Learning Outcomes • Ability to articulate aims, objectives and research
question that guide the study
• Show evidence : Understanding theories and recent
empirical studies in the field the proposed study is to
be conducted.
• Demonstrate knowledge in documenting cited
sources to avoid plagiarism
Cont. • Demonstrate clear understanding of methods
(including data sources, research instruments and
methods of analysis) selected to respond to the
purpose, objectives and key research
questions/hypothesis outlined in the study?
• Originality and significance for consideration at the
Ph.D level of study
What is research?
• It’s an investigation undertaken to discover new
facts
• Process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic inquiry
• Scientific and empirical study of relationships among variables
• systematic inquiry contributing to the advancement of knowledge
Sources of Research Topics
• Researchers interests, knowledge, observations and problems.
• Challenges in professional practice
• Readings
• Interactions with researchers, experts
• current issues
• Funds available (sponsored area)
A legitimate research topic
• Of interest to researcher and category or
group/field of study
• Trustworthy sources of literature; examined and
appraised by experts in the field.
• Regionally permissible/pragmatic ; proposed geographical is practical
Types of research problems
(i) Conceptual
• Research problems are based on perception or
frame of reference researchers uses to view social
world ( differing views)
• The view influences planning, literature review &
methods
• Conceptual research is common in social sciences;
Provides deeper understanding of the phenomenon
(ii) Practical Research • Findings used to develop products,
• Common in business or pure sciences academic
fields such as health and engineering
• Involves experiments, observation and
measurements in controlled environments
(iii) Applied Research • Carried out by professionals (doctors, teachers, and
engineers’)
• Collected information aimed at solving a given
problem
• Data used to make conclusions that produce
decisions to be implemented
• Has high level of uptake as practitioners are
involved at all stages
Importance of literature Determines what exists to avoid duplication,
Provides a framework to interpret findings
Enhances reader’s confidence in the researcher
Demonstrate familiarity with existing knowledge
Researcher benefits from experiences of other
researchers (strategies, procedures and
instruments
Helps to identify gaps in past studies
Literature sources • Theses and dissertations
• Papers presented in conferences
• Supplementary library materials (government
documents)
• Periodicals: journals, magazines
• Text books to enhance theoretical support
The Internet sources
• Google scholar: Web data bases eg Eric for
Education
• Use keywords to search for relevant literature
• Expand/limit search guided by available resources
either by regions, years or synonyms
Writing Theoretical Paper
• Introduction- introduce the topic and indicate
which aspects of it you intend to tackle and which
ones fall outside the scope.
• Body-It takes up 80-90% of the paper. It develops
the main ideas supporting them with evidence.
• (I)Structure – it should be simple and clear, with
logical subheads broken into paragraphs in a
united coherent manner.
Cont. • (II)Argument- Logical arguments with conclusions
emanating from preceding statements.
• (III) Reasons (why) for proposing the view; relevant,
adequate evidence for or against to avoid bias.
Ensure that matters of facts are not distorted.
• Conclusion; make the reader feel what you set to
do have been accomplished; summarizes the
argument
Cont. • Your paper should demonstrate ability to research
the topic, think creatively and evaluative existing
knowledge, structure arguments and provide
sources. o Observe principles of compiling; formatting of standard academic work;
Level titles
• Apply proper style of acknowledging sources, APA,
Chicago Manual or Turabian
Task 1 1. Select a topic of your choice
2. Review three journal papers
3. Make a summary
4. Develop a rationale for the paper you intend to
write; highlight the gaps you intend to fill
Parts of Research Report Chapter one
i. Title
ii. Background
iii. Statement
iv.Objectives
v. Hypotheses /Research Qs
vi.Conceptual Framework
(i) Title Title: Topic Should be comprehensive, specific,
regionally permissible spelling out variables under
study
Not too wordy 10-12 for journal papers
18-22 for research reports
Addressing a significant problem defying solutions
Exercise: Identify Independent & Dependent
variables in a title
Background of the study
The background comprises of literature that puts
the study in context of others
Check out for other studies on same subject that
brings insights on magnitude of problem
It demonstrates scholarly crediting of earlier
studies
Providing history of the phenomenon
It gives readers a framework understanding the
study
It indicates gaps in existing studies
Format of background Two approaches:
(i) General to specific- world-Region-National- target
population
Problem Statement • An explicit statement of specific task to be
undertaken :magnitude of the problem based on
evidence(citations)
• Possible consequences
• Explicit for a variety of audience
• Related to objectives, hypothesis or research
questions.
Statement Format • Section (i)- Importance of the phenomenon under
study (Evidence)
• Section (ii)- Current situation and likely
consequences (documented source)
Section (iii)- Intentions of current study
• Half to 2/3 of a page is adequate
• Extensive write up makes statement to loose focus
Objectives Research objectives: a list of aims to indicate the
purpose of the research. The main objective
provides a broad indication of the purpose which
is further broken into precise statements of intent.
Specific objectives describe activities which the
researcher intends to undertake. Objectives use
verbs such as “To find out …..” “To investigate
……….” ‘To determine ……” “To explore…….” “To
examine ……….
Objectives • Objectives mark its scope-Specific areas being
addressed
• 4-6 objectives are adequate
• Objectives guides the study: formulation RQs or
hypotheses, conceptual framework, main literature
titles, & areas of focus in data collection and
analysis (study drivers)
Cont. • Objectives describe an academic process or a task
to be performed.
• They predetermine the data needed to establish
the aims
• Determines suitable design and instruments of data
collection.
• The objectives help the researcher to select
relevant literature
Hypotheses • Testable prepositions in predicting relationship
between variables. An assumption testing logical or
empirical consequences to be accepted or
rejected through data analysis
• A good hypothesis requires thorough literature
review, experience and expertise knowledge.
Alternative hypotheses • Symbol H1.
• Shows expected relationship between variables
e.g.
• H1: Job satisfaction is determined by level of
motivation.
• H2: There is significance difference between
individual success in life and their level of
education.
Null hypotheses • Symbolized as H0
• Indicate No relationship between variables.
• H0: 1There is no relationship between job
satisfaction and motivation level.
• H0: 2 There is no significant difference between
individual success in life and their level of
education.
Conceptual Framework • Concepts express generalization from particulars.
Reflects the image researcher holds of the
phenomenon under study
• Visual expression of relationships between
independent and dependent variables
• Need to explain independent variable relates to the
dependent variable (phenomenon under study)
Chapter Two Relevant guided by study objectives
• Introduction
• Explanation of concept
• Main titles derived from: objective (i), (ii), (iii) & (iv)
• Summary helps to identify gaps
Acknowledging Sources (i) Reference style: Author surname, Other names/
initials. year. Title. Place of Publication: Publisher
e.g.
Oliver, P. (2006). Writing Your Thesis. London: SAGE
PUBLICATIONS.
Reference list • Shorter, A. & Onyancha, (1997). Secularism in
Africa; A case of Nairobi city. Nairobi: Paulines Publications.
• Steinberg, L. (1991). Adolescence. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Stephen, J. Ling L., Burman, E., & Cooper, M. (1998).
Values in Education.
London: Routledge.
Citing sources in text • The past few years have seen immoral behaviour
among pupils become an almost daily occurrence
in Kiambu district. Such includes alcohol and
substance abuse, transactional sex, stealing,
disobeying school rules, and use of vulgar
language among others (Shorter and Onyancha,
1997).
(ii) Bibliography Style • Placing a superscript number at the end of a
sentence.
• Notes provided at the bottom of page (footnotes),
or a list at the end of the paper/chapter (Endnotes)
Note: 1Paul Oliver, Writing Your Thesis. (London: SAGE
PUBLICATIONS, (2006), p50.
Citing Sources in Text • The past few years have seen immoral behaviour
among pupils become an almost daily occurrence
in Kiambu district. Such includes alcohol and
substance abuse, transactional sex, stealing,
disobeying school rules, and use of vulgar
language among others1
Guarding Against Plagiarism?
• Means stealing words, ideas, or work that rightfully
belong to others, presenting them as our own.
• Plagiarism is unauthorized use or imitation of ideas
or thoughts of other authors without acknowledging
Mugenda (2008).
• Plagiarized is treated as cheating in exams.
Sentences copied directly should be in quotation
marks.
Detecting Plagiarism • Complete paragraphs with no sources
• Copy –pasting instead of paraphrasing
• Cited sources not appearing in References or
Bibliography
• Inadequate recent Sources of literature
• Passive sponge approach quotation after the other
without synthesis
NB. Computer programmes are available
Chapter Three Methods: Demonstrates Knowledge of Research
Designs-:
Survey involves gathering information from members
of a large group
Surveys mainly adopt Questionnaires either mailed,
face to face or telephone
• Case Study is an intensive or in-depth exploration of
single case, social unit e.g.
Cont. • A group, community, institution, program, a person
or document.
• Causal comparative investigates effects of
independent variable on the dependent variable.
Independent variable is manipulated and
observations made on its effect on the dependent
variables (s).
• Co relational Research (Causal)program
Cont. • It attempts to determine whether and to what
extent relationship exists between variables.
• Its aim is to use relationship to make predictions
about a given phenomenon
Cont. • Pure experimental involves random sampling where
subject do not know their groups. Randomization
makes groups equal with some characteristics e.g.
in schools or different geographical regions. It uses
two groups (experimental and control group).
Describing Methods Design, sampling techniques and instruments for data
collection and analysis
(i) Theory- Need to explain what research books say
about proposed methods and
(ii) Practice: why the researcher consider methods or
techniques to be appropriate and what they hope
to achieve
Research instruments • Questionnaires: A method of data collection which
employs a list of questions to be responded to by
the subjects.
• The respondents type or written response to each
item in the questionnaire
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
• Simple and clear language for easy understanding
• Framed in a way that require specific information
• Precise and brief
• Questions should not be leading i.e. objective
• Information collected be easy to interpret
Cont. • Interview schedule: A list of questions is presented to
respondents orally to provide responses through
face to face or telephone interaction. It is based on
the view that people are more willing to talk than
write.
• Document analysis schedule: examination of
records like reports, registers, and books of
accounts, minutes of meetings diaries &recording
Cont • Observation schedule: Data collection on non-
verbal information in natural setting
• The structure defines specific data to be collected.
Data Analysis • This section Presents data using relevant techniques
(qualitative or quantitative)
• Data is analyzed according to research objectives
at 3 levels:
• Presentation- figures, diagrams or verbatim
• Interpreting helps to make meaning by giving
examples,
• Discussion:comparing, contrasting or confirming
findings of related studies item by item.
Analysis of Quantitative Data
• Quantitative data is analyzed using numbers, mean,
mode, %, in tables, graphs and inferential statistics
• Qualitative data is analyzed by narrations in
quotation marks or block quotes
• NB. Avoid narrations without the voices from the
field