed that in Uganda and Tanzania, the policy documents did not

include individual projects, instead they looked at programs. The documents,

however, strongly recommended the adoption of the project approach as a necessary

condition for better planning, and as a sufficient condition for receiving external

funding which the countries badly need. By implication the three countries have

adopted the foreign planning technology in order to facilitate easy procurement of

funds for educational development. For example, in Uganda, the EPRC noted that

there was a need to review the entire "aid management cycle" with a view to

eliminating obstacles and to smoothening the flow of resources from multilateral

agencies to Uganda. It was on that background that the commission recommended the

traditional "program/project cycle". The Kenya educational policy document did not

include international cooperation in education, but the researcher's personal

knowledge is that the country receives aid. As to whether this in a way affects the

planning process cannot be analyzed based on intuition.

Note, however, that although the three countries have adopted the

contemporary approaches to educational planning - a form of technology transfer

74

from the center to the periphery - they have modified this technology to suit their

conditions. This is in consonance with Lourie's (1995) view that an educational

strategy must be rooted in an overall knowledge of the complex present day situation

which often carries within it the embryo of future trends. Furthermore, Farrant &

Lioudmilla (1997) argue that any attempt to treat management science as a

mechanical transfer of technology is bound to fail unless that technology is

fundamentally revised.

Other fmdings

Finally, the "other findings" of the study are worth discussing. The finding that the

three countries are tending toward decentralization in educational management is a

sign of better management. Taking decision-making nearer to the final point of policy

implementation not only reduces bureaucracy but also facilitates participation of

several stakeholders. In the words of Lynch & Tason (1984, p.338) the advantages of

decentralization and regionalization include increased recognition of cultures and

local needs, more equal access to education, more participation in planning by

professionals and lay people, and more recognition of variance in the political

process. Encouragement of partnerships in educational financing is expected to

improve the financing of education that has been hit hard by the financial crisis. It is

important to note, however, that although the private sector with which partnerships

are being developed is not in the best financial position, it is a good starting point that

is expected to become increasingly important as the economy improves. This might

facilitate better educational financing, other than depending on government done. As

we encourage partemships in educational financing, the educational sector should

75

also find ways of generating some money. Whether at the individual institutional

level or at the ministry level, money generating projects should be initiated. Efficient

management, however, is key to the success of such ventures. Lastly the findings

about improving the policy planning activities in the region indicate that there is

awareness of the existence of the problems and of a need for action. The only

hindrance is lack of h d s to train people in the appropriate areas of educational

project management and evaluation.

5.3 Conclusions

From the above discussions, the following conclusions were drawn.

(1) (a) The three East Afican countries have adopted the cellular structure model of

participatory planning. They are, however, experiencing its associated problem of the

long and winding nature of the process, making it expensive and time consuming.

(b) The three East African countries have adopted strategic planning in educational

policy planning.

(c) There was evidence that the three East African countries have adopted micro

planning in their educational policy planning activities.

(2) (a) The three countries under study adapted participatory planning by using

several sub committees for in-depth study of the different sub sectors of their

educational systems; involvement of several stakeholders; while leaving out the

student body.

(b) The countries studied adapted strategic planning by applying it at the entire

educational system level instead of at the educational institution level as the theory

suggests.

(c) The countries studied have adapted micro planning by applying it at the sub-sector

level (program planning) and not the project level. There is however evidence that in

future a project by project planning approach is to be adopted since the documents

strongly recommended so. Furthermore, there is also evidence to show that the

documents that the researcher analyzed were not detailed enough to include

individual project profiles.

(3) There was evidence to show that the East African countries have adopted foreign

planning technology. Furthermore, the transfer of technology is in one way or the

other tied to aid fiom the Western World. The East African countries studied adopted

the foreign technology in order to improve their educational planning and to facilitate

the inflow of aid fiom the donor community.

Lastly, the study revealed that the three countries studied are tending toward

decentralization in educational management, encouraging partnerships in educational

financing and improving the process of educational policy planning.

5.4 Personal and professional insights

In most cases what is written down on paper is not what is actually put in

practice. In many African countries, just like any other third world country, factors

such as political instability which leads to abrupt changes in leadership at the

Ministry of Education, economic and financial constraints which lead to foreign

77

dependency, and lack of political commitment to the reform render educational

planning a business of the planning service. There is yet a problem of policies not

being backed up by research findings fiom the field. This then calls for action-

research in order to enhance full actualization of the planning process. Sippanondha

(1985) argues that without adequate research data, policy and program choices are

likely to be over-influenced by ad hoc intuition, traditional conventions, and

subjective judgements. Action-research not only renders some tacit professional

knowledge obsolete but it also helps to replenish the store available to the

practitioner.

5.5 Recommendations

From the above conclusions, the researcher came up with the following

recommendations.

(1) The process of educational policy planning should be structured in such a way as

to involve the students since they are the ultimate beneficiaries of the policies being

made.

(2) Strategic planning should be pushed to the institutional level, at least at the

universities and other institutions of higher learning. The governments in the three

countries studied should grant fiscal autonomy to such institutions in order to

facilitate strategic planning.

(3) Project planning should be adopted in order to facilitate government, private

sector and donor agency fhding in education. To achieve this, indigenous manpower

should be trained in educational project management and evaluation.

78

(4) Imported educational planning technology should be radically revised to make it

suitable to the realities in East Afiica.

(5) Statistical and other types of data on the educational systems should be collected

consistently and mechanisms for storage and easy retrieval of such information

should be put in place through, for example, computerization. This will facilitate

better policy planning.

(6) The local illiterate peasants deep in the villages should be consulted in educational

policy formulation instead of involving only the literate urban population in the

process.

(7) Technology transfer fiom the West should be encouraged as it will facilitate the

flow of the much-needed aid and at the same time enhance better policy planning in

East Africa.

(8) In Tanzania, and Kenya, the financial implications of the policies should be

included in the policy documents and sources of funding indicated. This is important

for implementation since almost all policies in one way or the other have their

financial implications. Furthermore, Kenya and Tanzania should borrow a leaf from

Uganda by integrating the implementation strategies in their educational policy

documents.

5.6 Implications for further research

The study was conducted fiom Canada and based on written documents about the

educational policy planning process in East Africa. The researcher did not conduct

any interviews with those involved in the process to Ieam their views and experiences

79

on the process. There is therefore a need to build up on this study, by including

interviews with the policy makers who are involved in the process of educational

policy planning in each of the three East AfXcan countries before conclusive findings

can be established.

5.7 Summary

The study focused on the process of educational policy planning in East Africa

(Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda). Specifically, the study was interested in educational

planning technology transfer fiom the Western World to East Africa. Findings

indicated that East Africa has responded to the move away fiom the macro to the

micro oriented educational planning techniques being advocated the world over. This

has been achieved partly as a way of improving the process of educational planning

and partly as a way of facilitating the smooth flow of aid from the Western donor

agencies to East Africa. Further research is, however, needed in this area to build a

comprehensive data base for policy analysis.

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