Educational TechnologyAuthor(s): John ClarkeSource: Mathematics in School, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Nov., 1971), pp. 30-31Published by: The Mathematical AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30210693 .

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Educational

technology by John Clarke

Educational technology is making an increasingly large impact in the classroom. In this regular feature, a team from Dundee College of Education will report on, and assess, these developments.

The late nineteen fifties and early sixties saw the development of an instructional technique which was to be hailed simultaneously by those holding extreme views as, on the one hand, the answer to many of the intractable problems facing teachers and, on the other, the greatest danger they had to meet. The technique, Programmed Learning, provided for a while the talking-point of many of the vogue features appearing in the press, both educational and general. Following over-zealous comment by enthusiastic but only partially informed commentators, Programmed Learning received little acclaim from the teaching profession. Presented usually in the form of teaching machines, which were seen to be intended as replace- ments for teachers rather than as aids, it became to many an object of derision. Production of programmes for use in general education, as opposed to vocational training, declined until today it is rare to read of the publication of any new series.

Notwithstanding this conspicuous lack of evident success in schools, Programmed Learning has had a considerable effect on the educational scene. Intuitive practices adopted by good teachers tended to be understood more explicitly and came to be stated as the principles underlying Programmed Learning. Slowly it was appreciated that, despite the emblazoned headlines, teaching machines alone never would teach anyone anything - the tool was not the machine but the programme, and some of these produced by enlightened teachers could greatly assist in the develop- ing process of centering the learning process on the child rather than the teacher.

Unfortunately, the damage had been done. Pro- grammed Learning had become synonomous with teaching machines and teaching machines implied replacement of teachers. In the eyes of the profession Programmed Learning was discredited and less and less was heard of its application in schools as the decade advanced. However, the principles on which the technique was based did receive increasing attention and became the basis for a new term which tended to get, at least from the educational press, similar vogue treatment to that given to Programmed Learning. This new concept was Educational Technology. No sooner

had it appeared than a host of interested educationists hastened to define it. The first attempts centred around the discrimination between the use of tech- nology in education (in effect the use of audio/visual aids) and a technology of education, i.e. an expression of principles designed to make the learning process more effective. These principles are basically an exten- sion of those which underlie Programmed Learning and Programmed Learning itself is now seen as an exemplar of the use of a technology of education.

To quote from a memorandum distributed by the National Council for Educational Technology, Educational Technology is understood as, "... the application of knowledge and techniques to the learning process as systematically as may be appropriate and possible in particular circumstances. The mechanical apparatus of education is merely a means to an end and does not in itself constitute Educational Technology."

It is important that such a definition be accepted by educationists for, quite explicitly, it places technology in education (i.e. audio/visual aids) where it belongs - as an aid to the improvement of a learning process. We must not have a repetition of events such as those surrounding the introduction of Programmed Learning whereby a demonstrably effective technique was all but rejected by the teaching profession because of bad publicity and a misunderstanding of its application. If Educational Technology passes through a similar cycle it will be to the detriment of the profession and the children in our charge.

The reader might well ask what all this has to do with mathematics for the subject has, as yet, received no mention. It could be considered that a new maga- zine for mathematics launched at this time must, in the main, repeat much that has gone before, for the revolu- tion in method, techniques and the subject matter itself has been underway for more than fifteen years. This could be so but a brief investigation of the

principles of Educational Technology will, I believe, reveal that much remains to be done, particularly in the matter of curriculum development.

Although there are many new approaches to the 30

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teaching of mathematics, how many of these are based on a truly scientific approach to the problems involved in the learning process? That the subject matter was in need of revision to be relevant to the technological age in which we live is without question. But what degree of attention was paid to the learning difficulties in the design of new courses? The depth of thought given to this latter aspect is at least open to question. It can be argued (and has been) that if a primary school teacher can read and interpret the Nuffield Mathematics Hand- books and, thereafter, implement a developmental course, she has no need of the books. This may be a far-fetched argument but at least it does hold a degree of truth. Nowhere are the learning objectives stated for such a course. What is it that the Nuffield Mathematics course is designed to do for children? No doubt we can say it will produce better mathematicians or, maybe, give children an interest in the subject. This is fine and truly a worthwhile set of aims but how can one assess successful achievement? What abilities were isolated and which exercises were designed to develop and nurture these in children so that they might be better equipped to think mathematically?

Lest the reader be misled into thinking that the aim of this article is to condemn the Nuffield approach to mathematics or, for that matter, any other modern approach, I state quite categorically that I have no such design in mind. The aim is rather to draw atten- tion to the lack of clearly stated objectives which would enable the teachers who are to implement such an approach to recognize successful and meaningful progress. This can only be so if the objectives are given as behavioural patterns to be expected from the children and measured for degrees of success as the children progress through the suggested activities.

Whilst a statement of objectives is noted as one significant element in the preparation of any course, there are five main principles on which Educational Technology is based and these will be explained briefly. First, the educational problem should be isolated, analysed and the objectives of the learning

process stated in behavioural terms. Note that, unlike most of our past practices, the outcome is to be stated in terms of the child's resultant behaviour. The aim is not to define the teacher's activities but the child's final ability. Our task, therefore, is to devise situations which will enable the child to achieve this end result.

Second, the most suitable media must be chosen through which the objectives might be achieved. It is this aspect which requires detailed knowledge of the audio/visual or other aids which are available. "Detailed knowledge" covers both an acquaintence with the aids themselves and also the psychological background knowledge which enables one to choose the most appropriate piece of equipment to achieve one's objectives.

Third, the course must be designed and empirically tested on a suitable set of children, including the ranges of ability and geographical spread required to meet its eventual distribution.

Fourth, the success of the exercise must be measured. This means that the measuring instruments must be prepared alongside the course of study. They will measure the success of past learning and, used as diagnostic instruments, control and suggest the future activities required to continue and/or improve the learning outcomes.

Fifth, as a result of the feedback gained from the children's progress through the work, the course is redesigned where necessary.

You will notice two main departures from past practices. As already stated, any learning activity so

designed places the accent on the child's activities rather than on those of the teacher. Second, the imperfections and lack of success in the process are considered to be the responsibility of the course designer and not due to an inherent inaptitude on the part of the child.

Worthwhile changes in educational practices usually take place over long periods of time, often ten to twenty years. The changes which occur in the next twenty years should be the result of the implementa- tion of Educational Technology. This is particularly true for the sciences for which structured courses with built-in measuring devices are relatively easy to devise. Other areas of learning concerned more with the development of attitudes, value judgements and critical faculties tend to receive much more subjective treat- ment and the principles of Educational Technology are consequently more difficult to apply.

Without doubt there are many experiments and developments taking place today which embody the principles discussed in this article. Such experimenta- tion could, in the future, provide the sources for further "Nuffields" and our hope is that this column might provide opportunity for lively discussion about innovatory mathematical practices and exchange of opinions. The principles outlined throughout this article may seem to be designed to inhibit progress, particularly to already overworked teachers. However, please do not be prevented from sending in a contribu- tion because your experiment has not passed through the rigorous procedures described. The principles of Educational Technology may seem to be a counsel of perfection -- indeed they are taken as a whole. Never- theless, even though difficult to achieve on the "shop floor" they do present us with a set of objectives, each of which, if attained, is bound to result in an improve- ment in the learning of mathematics.

We would like to have details about any of the itemized topics below and readers will immediately recognize that the list is by no means exhaustive. Our interest lies particularly in the design of activities intended to develop abilities for which there were stated objectives. If you are involved in any new approaches to the learning or teaching of mathematics in the junior or secondary schools and have advice on or opinions about Educational Technology to express, please forward your correspondence to J. A. R. Hughes, Director of National Curriculum Development Centre for Mathematics and Science, College of Education, Park Place, Dundee. We look forward to hearing from you on:

radio programmes specifically designed pieces of equipment

television programmes simulation games films - film loops filmstrips - slides

film cartridges tape/slide units overhead projectors computers - punched cards desk calculators flow charts networks slide rules nomograms CCTV programmed texts teaching machines setting up of Resource learning packages and

Centres study units cross reference systems topics

for mathematical the use of scientific relationships apparatus to develop

mathematical concepts Etc., etc., etc.

In an early issue of the magazine we hope to indicate how Educational Technology has been employed in Dundee in the design of an approach to Primary Mathematics.

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