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-: Leadership Styles :-Aleadership styleisaleader'sstyleofprovidingdirection,implementingplans,andmotivatingpeople.Differenttypesofleadershipstylesexistinworkenvironments.Advantagesanddisadvantagesexistwithineachleadership
style.Thecultureandgoalsofanorganizationdeterminewhichleadershipstylefitsthefirmbest.Somecompaniesoffer
severalleadershipstyleswithintheorganization,dependentuponthenecessarytaskstocompleteanddepartmentalneeds.
1.
Autocratic Leadership Style:-
Theauthoritarian leadership styleorautocratic leaderkeepsstrict,closecontroloverfollowersbykeepingcloseregulation
ofpoliciesandproceduresgiventofollowers.Tokeepmainemphasisonthedistinctionoftheauthoritarianleaderandtheir
followers,thesetypesofleadersmakesuretoonlycreateadistinctprofessionalrelationship.Directsupervisioniswhatthey
believetobekeyinmaintainingasuccessfulenvironmentandfollowership.Infearoffollowersbeingunproductive,
authoritarianleaderskeepclosesupervisionandfeelthisisnecessaryinorderforanythingtobedone.
Authoritarianleadershipstylesoftenfollowthevisionofthosethatareincontrol,andmaynotnecessarilybecompatible
withthosethatarebeingled.
Examplesofauthoritariancommunicativebehavior:apoliceofficerdirectingtraffic,ateacherorderingastudenttodohisor
herassignment,andasupervisorinstructingasubordinatetocleanaworkstation.Anauthoritarianstyleofleadershipmay
createaclimateoffear,wherethereislittleornoroomfordialogueandwherecomplainingmaybeconsideredfutile.
2. Democratic_Leadership Style:-
Thedemocratic leadership styleconsistsoftheleadersharingthedecision-makingabilitieswithgroupmembersby
promotingtheinterestsofthegroupmembersandbypracticingsocialequality.
Thisstyleofleadershipencompassesdiscussion,debateandsharingofideasandencouragementofpeopletofeelgood
abouttheirinvolvement.Theboundariesofdemocraticparticipationtendtobecircumscribedbytheorganizationorthe
groupneedsandtheinstrumentalvalueofpeople'sattributes(skills,attitudes,etc.).Thedemocraticstyleencompassesthe
notionthateveryone,byvirtueoftheirhumanstatus,shouldplayapartinthegroup'sdecisions.However,thedemocraticstyleofleadershipstillrequiresguidanceandcontrolbyaspecificleader.
3. Paternalistic_Leadership style:-
ThewayaPaternalisticleaderworksisbyactingasafatherfigurebytakingcareoftheirsubordinatesasaparentwould.In
thisstyleofleadershiptheleadersuppliescompleteconcernforhisfollowersorworkers.Inreturnhereceivesthecomplete
trustandloyaltyofhispeople.Workersunderthisstyleofleaderareexpectedtobecometotallycommittedtowhatthe
leaderbelievesandwillnotstriveoffandworkindependently.Theseworkersareabletogotoeachotherwithany
problemstheyhaveregardingsomethingbecausetheybelieveinwhattheysayisgoingtotrulyhelpthem.
Theleaderencouragesorganizationbecausetheyallowtheworkerstocompletetaskssothattheycanstayontopoftheir
work.Theworkerscompletetasksthisboostsself-confidenceanditmakesthemworkhardertoreachagoalandexceedthe
goaltoprovetotheirbosstheyareworkinghard.Havingthisstyleofleadershipcanalsohelpimplementarewardsystem.Thissystemwillallowtheirworkerstoworkevenbetterbecausethereissomethingforthemattheendofthetunnel.
4. Free-Rein or Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Thelaissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to make decisions is fully given to the worker.Thiswas
firstdescribedbyLewin,Lippitt,andWhitein1938,alongwiththeautocraticleadershipandthedemocraticleadership
styles.Thelaissez-fairestyleissometimesdescribedasa"handsoff"leadershipstylebecausetheleaderdelegatesthetasks
totheirfollowerswhileprovidinglittleornodirectiontothefollowers. Iftheleaderwithdrawstoomuchfromtheir
followersitcansometimesresultinalackofproductivity,cohesiveness,andsatisfaction.
Thisisaneffectivestyletousewhen:
Followersarehighlyskilled,experienced,andeducated.
Followershaveprideintheirworkandthedrivetodoitsuccessfullyontheirown.
Outsideexperts,suchasstaffspecialistsorconsultantsarebeingused.
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EMPLOYEE MORALEDescriptionoftheemotions,attitude,satisfaction,andoveralloutlookofemployeesduringtheirtimeinaworkplace
environment.Partofeffectiveproductivityisthoughttobedirectlyrelatedtothemoraleoftheemployees.Employeesthat
arehappyandpositiveatworkaresaidtohavepositiveorhighemployeemorale.Companiesthatmaintainemployeeswho
aredissatisfiedandnegativeabouttheirworkenvironmentaresaidtohavenegativeorlowemployeemorale.
Ameasureseekingpositive,confident,satisfiedemployees.Involvestheoverallviewpointofemployeeswhileatworkinthe
workenvironment.Includesemployeeemotions,attitude,andsatisfaction.Themoraleoftheemployeesdirectlyeffects
productivity.Dissatisfiedandnegativeemployeesportraynegative,lowemployeemoraleabouttheirworkenvironment.
Positiveorhighlyconfidentemployeesthatarehappyandpositiveatworkaresaidtohavehighmorale.
Employeemorale,in human resources, is defined as
1.Astateofindividualpsychologicalwell-beingbaseduponasenseofconfidenceandusefulnessandpurposeand
2.Thespiritofagroupthatmakesthememberswantsthegrouptosucceed(synonyms:espritdecorps,teamspirit)
HowtoincreaseEmployeemorale:-
1. Recognizeemployees.
2. Bearespectfulmanager.
3.
Haveone-on-onemeetingswithemployees.
4. Investinyouremployees.
5. Gettoknowyouremployees.
Moraleareoftwotypes:-
1. OnbehalfofNUMBERS a.Individualmoral b.GroupMorale
2. OnbehalfofLEVELS a.HighMorale b.Lowmorale.
Factors affecting Morale:-
1. TheFirm\Organization.
2. Thenatureofwork.
3. Thelevelofsatisfaction.
4.
Thelevelofsupervision.
5. Conceptofself.
6. Employeesage
7.
Educationlevels.
8. Occupationallevels.
9. Offthejobactivities.
Mental condition of
employees which
determine their
willingness to
Co-operate
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GROUPAcollectionofindividualswhohaveregularcontactandfrequentinteraction,mutualinfluence,commonfeelingof
camaraderie,andwhoworktogethertoachieveacommonsetofgoals.
Interpersonal relationship
Aninterpersonalrelationshipisastrong,deep,orcloseassociationoracquaintancebetweentwoormorepeoplethatmay
rangeindurationfrombrieftoenduring.Thisassociationmaybebasedoninference,love,solidarity,regularbusiness
interactions,orsomeothertypeofsocialcommitment.Interpersonalrelationshipsareformedinthecontextofsocial,
culturalandotherinfluences.Thecontextcanvaryfromfamilyorkinshiprelations,friendship,marriage,relationswith
associates,work,clubs,neighborhoods,andplacesofworship.Theymayberegulatedbylaw,custom,ormutualagreement,
andarethebasisofsocialgroupsandsocietyasawhole.
Interpersonalbehaviourishowpeopleinteractwithoneanother.Specificallyitisstudiedasthewaypeoplebehavewhen
thisbehaviourwouldaffectarelationship.Makingjokes,bodylanguage,givingpresentsandgoingtopartiesareallaspects
0ofinterpersonalbehaviour.
GROUP DYNAMICS
Thesocialprocessbywhichpeopleinteractfacetofaceinsmallgroupsiscalledgroupdynamics.
Agentscanalsobegivengrouptasks,whichinturnmaybeinfluencedbytheirown group dynamics.
Pigeonsflocksusehierarchicalgroup dynamics todecidewheretoflyorbiter.
Thosesynchronizeddipsandwavesseemtoholdsecretsaboutperceptionandgroup dynamics.
HOW TO MAKE EFFECTIVE GROUPS
1. Forming.Thisstageisusuallycharacterizedbysomeconfusionanduncertainty.Themajorgoalsofthegrouphave
notbeenestablished.Thenatureofthetaskorleadershipofthegrouphasnotbeendetermined(Luthans,2005).
Thus,formingisanorientationperiodwhenmembersgettoknowoneanotherandshareexpectationsaboutthe
group.Memberslearnthepurposeofthegroupaswellastherulestobefollowed.Theformingstageshouldnotbe
rushedbecausetrustandopennessmustbedeveloped.Thesefeelingsstrengtheninlaterstagesofdevelopment.
Individualsareoftenconfusedduringthisstagebecauserolesarenotclearandtheremaynotbeastrongleader.
2. Storming.Inthisstage,thegroupislikelytoseethehighestlevelofdisagreementandconflict.Membersoften
challengegroupgoalsandstruggleforpower.Individualsoftenviefortheleadershippositionduringthisstageof
development.Thiscanbeapositiveexperienceforallgroupsifmemberscanachievecohesivenessthrough
resolution.Membersoftenvoiceconcernandcriticisminthisphase.Ifmembersarenotabletoresolvetheconflict,
thenthegroupwilloftendisbandorcontinueinexistencebutwillremainineffectiveandneveradvancetotheother
stages.
3.
Norming.Thisstageischaracterizedbytherecognitionofindividualdifferencesandsharedexpectations.Hopefully,atthisstagethegroupmemberswillbegintodevelopafeelingofgroupcohesionandidentity.Cooperativeeffort
shouldbegintoyieldresults.Responsibilitiesaredividedamongmembersandthegroupdecideshowitwillevaluate
progress.
4. Performing.Performing,occurswhenthegrouphasmaturedandattainsafeelingofcohesiveness.Duringthisstage
ofdevelopment,individualsacceptoneanotherandconflictisresolvedthroughgroupdiscussion.Membersofthe
groupmakedecisionsthrougharationalprocessthatisfocusedonrelevantgoalsratherthanemotionalissues.
5. Adjourning.Notallgroupsexperiencethisstageofdevelopmentbecauseitischaracterizedbythedisbandmentof
thegroup.Somegroupsarerelativelypermanent(Luthans,2005).Reasonsthatgroupsdisbandvary,withcommon
reasonsbeingtheaccomplishmentofthetaskorindividualsdecidingtogotheirownways.
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Identifyandanalysetheproblem
Collectinginformationandanalysingtheproblem.
DrawingAlternatives.
ChoosingabestfitAlternative.
Implementthedecision.
EvaluationandControl
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Understanding Work Teams Ateamcomprisesagroupofpeopleorotheranimalslinkedinacommonpurpose.Humanteamsareespecially
appropriateforconductingtasksthatarehighincomplexityandhavemanyinterdependentsubtasks. Ateambecomesmorethanjustacollectionofpeoplewhenastrongsenseofmutualcommitmentcreatessynergy,
thusgeneratingperformancegreaterthanthesumoftheperformanceofitsindividualmembers.
Thusteamsofgameplayerscanform(andre-form)topracticetheircraft/sport.Transportlogisticsexecutivescan
selectteamsofhorses,dogsoroxenforthepurposeofconveyingpassengersorgoods.
Allteamsaregroups,butallteamscannotbeGroups.
All groups can be team, but all teams cannot be groups.
GroupLongspan\Continuous.
Teamfrequentlyshortspan\dependsontask.
Difference between Groups and Teams:-
Work Groups Teams
Individualaccountability Individualandmutualaccountability
Cometogethertoshare
informationand
perspectives
Frequentlycometogetherfordiscussion,
decisionmaking,problemsolving,and
planning.
Focusonindividualgoals Focusonteamgoals
Produceindividualwork
products
Producecollectiveworkproducts
Defineindividualroles,
responsibilities,andtasks
Defineindividualroles,responsibilities,and
taskstohelpteamdoitswork;oftenshare
androtatethem
Concernwithone'sown
outcomeandchallenges
Concernwithoutcomesofeveryoneand
challengestheteamfaces
Purpose,goals,approachto
workshapedbymanager
Purpose,goals,approachtoworkshapedby
teamleaderwithteammembers
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ypes of eams
A) Problem-Solving Teams Theyaretypicallycomposedof5to12employeesfromthesamedepartmentwhomeetfor
afewhourseachweektodiscusswaysofimprovingquality,efficiency,andtheworkenvironment.Organizationsarerelayingmoreandmoreonproblem-solvingteamstohelpsolveorganizationalproblems.
Inproblem-solvingteams,membersshareideasoroffersuggestionsonhowworkprocess
andmethodscanbeimproved.Rarely,however,aretheseteamsgiventheauthorityto
unilaterallyimplementanyoftheirsuggestedactions,
B)B) Self-Managed Teams:- Theyaregenerallycomposedof10to15peoplewhotakeontheresponsibilitiesoftheirformer
supervisors.Typically,theseresponsibilitiesinclude:
a)Collectivecontroloverthepaceofwork,b)Determinationofworkassignments, c)Organizationofbreaks,and
d)Collectivechoiceofinspectionproceduresused.
Fullyself-managedteamsselecttheirownmembers,andthemembersevaluateeachothersperformance.Asa
result,supervisorypositionstakeondecreasedimportanceandmayevenbeeliminated.
C) Cross - Functional Teams: -Cross-functionalteamsaremadeofemployeesataboutthesamehierarchicallevel,butfrom
differentworkareas,whocometogethertoaccomplishatask.
Power & Politics
Insocialscienceandpolitics,poweristheabilitytoinfluenceorcontrolthebehaviorofpeople.Thetermauthorityisoften
usedforpowerperceivedaslegitimatebythesocialstructure.Powercanbeseenasevilorunjust,buttheexerciseofpower
isacceptedasendemictohumansassocialbeings.
ManagersPower:-
i. Giverewards.
j. Promiserewards.
k. Threatentowithdrawcurrentrewards.
l. Withdrawcurrentrewards.
m. Threatentopunish
n. Punish
Sources of Power
Powercomesfromtwosources:-1. Interpersonalsources:
a. REWARD
b. COERCIVE
c. LIGITIMATE
d. EXPERT
e. REFERENT
2. Structuralsources:
a. KNOWLEDGE
b. RESOURCES
c.
DECISIONMAKING.
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POLITICSThewaybywhichpeoplegainandusepowerfallsunderthecategoryofPolitics.
Politicalbehaviorinorganizationincludesthefollowing:-
Withholding key information from decision makers.
Whistle blowing.
Spreading rumors
Leaking confidential information
Ingenious compromises.
Exchanging favors for mutual benefits.
Causes of Political Behavior:-
Limited resources:-means,everyorganizationhavesomekindofscarcityofresources,andthepersonhaving
controlofsuchresourcesyieldspower,andtheprocessoftryingtogaincontrolandexploittheresourcesresultsintopoliticstoact.
Lust for power.
Saturation in career: - Toriseinoncecareer,everyoneneedscompetence.Andhenceheresorttopoliticalbehavior
tomoveupintheorganizationalhierarchy.
Organization culture:-
Organizational Change:-Whenthereisachangeinorganizationalstructureorwerestructure#,peopleinpowerful
positionsplaypoliticalgamesinordertoremainincomfortzone.
Ambiguous goals:-whenthegoalsareunclear,themembersareunawareoftheirrolestheneverybodyplays
throughpowerandpolitics.
Organizational ConflictOrganizational conflictisastateofdiscordcausedbytheactualorperceivedoppositionofneeds,valuesandinterests
betweenpeopleworkingtogether.Conflicttakesmanyformsinorganizations.Thereistheinevitableclashbetweenformal
authorityandpowerandthoseindividualsandgroupsaffected.Therearedisputesoverhowrevenuesshouldbedivided,
howtheworkshouldbedone,andhowlongandhardpeopleshouldwork.Therearejurisdictionaldisagreementsamong
individuals,departments,andbetweenunionsandmanagement.Therearesubtlerformsofconflictinvolvingrivalries,
jealousies,personalityclashes,roledefinitions,andstrugglesforpowerandfavor.Thereisalsoconflictwithinindividuals
betweencompetingneedsanddemandstowhichindividualsrespondindifferentways.
Theappearancesofdifference,differenceofopinions,ofinterests
Conflictresultswhenthereisagapbetweendifferenceofattitudes,interests,transactions,needsetc.
Conflictisanexpressed strugglebetweenatleasttwo interdependent partieswhoperceiveincompatible goals,scare
resources,andinterferencefromothersinachievingtheirgoals
TYPESOFORGANIZATIONALCONFLICTS
Conflictisclassifiedintothefollowingfourtypes:
Interpersonal conflict refers toa conflict between two individuals. This occurs typicallydue to how people are
different from one another. We have varied personalities which usually results to incompatible choices and
opinions.Apparently, itis anaturaloccurrencewhichcaneventuallyhelp inpersonalgrowthor developingyour
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relationshipswithothers.Inaddition,comingupwithadjustmentsisnecessaryformanagingthistypeofconflict.
However,wheninterpersonalconflictgetstoodestructive,callinginamediatorwouldhelpsoastohaveitresolved.
Intrapersonal conflict occurswithinanindividual.Theexperiencetakesplaceinthepersonsmind.Hence,itisa
type of conflict that is psychological involving the individuals thoughts, values, principles and emotions.
Interpersonalconflictmaycomeindifferentscales,fromthesimplermundaneoneslikedecidingwhetherornotto
goorganicforlunchtoonesthatcanaffectmajordecisionssuchaschoosingacareerpath.Furthermore,thistypeof
conflictcanbequitedifficulttohandleifyoufindithardtodecipheryourinnerstruggles.Itleadstorestlessnessand
uneasiness,orcanevencausedepression.Insuchoccasions,itwouldbebesttoseekawaytoletgooftheanxiety
throughcommunicatingwithotherpeople.Eventually,whenyoufindyourselfoutofthesituation,youcanbecome
more empoweredasaperson.Thus, the experienceevoked apositive changewhichwillhelpyou inyour own
personalgrowth.
Intragroup conflict is a typeofconflictthathappensamong individualswithina team. Theincompatibilitiesand
misunderstandings among these individuals lead to an intragroup conflict. It is arises from interpersonal
disagreements(e.g.teammembershavedifferentpersonalitieswhichmayleadtotension)ordifferencesinviews
andideas(e.g.inapresentation,membersoftheteammightfindthenotionspresentedbytheonepresidingtobeerroneousduetotheirdifferencesinopinion).Withina team,conflictcanbehelpfulincomingupwithdecisions
whichwilleventuallyallowthem toreach their objectivesasa team.However, if thedegreeofconflict disrupts
harmonyamongthemembers,thensomeseriousguidancefromadifferentpartywillbeneededforittobesettled.
Intergroup conflict takesplacewhenamisunderstandingarisesamongdifferentteamswithinanorganization.For
instance,thesalesdepartmentofanorganizationcancomeinconflictwiththecustomersupportdepartment.This
isduetothevariedsetsofgoalsandinterestsofthesedifferentgroups.Inaddition,competitionalsocontributesfor
intergroupconflict toarise. There are other factorswhich fuel this type ofconflict. Some of these factorsmay
includea rivalryinresourcesortheboundariessetbyagrouptootherswhichestablishestheirownidentityasa
team.
Conflictmayseemtobeaproblemtosome,butthisisnthowconflictshouldbeperceived.Ontheotherhand,itisan
opportunityforgrowthandcanbeaneffectivemeansofopeningupamonggroupsorindividuals.However,whenconflict
beginstodrawsbackproductivityandgiveswaytomoreconflicts,thenconflictmanagementwouldbeneededtocomeup
witharesolution.
Examples:-
Boycott
Tocombineagainstalandlord,tradesman,employerorotherpersonstowithheldsocialorbusinessrelationsfromhim,and
todeterothersfromholdingsuchrelationstosubjecttoaboycott.
Lockout
Theclosingofaplaceofemploymentorthesuspensionofworkortherefusalbyanemployertocontinuetoemployany
numberofpersonsemployedbyhiminconsequenceofadispute,donewithaviewtocompellingthosepersons,orto
aidinganotheremployerincompellingpersonsemployedbyhim,toaccepttermsorconditionsoforaffectingemployment.
Strike
Thecessationofworkbyabodyofpersonsemployedactingincombinationoraconcertedrefusalorarefusalunder
commonunderstanding,ofanynumberofpersonsemployedtocontinuetoworkforanemployerinconsequenceofa
dispute,doneasameansofcompellingtheiremployeroremployerofanyotherpersonsorbodyofpersons,oranyperson
orbodyofpersonsemployedtoaccepttermsorconditionsoforaffectingemployment.
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EGOTIATIO
Discussionaimedatreachinganagreement.
Todealorbargainwithanotherorothers,asinthepreparationofatreatyorcontractorinpreliminariestoa
businessdeal.
MethodsofhandlingConflicts:-
o Thirdpartyarbitration
o Mediation
o Expertsadvice
Stages of Negotiation
Inordertoachieveadesirableoutcome,itmaybeusefultofollowastructuredapproachtonegotiation.Forexample,ina
worksituationameetingmayneedtobearrangedinwhichallpartiesinvolvedcancometogether.
Theprocessofnegotiationincludesthefollowingstages:
1. Preparation
2.
Discussion3. Clarificationofgoals
4. NegotiatetowardsaWin-Winoutcome
5. Agreement
6. Implementationofacourseofaction
1. Preparation
Beforeanynegotiationtakesplace,adecisionneedstobetakenastowhenandwhereameetingwilltakeplacetodiscuss
theproblemandwhowillattend.Settingalimitedtime-scalecanalsobehelpfultopreventthedisagreementcontinuing.
Thisstageinvolvesensuringallthepertinentfactsofthesituationareknowninordertoclarifyyourownposition.Inthe
workexampleabove,thiswouldincludeknowingtherulesofyourorganisation,towhomhelpisgiven,whenhelpisnot
feltappropriateandthegroundsforsuchrefusals.Yourorganisationmaywellhavepoliciestowhichyoucanreferinpreparationforthenegotiation.
Undertakingpreparationbeforediscussingthedisagreementwillhelptoavoidfurtherconflictandunnecessarilywasting
timeduringthemeeting.
2.
Discussion
Duringthisstage,individualsormembersofeachsideputforwardthecaseastheyseeit,i.e.theirunderstandingofthe
situation.
Keyskillsduringthisstageincludequestioning,listeningandclarifying.
Sometimesitishelpfultotakenotesduringthediscussionstagetorecordallpointsputforwardincasethereisneedfor
furtherclarification.Itisextremelyimportanttolisten,aswhendisagreementtakesplaceitiseasytomakethemistakeof
sayingtoomuchandlisteningtoolittle.Eachsideshouldhaveanequalopportunitytopresenttheircase.
3. Clarifying Goals
Fromthediscussion,thegoals,interestsandviewpointsofbothsidesofthedisagreementneedtobeclarified.
Itishelpfultolistthesefactorsinorderofpriority.Throughthisclarificationitisoftenpossibletoidentifyorestablishsome
commonground.Clarificationisanessentialpartofthenegotiationprocess,withoutitmisunderstandingsarelikelytooccur
whichmaycauseproblemsandbarrierstoreachingabeneficialoutcome.
4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome
Thisstagefocusesonwhatistermeda'win-win'outcomewherebothsidesfeeltheyhavegainedsomethingpositive
throughtheprocessofnegotiationandbothsidesfeeltheirpointofviewhasbeentakenintoconsideration.
Awin-winoutcomeisusuallythebestresult.Althoughthismaynotalwaysbepossible,throughnegotiation,itshouldbethe
ultimategoal.
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Suggestionsofalternativestrategiesandcompromisesneedtobeconsideredatthispoint.Compromisesareoftenpositive
alternativeswhichcanoftenachievegreaterbenefitforallconcernedcomparedtoholdingtotheoriginalpositions.
5.
Agreement
Agreementcanbeachievedonceunderstandingofbothsidesviewpointsandinterestshavebeenconsidered.
Itisessentialtoforeverybodyinvolvedtokeepanopenmindinordertoachieveanacceptablesolution.Anyagreement
needstobemadeperfectlyclearsothatbothsidesknowwhathasbeendecided.
6. Implementing a Course of Action
Fromtheagreement,acourseofactionhastobeimplementedtocarrythroughthedecision.
Seeourpages:Strategic ThinkingandAction Planningformoreinformation.
Work Stress
Occupational stressisstressinvolvingwork.AccordingtothecurrentWorldHealthOrganization's(WHO)definition,
occupationalorwork-relatedstress"istheresponsepeoplemayhavewhenpresentedwithworkdemandsandpressures
thatarenotmatchedtotheirknowledgeandabilitiesandwhichchallengetheirabilitytocope.
Jobstressresultsfromvariousinteractionsoftheworkerandtheenvironmentoftheworktheyperformtheirduties.
Location,gender,environment,andmanyotherfactorscontributetothebuildupofstress.Jobstressresultsfromthe
interactionoftheworkerandtheconditionsofwork.Viewsdifferontheimportanceofworkercharacteristicsversus
workingconditionsastheprimarycauseofjobstress.Thedifferingviewpointssuggestdifferentwaystopreventstressat
work.Differencesinindividualcharacteristicssuchaspersonalityandcopingskillscanbeveryimportantinpredicting
whethercertainjobconditionswillresultinstress.Inotherwords,whatisstressfulforonepersonmaynotbeaproblemfor
someoneelse.Thisviewpointunderliespreventionstrategiesthatfocusonworkersandwaystohelpthemcopewithdemandingjobconditions.
Working conditions
Althoughtheimportanceofindividualdifferencescannotbeignored,scientificevidencesuggeststhatcertainworking
conditionsarestressfultomostpeople.Suchevidencearguesforagreateremphasisonworkingconditionsasthekey
sourceofjobstress,andforjobredesignasaprimarypreventionstrategy.Largesurveysofworkingconditions,including
conditionsrecognizedasriskfactorsforjobstress,wereconductedinmemberstatesoftheEuropeanUnionin1990,1995,
and2000.
Workload
Inanoccupationalsetting,dealingwithworkloadcanbestressfulandserveasastressorforemployees.Therearethreeaspectsofworkloadthatcanbestressful.
Quantitative workload or overload: Having more work to do than can be accomplished comfortably.
Qualitative workload: Having work that is too difficult.
Underload: Having work that fails to use a worker's skills and abilities.
Workloadhasbeenlinkedtoanumberofstrains,includinganxiety,physiologicalreactionssuchascortisol,fatigue,
backache,headache,andgastrointestinalproblems.
Workloadasaworkdemandisamajorcomponentofthedemand-controlmodelofstress.Thismodelsuggeststhatjobs
withhighdemandscanbestressful,especiallywhentheindividualhaslowcontroloverthejob.Inotherwordscontrol
servesasabufferorprotectivefactorwhendemandsorworkloadishigh.Thismodelwasexpandedintothedemand-
control-supportmodelthatsuggeststhatthecombinationofhighcontrolandhighsocialsupportatworkbufferstheeffects
ofhighdemands.
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Asaworkdemand,workloadisalsorelevanttothejobdemands-resourcesmodelofstressthatsuggeststhatjobsare
stressfulwhendemands(e.g.,workload)exceedtheindividual'sresourcestodealwiththem.
Long hours
AsubstantialpercentageofAmericansworkverylonghours.Byoneestimate,morethan26%ofmenandmorethan11%of
womenworked50hoursperweekormorein2000.Thesefiguresrepresentaconsiderableincreaseoverthepreviousthree
decades,especiallyforwomen.AccordingtotheDepartmentofLabor,therehavebeenariseinincreasingamountofhours
intheworkplacebyemployedwomen,anincreaseinextendedworkweeks(>40hours)bymen,andaconsiderable
increaseincombinedworkinghoursamongworkingcouples,particularlycoupleswithyoungchildren.
Status
Aperson'sstatusintheworkplacecanalsoaffectlevelsofstress.Whileworkplacestresshasthepotentialtoaffect
employeesofallcategories;thosewhohaveverylittleinfluencetothosewhomakemajordecisionsforthecompany.
However,lesspowerfulemployees(thatis,thosewhohavelesscontrolovertheirjobs)aremorelikelytosufferstressthan
powerfulworkers.Managersaswellasotherkindsofworkersarevulnerabletoworkoverload.
Economic factorsEconomicfactorsthatemployeesarefacinginthe21stcenturyhavebeenlinkedtoincreasedstresslevels.Researchersand
socialcommentatorshavepointedoutthatthecomputerandcommunicationsrevolutionshavemadecompaniesmore
efficientandproductivethaneverbefore.Thisbooninproductivityhowever,hascausedhigherexpectationsandgreater
competition,puttingmorestressontheemployee(Primm,2005).
Thefollowingeconomicfactorsmayleadtoworkplacestress:
Pressurefrominvestors,whocanquicklywithdrawtheirmoneyfromcompanystocks.
Thelackoftradeandprofessionalunionsintheworkplace.
Inter-companyrivalriescausedbytheeffortsofcompaniestocompeteglobally
Thewillingnessofcompaniestoswiftlylayoffworkerstocopewithchangingbusinessenvironments.
BullyingBullyingintheworkplacecanalsocontributetostress.Thiscanbebrokendownintofivedifferentcategories:
Threattoprofessionstatus
Threattopersonalstatus
Isolation
Excesswork
Destabilizationi.e.lackofcreditforwork,meaninglesstasksetc.
Thisineffectcancreateahostileworkenvironmentfortheemployeesthat,whichinturn,canaffecttheirworkethicand
contributiontotheorganization.
Narcissism and psychopathy
Mainarticles:NarcissismintheworkplaceandPsychopathyintheworkplace
Thomassuggeststhattheretendstobeahigherlevelofstresswithpeoplewhoworkorinteractwithanarcissist,whichin
turnincreasesabsenteeismandstaffturnover.[37]Boddyfindsthesamedynamicwherethereiscorporatepsychopathinthe
organisation.
Workplace conflict
Interpersonalconflictamongpeopleatworkhasbeenshowntobeoneofthemostfrequentlynotedstressorsfor
employees.Conflicthasbeennotedtobeanindicatorofthebroaderconceptofworkplaceharassment.Itrelatestoother
stressorsthatmightco-occur,suchasroleconflict,roleambiguity,andworkload.Italsorelatestostrainssuchasanxiety,
depression,physicalsymptoms,andlowlevelsofjobsatisfaction.
Sexual harassment
Womenaremorelikelythanmentoexperiencesexualharassment,especiallyforthoseworkingintraditionallymasculine
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occupations.Inaddition,astudyindicatedthatsexualharassmentnegativelyaffectsworkers'psychologicalwell-being.
Anotherstudyfoundthatlevelofharassmentatworkplacesleadtodifferencesinperformanceofworkrelatedtasks.High
levelsofharassmentwererelatedtotheworstoutcomes,andnoharassmentwasrelatedtoleastnegativeoutcomes.In
otherwords,womenwhohadexperiencedahigherlevelofharassmentweremorelikelytoperformpoorlyatworkplaces.
Signs and symptoms of excessive job and workplace stress
Feelinganxious,irritable,ordepressed
Apathy,lossofinterestinwork
Problemssleeping
Fatigue
Troubleconcentrating
Muscletensionorheadaches
Stomachproblems
Socialwithdrawal
Lossofsexdrive
Usingalcoholordrugstocope
revention
Acombinationoforganizationalchangeandstressmanagementisoftenthemostusefulapproachforpreventingstressat
work.
Bothorganizationsandemployeescanemploystrategiesatorganizationalandindividuallevels.Generally,organizationallevelstrategiesincludejobproceduremodificationandemployeeassistanceprograms(EPA).Individuallevel
strategiesincludetakingvacation.Gettingarealisticjobpreviewtounderstandthenormalworkloadandschedulesofthe
jobwillalsohelppeopletoidentifywhetherornotthejobfitthem.
HowtoChangetheOrganizationtoPreventJobStress
Ensurethattheworkloadisinlinewithworkers'capabilitiesandresources.
Designjobstoprovidemeaning,stimulation,andopportunitiesforworkerstousetheirskills.
Clearlydefineworkers'rolesandresponsibilities.
Toreduceworkplacestress,managersmaymonitortheworkloadgivenouttotheemployees.Alsowhiletheyare
beingtrainedtheyshouldletemployeesunderstandandbenotifiedofstressawareness.
Giveworkersopportunitiestoparticipateindecisionsandactionsaffectingtheirjobs.
Improvecommunications-reduceuncertaintyaboutcareerdevelopmentandfutureemploymentprospects.
Provideopportunitiesforsocialinteractionamongworkers.
Establishworkschedulesthatarecompatiblewithdemandsandresponsibilitiesoutsidethejob.
Combatworkplacediscrimination(basedonrace,gender,nationalorigin,religionorlanguage).
Bringinginanobjectiveoutsidersuchasaconsultanttosuggestafreshapproachtopersistentproblems.
Introducingaparticipativeleadershipstyletoinvolveasmanysubordinatesaspossibletoresolvestress-producing
problems.
Encouragework-lifebalancethroughfamily-friendlybenefitsandpolicies
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RGANIZATI NAL STRUCTURE
Anorganizational structuredefineshowactivitiessuchastaskallocation,coordinationandsupervisionaredirectedtowards
theachievementoforganizationalaims.Itcanalsobeconsideredastheviewingglassorperspectivethroughwhichindividualsseetheirorganizationanditsenvironment.
Anorganizationcanbestructuredinmanydifferentways,dependingontheirobjectives.Thestructureofanorganization
willdeterminethemodesinwhichitoperatesandperforms.
Organizationalstructureallowstheexpressedallocationofresponsibilitiesfordifferentfunctionsandprocessestodifferent
entitiessuchasthebranch,department,workgroupandindividual.
Organizationalstructureaffectsorganizationalactionintwobigways.First,itprovidesthefoundationonwhichstandard
operatingproceduresandroutinesrest.Second,itdetermineswhichindividualsgettoparticipateinwhichdecision-making
processes,andthustowhatextenttheirviewsshapetheorganizationsactions.
Job design(alsoreferredtoaswork designortask design)isthespecificationofcontents,methodsandrelationshipofjobs
inordertosatisfytechnologicalandorganizationalrequirementsaswellasthesocialandpersonalrequirementsofthejob
holder.Itsprinciplesaregearedtowardshowthenatureofaperson'sjobaffectstheirattitudesandbehavioratwork,
particularlyrelatingtocharacteristicssuchasskillvarietyandautonomy.
Theaimofajobdesignistoimprovejobsatisfaction,toimprovethrough-put,toimprovequalityandtoreduceemployee
problems(e.g.,grievances,absenteeism).
Anarrangementintheworkplacethathastheobjectiveofovercomingemployeealienationandjobdissatisfaction
thatcomesaboutfrommechanicalandrepetitivetasksintheworkplace.Workdesignisusedbyorganizationsto
boostproductivitybyofferingemployeesnon-monetaryrewardssuchassatisfactionfromagreatersenseof
personalachievement.Alsocalledjobdesign.
Techniques:-
Job rotation
Job rotationisajobdesignmethodwhichisabletoenhancemotivation,developworkers'outlook,increaseproductivity,
improvetheorganization'sperformanceonvariouslevelsbyitsmulti-skilledworkers,andprovidesnewopportunitiesto
improvetheattitude,thought,capabilitiesandskillsofworkers.Jobrotationisalsoprocessbywhichemployeeslaterally
mobilizeandservetheirtasksindifferentorganizationallevels;whenanindividualexperiencesdifferentpostsand
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responsibilitiesinanorganization,abilityincreasestoevaluatehiscapabilitiesintheorganization.
Job enlargement
HulinandBlood(1968)defineJob enlargementastheprocessofallowingindividualworkerstodeterminetheirownpace
(withinlimits),toserveastheirowninspectorsbygivingthemresponsibilityforqualitycontrol,torepairtheirownmistakes,
toberesponsiblefortheirownmachineset-upandrepair,andtoattainchoiceofmethod.FrederickHerzbergreferredto
theadditionofinterrelatedtasksas'horizontaljobloading'.
Job enrichment
Job enrichmentincreasestheemployeesautonomyovertheplanningandexecutionoftheirownwork.Jobenrichmenthas
thesamemotivationaladvantagesofjobenlargement,howeverithastheaddedbenefitofgrantingworkersautonomy.
FrederickHerzbergviewedjobenrichmentas'verticaljobloading'becauseitalsoincludestasksformerlyperformedby
someoneatahigherlevelwhereplanningandcontrolareinvolved.
ORGANIZATION CULTURECulture is how organizations DO THINGS.
Organizational cultureisthebehaviorofhumanswithinanorganizationandthemeaningthatpeopleattachtothose
behaviors.Cultureincludestheorganization'svision,values,norms,systems,symbols,language,assumptions,beliefs,and
habits.Itisalsothepatternofsuchcollectivebehaviorsandassumptionsthataretaughttoneworganizationalmembersas
awayofperceiving,andeventhinkingandfeeling.Organizationalcultureaffectsthewaypeopleandgroupsinteractwith
eachother,withclients,andwithstakeholders.
RavasiandSchultzstatedthatorganizationalcultureisasetofsharedmentalassumptionsthatguideinterpretationand
actioninorganizationsbydefiningappropriatebehaviorforvarioussituations.Althoughacompanymayhaveits"ownuniqueculture",inlargerorganizationstherearesometimesconflictingculturesthatco-existowingtothecharacteristicsof
differentmanagementteams.Organizationalculturemayaffectemployees'identificationwithanorganization.
AccordingtoNeedle,organizationalculturerepresentsthecollectivevalues,beliefsandprinciplesoforganizational
membersandisaproductofsuchfactorsashistory,product,market,technology,andstrategy,typeofemployees,
managementstyle,andnationalculture.Corporatecultureontheotherhandreferstothoseculturesdeliberatelycreated
bymanagementtoachievespecificstrategicends.
Factors and elements
GerryJohnson(1988)describedaculturalweb,identifyinganumberofelementsthatcanbeusedtodescribeorinfluence
organizationalculture: The paradigm:Whattheorganizationisabout,whatitdoes,itsmission,itsvalues.
Control systems:Theprocessesinplacetomonitorwhatisgoingon.Rolecultureswouldhavevastrulebooks.There
wouldbemorerelianceonindividualisminapowerculture.
Organizational structures:Reportinglines,hierarchies,andthewaythatworkflowsthroughthebusiness.
Power structures:Whomakesthedecisions,howwidelyspreadispower,andonwhatispowerbased?
Symbols:Theseincludeorganizationallogosanddesigns,butalsoextendtosymbolsofpowersuchasparking
spacesandexecutivewashrooms.
Rituals and routines:Managementmeetings,boardreportsandsoonmaybecomemorehabitualthannecessary.
Stories and myths:buildupaboutpeopleandevents,andconveyamessageaboutwhatisvaluedwithinthe
organization.
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Organizational change and development Organization development(OD)isadeliberatelyplanned,organization-wideefforttoincreaseanorganization's
effectivenessand/orefficiencyand/ortoenabletheorganizationtoachieveitsstrategicgoals.ODtheoristsand
practitionersdefineitinvariousways.Itsmultiplicityofdefinitionreflectsthecomplexityofthedisciplineandisresponsible
foritslackofunderstanding.Forexample,VasudevanhasreferredtoODbeingaboutpromotingorganizationalreadinessto
meetchange,andithasbeensaidthatODisasystemiclearninganddevelopmentstrategyintendedtochangethebasicsof
beliefs,attitudesandrelevanceofvalues,andstructureofthecurrentorganizationtobetterabsorbdisruptivetechnologies,
shrinkingorexplodingmarketopportunitiesandensuingchallengesandchaos.
ItisworthunderstandingwhatODisnot.Itisnottraining, personaldevelopment,teamdevelopmentor teambuilding,
humanresourcedevelopment(HRD),learninganddevelopment(L&D)orapartofHRalthoughitisoftenmistakenly
understoodassomeorallofthese.ODinterventionsareaboutchangesoinvolvepeople-butODalsodevelopsprocesses,
systemsandstructures.TheprimarypurposeofODistodeveloptheorganization,nottotrainordevelopthestaff.
Objective of OD
TheobjectiveofODis:
1.
Toincreasethelevelofinter-personaltrustamongemployees.
2. Toincreaseemployees'levelofsatisfactionandcommitment.
3. Toconfrontproblemsinsteadofneglectingthem.
4. Toeffectivelymanageconflict.
5. Toincreasecooperationandcollaborationamongtheemployees.
6. Toincreasetheorganization'sproblemsolving.
7. Toputinplaceprocessesthatwillhelpimprovetheongoingoperationoftheorganizationonacontinuousbasis.
Thechangeagentmustaddresshimselftoallofthesehazardsandobstacles.Someofthethingswhichwillhelphimare:
1. Arealneedintheclientsystemtochange
2. Genuinesupportfrommanagement
3. Settingapersonalexample:listening,supportingbehavior
4. Asoundbackgroundinthebehavioralsciences
5. Aworkingknowledgeofsystemstheory
6. Abeliefinmanasarational,self-educatingbeingfullycapableoflearningbetterwaystodothings.
Afewexamplesofinterventionsincludeteambuilding,coaching,LargeGroupInterventions,mentoring,performance
appraisal,downsizing,TQM,andleadershipdevelopment.
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}rganizati}n FailureGreatorganizationsdontjustemulatesuccess,theylearnfromfailure.Associationsandconsortiathataspiretogreatness
shouldlookatthefailuresofothersforguidance.Today,thereisnoshortageoffailuresfromwhichtolearn.InNovemberof
2009,PaulLight,aprofessorofpublicserviceatNewYorkUniversity,predictedthat,ataminimum,morethan100,000non-
profitorganizationswouldbewipedoutinthenexttwoyears.Giventhisdireforecast,itsmoreimportantthaneverfor
organizationstobeawareofthecommonpitfallsthatcancausefailure.Herearesomeofthethingsthathavecaused
organizationstofailandthelessonswecanlearn.
Associationsthatfailtendtodooneormoreofthefollowing:
Lose mission focus
Stray into the wrong business
Fail to communicate benefits
Take members for granted Price services inappropriately
Give potential members a free ride
Ignore the competition
Resist change
Fall into merger mania
Accept irrelevance
Reasonsoffailure:-
1. Manmadehazards
2. Naturalhazards