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  • 8/10/2019 EEE+ECE OB Chronicles of OB by cybersony

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    MATTER for MAJOR

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    -: Leadership Styles :-Aleadership styleisaleader'sstyleofprovidingdirection,implementingplans,andmotivatingpeople.Differenttypesofleadershipstylesexistinworkenvironments.Advantagesanddisadvantagesexistwithineachleadership

    style.Thecultureandgoalsofanorganizationdeterminewhichleadershipstylefitsthefirmbest.Somecompaniesoffer

    severalleadershipstyleswithintheorganization,dependentuponthenecessarytaskstocompleteanddepartmentalneeds.

    1.

    Autocratic Leadership Style:-

    Theauthoritarian leadership styleorautocratic leaderkeepsstrict,closecontroloverfollowersbykeepingcloseregulation

    ofpoliciesandproceduresgiventofollowers.Tokeepmainemphasisonthedistinctionoftheauthoritarianleaderandtheir

    followers,thesetypesofleadersmakesuretoonlycreateadistinctprofessionalrelationship.Directsupervisioniswhatthey

    believetobekeyinmaintainingasuccessfulenvironmentandfollowership.Infearoffollowersbeingunproductive,

    authoritarianleaderskeepclosesupervisionandfeelthisisnecessaryinorderforanythingtobedone.

    Authoritarianleadershipstylesoftenfollowthevisionofthosethatareincontrol,andmaynotnecessarilybecompatible

    withthosethatarebeingled.

    Examplesofauthoritariancommunicativebehavior:apoliceofficerdirectingtraffic,ateacherorderingastudenttodohisor

    herassignment,andasupervisorinstructingasubordinatetocleanaworkstation.Anauthoritarianstyleofleadershipmay

    createaclimateoffear,wherethereislittleornoroomfordialogueandwherecomplainingmaybeconsideredfutile.

    2. Democratic_Leadership Style:-

    Thedemocratic leadership styleconsistsoftheleadersharingthedecision-makingabilitieswithgroupmembersby

    promotingtheinterestsofthegroupmembersandbypracticingsocialequality.

    Thisstyleofleadershipencompassesdiscussion,debateandsharingofideasandencouragementofpeopletofeelgood

    abouttheirinvolvement.Theboundariesofdemocraticparticipationtendtobecircumscribedbytheorganizationorthe

    groupneedsandtheinstrumentalvalueofpeople'sattributes(skills,attitudes,etc.).Thedemocraticstyleencompassesthe

    notionthateveryone,byvirtueoftheirhumanstatus,shouldplayapartinthegroup'sdecisions.However,thedemocraticstyleofleadershipstillrequiresguidanceandcontrolbyaspecificleader.

    3. Paternalistic_Leadership style:-

    ThewayaPaternalisticleaderworksisbyactingasafatherfigurebytakingcareoftheirsubordinatesasaparentwould.In

    thisstyleofleadershiptheleadersuppliescompleteconcernforhisfollowersorworkers.Inreturnhereceivesthecomplete

    trustandloyaltyofhispeople.Workersunderthisstyleofleaderareexpectedtobecometotallycommittedtowhatthe

    leaderbelievesandwillnotstriveoffandworkindependently.Theseworkersareabletogotoeachotherwithany

    problemstheyhaveregardingsomethingbecausetheybelieveinwhattheysayisgoingtotrulyhelpthem.

    Theleaderencouragesorganizationbecausetheyallowtheworkerstocompletetaskssothattheycanstayontopoftheir

    work.Theworkerscompletetasksthisboostsself-confidenceanditmakesthemworkhardertoreachagoalandexceedthe

    goaltoprovetotheirbosstheyareworkinghard.Havingthisstyleofleadershipcanalsohelpimplementarewardsystem.Thissystemwillallowtheirworkerstoworkevenbetterbecausethereissomethingforthemattheendofthetunnel.

    4. Free-Rein or Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

    Thelaissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to make decisions is fully given to the worker.Thiswas

    firstdescribedbyLewin,Lippitt,andWhitein1938,alongwiththeautocraticleadershipandthedemocraticleadership

    styles.Thelaissez-fairestyleissometimesdescribedasa"handsoff"leadershipstylebecausetheleaderdelegatesthetasks

    totheirfollowerswhileprovidinglittleornodirectiontothefollowers. Iftheleaderwithdrawstoomuchfromtheir

    followersitcansometimesresultinalackofproductivity,cohesiveness,andsatisfaction.

    Thisisaneffectivestyletousewhen:

    Followersarehighlyskilled,experienced,andeducated.

    Followershaveprideintheirworkandthedrivetodoitsuccessfullyontheirown.

    Outsideexperts,suchasstaffspecialistsorconsultantsarebeingused.

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    EMPLOYEE MORALEDescriptionoftheemotions,attitude,satisfaction,andoveralloutlookofemployeesduringtheirtimeinaworkplace

    environment.Partofeffectiveproductivityisthoughttobedirectlyrelatedtothemoraleoftheemployees.Employeesthat

    arehappyandpositiveatworkaresaidtohavepositiveorhighemployeemorale.Companiesthatmaintainemployeeswho

    aredissatisfiedandnegativeabouttheirworkenvironmentaresaidtohavenegativeorlowemployeemorale.

    Ameasureseekingpositive,confident,satisfiedemployees.Involvestheoverallviewpointofemployeeswhileatworkinthe

    workenvironment.Includesemployeeemotions,attitude,andsatisfaction.Themoraleoftheemployeesdirectlyeffects

    productivity.Dissatisfiedandnegativeemployeesportraynegative,lowemployeemoraleabouttheirworkenvironment.

    Positiveorhighlyconfidentemployeesthatarehappyandpositiveatworkaresaidtohavehighmorale.

    Employeemorale,in human resources, is defined as

    1.Astateofindividualpsychologicalwell-beingbaseduponasenseofconfidenceandusefulnessandpurposeand

    2.Thespiritofagroupthatmakesthememberswantsthegrouptosucceed(synonyms:espritdecorps,teamspirit)

    HowtoincreaseEmployeemorale:-

    1. Recognizeemployees.

    2. Bearespectfulmanager.

    3.

    Haveone-on-onemeetingswithemployees.

    4. Investinyouremployees.

    5. Gettoknowyouremployees.

    Moraleareoftwotypes:-

    1. OnbehalfofNUMBERS a.Individualmoral b.GroupMorale

    2. OnbehalfofLEVELS a.HighMorale b.Lowmorale.

    Factors affecting Morale:-

    1. TheFirm\Organization.

    2. Thenatureofwork.

    3. Thelevelofsatisfaction.

    4.

    Thelevelofsupervision.

    5. Conceptofself.

    6. Employeesage

    7.

    Educationlevels.

    8. Occupationallevels.

    9. Offthejobactivities.

    Mental condition of

    employees which

    determine their

    willingness to

    Co-operate

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    GROUPAcollectionofindividualswhohaveregularcontactandfrequentinteraction,mutualinfluence,commonfeelingof

    camaraderie,andwhoworktogethertoachieveacommonsetofgoals.

    Interpersonal relationship

    Aninterpersonalrelationshipisastrong,deep,orcloseassociationoracquaintancebetweentwoormorepeoplethatmay

    rangeindurationfrombrieftoenduring.Thisassociationmaybebasedoninference,love,solidarity,regularbusiness

    interactions,orsomeothertypeofsocialcommitment.Interpersonalrelationshipsareformedinthecontextofsocial,

    culturalandotherinfluences.Thecontextcanvaryfromfamilyorkinshiprelations,friendship,marriage,relationswith

    associates,work,clubs,neighborhoods,andplacesofworship.Theymayberegulatedbylaw,custom,ormutualagreement,

    andarethebasisofsocialgroupsandsocietyasawhole.

    Interpersonalbehaviourishowpeopleinteractwithoneanother.Specificallyitisstudiedasthewaypeoplebehavewhen

    thisbehaviourwouldaffectarelationship.Makingjokes,bodylanguage,givingpresentsandgoingtopartiesareallaspects

    0ofinterpersonalbehaviour.

    GROUP DYNAMICS

    Thesocialprocessbywhichpeopleinteractfacetofaceinsmallgroupsiscalledgroupdynamics.

    Agentscanalsobegivengrouptasks,whichinturnmaybeinfluencedbytheirown group dynamics.

    Pigeonsflocksusehierarchicalgroup dynamics todecidewheretoflyorbiter.

    Thosesynchronizeddipsandwavesseemtoholdsecretsaboutperceptionandgroup dynamics.

    HOW TO MAKE EFFECTIVE GROUPS

    1. Forming.Thisstageisusuallycharacterizedbysomeconfusionanduncertainty.Themajorgoalsofthegrouphave

    notbeenestablished.Thenatureofthetaskorleadershipofthegrouphasnotbeendetermined(Luthans,2005).

    Thus,formingisanorientationperiodwhenmembersgettoknowoneanotherandshareexpectationsaboutthe

    group.Memberslearnthepurposeofthegroupaswellastherulestobefollowed.Theformingstageshouldnotbe

    rushedbecausetrustandopennessmustbedeveloped.Thesefeelingsstrengtheninlaterstagesofdevelopment.

    Individualsareoftenconfusedduringthisstagebecauserolesarenotclearandtheremaynotbeastrongleader.

    2. Storming.Inthisstage,thegroupislikelytoseethehighestlevelofdisagreementandconflict.Membersoften

    challengegroupgoalsandstruggleforpower.Individualsoftenviefortheleadershippositionduringthisstageof

    development.Thiscanbeapositiveexperienceforallgroupsifmemberscanachievecohesivenessthrough

    resolution.Membersoftenvoiceconcernandcriticisminthisphase.Ifmembersarenotabletoresolvetheconflict,

    thenthegroupwilloftendisbandorcontinueinexistencebutwillremainineffectiveandneveradvancetotheother

    stages.

    3.

    Norming.Thisstageischaracterizedbytherecognitionofindividualdifferencesandsharedexpectations.Hopefully,atthisstagethegroupmemberswillbegintodevelopafeelingofgroupcohesionandidentity.Cooperativeeffort

    shouldbegintoyieldresults.Responsibilitiesaredividedamongmembersandthegroupdecideshowitwillevaluate

    progress.

    4. Performing.Performing,occurswhenthegrouphasmaturedandattainsafeelingofcohesiveness.Duringthisstage

    ofdevelopment,individualsacceptoneanotherandconflictisresolvedthroughgroupdiscussion.Membersofthe

    groupmakedecisionsthrougharationalprocessthatisfocusedonrelevantgoalsratherthanemotionalissues.

    5. Adjourning.Notallgroupsexperiencethisstageofdevelopmentbecauseitischaracterizedbythedisbandmentof

    thegroup.Somegroupsarerelativelypermanent(Luthans,2005).Reasonsthatgroupsdisbandvary,withcommon

    reasonsbeingtheaccomplishmentofthetaskorindividualsdecidingtogotheirownways.

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    Identifyandanalysetheproblem

    Collectinginformationandanalysingtheproblem.

    DrawingAlternatives.

    ChoosingabestfitAlternative.

    Implementthedecision.

    EvaluationandControl

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    Understanding Work Teams Ateamcomprisesagroupofpeopleorotheranimalslinkedinacommonpurpose.Humanteamsareespecially

    appropriateforconductingtasksthatarehighincomplexityandhavemanyinterdependentsubtasks. Ateambecomesmorethanjustacollectionofpeoplewhenastrongsenseofmutualcommitmentcreatessynergy,

    thusgeneratingperformancegreaterthanthesumoftheperformanceofitsindividualmembers.

    Thusteamsofgameplayerscanform(andre-form)topracticetheircraft/sport.Transportlogisticsexecutivescan

    selectteamsofhorses,dogsoroxenforthepurposeofconveyingpassengersorgoods.

    Allteamsaregroups,butallteamscannotbeGroups.

    All groups can be team, but all teams cannot be groups.

    GroupLongspan\Continuous.

    Teamfrequentlyshortspan\dependsontask.

    Difference between Groups and Teams:-

    Work Groups Teams

    Individualaccountability Individualandmutualaccountability

    Cometogethertoshare

    informationand

    perspectives

    Frequentlycometogetherfordiscussion,

    decisionmaking,problemsolving,and

    planning.

    Focusonindividualgoals Focusonteamgoals

    Produceindividualwork

    products

    Producecollectiveworkproducts

    Defineindividualroles,

    responsibilities,andtasks

    Defineindividualroles,responsibilities,and

    taskstohelpteamdoitswork;oftenshare

    androtatethem

    Concernwithone'sown

    outcomeandchallenges

    Concernwithoutcomesofeveryoneand

    challengestheteamfaces

    Purpose,goals,approachto

    workshapedbymanager

    Purpose,goals,approachtoworkshapedby

    teamleaderwithteammembers

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    ypes of eams

    A) Problem-Solving Teams Theyaretypicallycomposedof5to12employeesfromthesamedepartmentwhomeetfor

    afewhourseachweektodiscusswaysofimprovingquality,efficiency,andtheworkenvironment.Organizationsarerelayingmoreandmoreonproblem-solvingteamstohelpsolveorganizationalproblems.

    Inproblem-solvingteams,membersshareideasoroffersuggestionsonhowworkprocess

    andmethodscanbeimproved.Rarely,however,aretheseteamsgiventheauthorityto

    unilaterallyimplementanyoftheirsuggestedactions,

    B)B) Self-Managed Teams:- Theyaregenerallycomposedof10to15peoplewhotakeontheresponsibilitiesoftheirformer

    supervisors.Typically,theseresponsibilitiesinclude:

    a)Collectivecontroloverthepaceofwork,b)Determinationofworkassignments, c)Organizationofbreaks,and

    d)Collectivechoiceofinspectionproceduresused.

    Fullyself-managedteamsselecttheirownmembers,andthemembersevaluateeachothersperformance.Asa

    result,supervisorypositionstakeondecreasedimportanceandmayevenbeeliminated.

    C) Cross - Functional Teams: -Cross-functionalteamsaremadeofemployeesataboutthesamehierarchicallevel,butfrom

    differentworkareas,whocometogethertoaccomplishatask.

    Power & Politics

    Insocialscienceandpolitics,poweristheabilitytoinfluenceorcontrolthebehaviorofpeople.Thetermauthorityisoften

    usedforpowerperceivedaslegitimatebythesocialstructure.Powercanbeseenasevilorunjust,buttheexerciseofpower

    isacceptedasendemictohumansassocialbeings.

    ManagersPower:-

    i. Giverewards.

    j. Promiserewards.

    k. Threatentowithdrawcurrentrewards.

    l. Withdrawcurrentrewards.

    m. Threatentopunish

    n. Punish

    Sources of Power

    Powercomesfromtwosources:-1. Interpersonalsources:

    a. REWARD

    b. COERCIVE

    c. LIGITIMATE

    d. EXPERT

    e. REFERENT

    2. Structuralsources:

    a. KNOWLEDGE

    b. RESOURCES

    c.

    DECISIONMAKING.

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    POLITICSThewaybywhichpeoplegainandusepowerfallsunderthecategoryofPolitics.

    Politicalbehaviorinorganizationincludesthefollowing:-

    Withholding key information from decision makers.

    Whistle blowing.

    Spreading rumors

    Leaking confidential information

    Ingenious compromises.

    Exchanging favors for mutual benefits.

    Causes of Political Behavior:-

    Limited resources:-means,everyorganizationhavesomekindofscarcityofresources,andthepersonhaving

    controlofsuchresourcesyieldspower,andtheprocessoftryingtogaincontrolandexploittheresourcesresultsintopoliticstoact.

    Lust for power.

    Saturation in career: - Toriseinoncecareer,everyoneneedscompetence.Andhenceheresorttopoliticalbehavior

    tomoveupintheorganizationalhierarchy.

    Organization culture:-

    Organizational Change:-Whenthereisachangeinorganizationalstructureorwerestructure#,peopleinpowerful

    positionsplaypoliticalgamesinordertoremainincomfortzone.

    Ambiguous goals:-whenthegoalsareunclear,themembersareunawareoftheirrolestheneverybodyplays

    throughpowerandpolitics.

    Organizational ConflictOrganizational conflictisastateofdiscordcausedbytheactualorperceivedoppositionofneeds,valuesandinterests

    betweenpeopleworkingtogether.Conflicttakesmanyformsinorganizations.Thereistheinevitableclashbetweenformal

    authorityandpowerandthoseindividualsandgroupsaffected.Therearedisputesoverhowrevenuesshouldbedivided,

    howtheworkshouldbedone,andhowlongandhardpeopleshouldwork.Therearejurisdictionaldisagreementsamong

    individuals,departments,andbetweenunionsandmanagement.Therearesubtlerformsofconflictinvolvingrivalries,

    jealousies,personalityclashes,roledefinitions,andstrugglesforpowerandfavor.Thereisalsoconflictwithinindividuals

    betweencompetingneedsanddemandstowhichindividualsrespondindifferentways.

    Theappearancesofdifference,differenceofopinions,ofinterests

    Conflictresultswhenthereisagapbetweendifferenceofattitudes,interests,transactions,needsetc.

    Conflictisanexpressed strugglebetweenatleasttwo interdependent partieswhoperceiveincompatible goals,scare

    resources,andinterferencefromothersinachievingtheirgoals

    TYPESOFORGANIZATIONALCONFLICTS

    Conflictisclassifiedintothefollowingfourtypes:

    Interpersonal conflict refers toa conflict between two individuals. This occurs typicallydue to how people are

    different from one another. We have varied personalities which usually results to incompatible choices and

    opinions.Apparently, itis anaturaloccurrencewhichcaneventuallyhelp inpersonalgrowthor developingyour

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    relationshipswithothers.Inaddition,comingupwithadjustmentsisnecessaryformanagingthistypeofconflict.

    However,wheninterpersonalconflictgetstoodestructive,callinginamediatorwouldhelpsoastohaveitresolved.

    Intrapersonal conflict occurswithinanindividual.Theexperiencetakesplaceinthepersonsmind.Hence,itisa

    type of conflict that is psychological involving the individuals thoughts, values, principles and emotions.

    Interpersonalconflictmaycomeindifferentscales,fromthesimplermundaneoneslikedecidingwhetherornotto

    goorganicforlunchtoonesthatcanaffectmajordecisionssuchaschoosingacareerpath.Furthermore,thistypeof

    conflictcanbequitedifficulttohandleifyoufindithardtodecipheryourinnerstruggles.Itleadstorestlessnessand

    uneasiness,orcanevencausedepression.Insuchoccasions,itwouldbebesttoseekawaytoletgooftheanxiety

    throughcommunicatingwithotherpeople.Eventually,whenyoufindyourselfoutofthesituation,youcanbecome

    more empoweredasaperson.Thus, the experienceevoked apositive changewhichwillhelpyou inyour own

    personalgrowth.

    Intragroup conflict is a typeofconflictthathappensamong individualswithina team. Theincompatibilitiesand

    misunderstandings among these individuals lead to an intragroup conflict. It is arises from interpersonal

    disagreements(e.g.teammembershavedifferentpersonalitieswhichmayleadtotension)ordifferencesinviews

    andideas(e.g.inapresentation,membersoftheteammightfindthenotionspresentedbytheonepresidingtobeerroneousduetotheirdifferencesinopinion).Withina team,conflictcanbehelpfulincomingupwithdecisions

    whichwilleventuallyallowthem toreach their objectivesasa team.However, if thedegreeofconflict disrupts

    harmonyamongthemembers,thensomeseriousguidancefromadifferentpartywillbeneededforittobesettled.

    Intergroup conflict takesplacewhenamisunderstandingarisesamongdifferentteamswithinanorganization.For

    instance,thesalesdepartmentofanorganizationcancomeinconflictwiththecustomersupportdepartment.This

    isduetothevariedsetsofgoalsandinterestsofthesedifferentgroups.Inaddition,competitionalsocontributesfor

    intergroupconflict toarise. There are other factorswhich fuel this type ofconflict. Some of these factorsmay

    includea rivalryinresourcesortheboundariessetbyagrouptootherswhichestablishestheirownidentityasa

    team.

    Conflictmayseemtobeaproblemtosome,butthisisnthowconflictshouldbeperceived.Ontheotherhand,itisan

    opportunityforgrowthandcanbeaneffectivemeansofopeningupamonggroupsorindividuals.However,whenconflict

    beginstodrawsbackproductivityandgiveswaytomoreconflicts,thenconflictmanagementwouldbeneededtocomeup

    witharesolution.

    Examples:-

    Boycott

    Tocombineagainstalandlord,tradesman,employerorotherpersonstowithheldsocialorbusinessrelationsfromhim,and

    todeterothersfromholdingsuchrelationstosubjecttoaboycott.

    Lockout

    Theclosingofaplaceofemploymentorthesuspensionofworkortherefusalbyanemployertocontinuetoemployany

    numberofpersonsemployedbyhiminconsequenceofadispute,donewithaviewtocompellingthosepersons,orto

    aidinganotheremployerincompellingpersonsemployedbyhim,toaccepttermsorconditionsoforaffectingemployment.

    Strike

    Thecessationofworkbyabodyofpersonsemployedactingincombinationoraconcertedrefusalorarefusalunder

    commonunderstanding,ofanynumberofpersonsemployedtocontinuetoworkforanemployerinconsequenceofa

    dispute,doneasameansofcompellingtheiremployeroremployerofanyotherpersonsorbodyofpersons,oranyperson

    orbodyofpersonsemployedtoaccepttermsorconditionsoforaffectingemployment.

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    EGOTIATIO

    Discussionaimedatreachinganagreement.

    Todealorbargainwithanotherorothers,asinthepreparationofatreatyorcontractorinpreliminariestoa

    businessdeal.

    MethodsofhandlingConflicts:-

    o Thirdpartyarbitration

    o Mediation

    o Expertsadvice

    Stages of Negotiation

    Inordertoachieveadesirableoutcome,itmaybeusefultofollowastructuredapproachtonegotiation.Forexample,ina

    worksituationameetingmayneedtobearrangedinwhichallpartiesinvolvedcancometogether.

    Theprocessofnegotiationincludesthefollowingstages:

    1. Preparation

    2.

    Discussion3. Clarificationofgoals

    4. NegotiatetowardsaWin-Winoutcome

    5. Agreement

    6. Implementationofacourseofaction

    1. Preparation

    Beforeanynegotiationtakesplace,adecisionneedstobetakenastowhenandwhereameetingwilltakeplacetodiscuss

    theproblemandwhowillattend.Settingalimitedtime-scalecanalsobehelpfultopreventthedisagreementcontinuing.

    Thisstageinvolvesensuringallthepertinentfactsofthesituationareknowninordertoclarifyyourownposition.Inthe

    workexampleabove,thiswouldincludeknowingtherulesofyourorganisation,towhomhelpisgiven,whenhelpisnot

    feltappropriateandthegroundsforsuchrefusals.Yourorganisationmaywellhavepoliciestowhichyoucanreferinpreparationforthenegotiation.

    Undertakingpreparationbeforediscussingthedisagreementwillhelptoavoidfurtherconflictandunnecessarilywasting

    timeduringthemeeting.

    2.

    Discussion

    Duringthisstage,individualsormembersofeachsideputforwardthecaseastheyseeit,i.e.theirunderstandingofthe

    situation.

    Keyskillsduringthisstageincludequestioning,listeningandclarifying.

    Sometimesitishelpfultotakenotesduringthediscussionstagetorecordallpointsputforwardincasethereisneedfor

    furtherclarification.Itisextremelyimportanttolisten,aswhendisagreementtakesplaceitiseasytomakethemistakeof

    sayingtoomuchandlisteningtoolittle.Eachsideshouldhaveanequalopportunitytopresenttheircase.

    3. Clarifying Goals

    Fromthediscussion,thegoals,interestsandviewpointsofbothsidesofthedisagreementneedtobeclarified.

    Itishelpfultolistthesefactorsinorderofpriority.Throughthisclarificationitisoftenpossibletoidentifyorestablishsome

    commonground.Clarificationisanessentialpartofthenegotiationprocess,withoutitmisunderstandingsarelikelytooccur

    whichmaycauseproblemsandbarrierstoreachingabeneficialoutcome.

    4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome

    Thisstagefocusesonwhatistermeda'win-win'outcomewherebothsidesfeeltheyhavegainedsomethingpositive

    throughtheprocessofnegotiationandbothsidesfeeltheirpointofviewhasbeentakenintoconsideration.

    Awin-winoutcomeisusuallythebestresult.Althoughthismaynotalwaysbepossible,throughnegotiation,itshouldbethe

    ultimategoal.

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    Suggestionsofalternativestrategiesandcompromisesneedtobeconsideredatthispoint.Compromisesareoftenpositive

    alternativeswhichcanoftenachievegreaterbenefitforallconcernedcomparedtoholdingtotheoriginalpositions.

    5.

    Agreement

    Agreementcanbeachievedonceunderstandingofbothsidesviewpointsandinterestshavebeenconsidered.

    Itisessentialtoforeverybodyinvolvedtokeepanopenmindinordertoachieveanacceptablesolution.Anyagreement

    needstobemadeperfectlyclearsothatbothsidesknowwhathasbeendecided.

    6. Implementing a Course of Action

    Fromtheagreement,acourseofactionhastobeimplementedtocarrythroughthedecision.

    Seeourpages:Strategic ThinkingandAction Planningformoreinformation.

    Work Stress

    Occupational stressisstressinvolvingwork.AccordingtothecurrentWorldHealthOrganization's(WHO)definition,

    occupationalorwork-relatedstress"istheresponsepeoplemayhavewhenpresentedwithworkdemandsandpressures

    thatarenotmatchedtotheirknowledgeandabilitiesandwhichchallengetheirabilitytocope.

    Jobstressresultsfromvariousinteractionsoftheworkerandtheenvironmentoftheworktheyperformtheirduties.

    Location,gender,environment,andmanyotherfactorscontributetothebuildupofstress.Jobstressresultsfromthe

    interactionoftheworkerandtheconditionsofwork.Viewsdifferontheimportanceofworkercharacteristicsversus

    workingconditionsastheprimarycauseofjobstress.Thedifferingviewpointssuggestdifferentwaystopreventstressat

    work.Differencesinindividualcharacteristicssuchaspersonalityandcopingskillscanbeveryimportantinpredicting

    whethercertainjobconditionswillresultinstress.Inotherwords,whatisstressfulforonepersonmaynotbeaproblemfor

    someoneelse.Thisviewpointunderliespreventionstrategiesthatfocusonworkersandwaystohelpthemcopewithdemandingjobconditions.

    Working conditions

    Althoughtheimportanceofindividualdifferencescannotbeignored,scientificevidencesuggeststhatcertainworking

    conditionsarestressfultomostpeople.Suchevidencearguesforagreateremphasisonworkingconditionsasthekey

    sourceofjobstress,andforjobredesignasaprimarypreventionstrategy.Largesurveysofworkingconditions,including

    conditionsrecognizedasriskfactorsforjobstress,wereconductedinmemberstatesoftheEuropeanUnionin1990,1995,

    and2000.

    Workload

    Inanoccupationalsetting,dealingwithworkloadcanbestressfulandserveasastressorforemployees.Therearethreeaspectsofworkloadthatcanbestressful.

    Quantitative workload or overload: Having more work to do than can be accomplished comfortably.

    Qualitative workload: Having work that is too difficult.

    Underload: Having work that fails to use a worker's skills and abilities.

    Workloadhasbeenlinkedtoanumberofstrains,includinganxiety,physiologicalreactionssuchascortisol,fatigue,

    backache,headache,andgastrointestinalproblems.

    Workloadasaworkdemandisamajorcomponentofthedemand-controlmodelofstress.Thismodelsuggeststhatjobs

    withhighdemandscanbestressful,especiallywhentheindividualhaslowcontroloverthejob.Inotherwordscontrol

    servesasabufferorprotectivefactorwhendemandsorworkloadishigh.Thismodelwasexpandedintothedemand-

    control-supportmodelthatsuggeststhatthecombinationofhighcontrolandhighsocialsupportatworkbufferstheeffects

    ofhighdemands.

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    Asaworkdemand,workloadisalsorelevanttothejobdemands-resourcesmodelofstressthatsuggeststhatjobsare

    stressfulwhendemands(e.g.,workload)exceedtheindividual'sresourcestodealwiththem.

    Long hours

    AsubstantialpercentageofAmericansworkverylonghours.Byoneestimate,morethan26%ofmenandmorethan11%of

    womenworked50hoursperweekormorein2000.Thesefiguresrepresentaconsiderableincreaseoverthepreviousthree

    decades,especiallyforwomen.AccordingtotheDepartmentofLabor,therehavebeenariseinincreasingamountofhours

    intheworkplacebyemployedwomen,anincreaseinextendedworkweeks(>40hours)bymen,andaconsiderable

    increaseincombinedworkinghoursamongworkingcouples,particularlycoupleswithyoungchildren.

    Status

    Aperson'sstatusintheworkplacecanalsoaffectlevelsofstress.Whileworkplacestresshasthepotentialtoaffect

    employeesofallcategories;thosewhohaveverylittleinfluencetothosewhomakemajordecisionsforthecompany.

    However,lesspowerfulemployees(thatis,thosewhohavelesscontrolovertheirjobs)aremorelikelytosufferstressthan

    powerfulworkers.Managersaswellasotherkindsofworkersarevulnerabletoworkoverload.

    Economic factorsEconomicfactorsthatemployeesarefacinginthe21stcenturyhavebeenlinkedtoincreasedstresslevels.Researchersand

    socialcommentatorshavepointedoutthatthecomputerandcommunicationsrevolutionshavemadecompaniesmore

    efficientandproductivethaneverbefore.Thisbooninproductivityhowever,hascausedhigherexpectationsandgreater

    competition,puttingmorestressontheemployee(Primm,2005).

    Thefollowingeconomicfactorsmayleadtoworkplacestress:

    Pressurefrominvestors,whocanquicklywithdrawtheirmoneyfromcompanystocks.

    Thelackoftradeandprofessionalunionsintheworkplace.

    Inter-companyrivalriescausedbytheeffortsofcompaniestocompeteglobally

    Thewillingnessofcompaniestoswiftlylayoffworkerstocopewithchangingbusinessenvironments.

    BullyingBullyingintheworkplacecanalsocontributetostress.Thiscanbebrokendownintofivedifferentcategories:

    Threattoprofessionstatus

    Threattopersonalstatus

    Isolation

    Excesswork

    Destabilizationi.e.lackofcreditforwork,meaninglesstasksetc.

    Thisineffectcancreateahostileworkenvironmentfortheemployeesthat,whichinturn,canaffecttheirworkethicand

    contributiontotheorganization.

    Narcissism and psychopathy

    Mainarticles:NarcissismintheworkplaceandPsychopathyintheworkplace

    Thomassuggeststhattheretendstobeahigherlevelofstresswithpeoplewhoworkorinteractwithanarcissist,whichin

    turnincreasesabsenteeismandstaffturnover.[37]Boddyfindsthesamedynamicwherethereiscorporatepsychopathinthe

    organisation.

    Workplace conflict

    Interpersonalconflictamongpeopleatworkhasbeenshowntobeoneofthemostfrequentlynotedstressorsfor

    employees.Conflicthasbeennotedtobeanindicatorofthebroaderconceptofworkplaceharassment.Itrelatestoother

    stressorsthatmightco-occur,suchasroleconflict,roleambiguity,andworkload.Italsorelatestostrainssuchasanxiety,

    depression,physicalsymptoms,andlowlevelsofjobsatisfaction.

    Sexual harassment

    Womenaremorelikelythanmentoexperiencesexualharassment,especiallyforthoseworkingintraditionallymasculine

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    occupations.Inaddition,astudyindicatedthatsexualharassmentnegativelyaffectsworkers'psychologicalwell-being.

    Anotherstudyfoundthatlevelofharassmentatworkplacesleadtodifferencesinperformanceofworkrelatedtasks.High

    levelsofharassmentwererelatedtotheworstoutcomes,andnoharassmentwasrelatedtoleastnegativeoutcomes.In

    otherwords,womenwhohadexperiencedahigherlevelofharassmentweremorelikelytoperformpoorlyatworkplaces.

    Signs and symptoms of excessive job and workplace stress

    Feelinganxious,irritable,ordepressed

    Apathy,lossofinterestinwork

    Problemssleeping

    Fatigue

    Troubleconcentrating

    Muscletensionorheadaches

    Stomachproblems

    Socialwithdrawal

    Lossofsexdrive

    Usingalcoholordrugstocope

    revention

    Acombinationoforganizationalchangeandstressmanagementisoftenthemostusefulapproachforpreventingstressat

    work.

    Bothorganizationsandemployeescanemploystrategiesatorganizationalandindividuallevels.Generally,organizationallevelstrategiesincludejobproceduremodificationandemployeeassistanceprograms(EPA).Individuallevel

    strategiesincludetakingvacation.Gettingarealisticjobpreviewtounderstandthenormalworkloadandschedulesofthe

    jobwillalsohelppeopletoidentifywhetherornotthejobfitthem.

    HowtoChangetheOrganizationtoPreventJobStress

    Ensurethattheworkloadisinlinewithworkers'capabilitiesandresources.

    Designjobstoprovidemeaning,stimulation,andopportunitiesforworkerstousetheirskills.

    Clearlydefineworkers'rolesandresponsibilities.

    Toreduceworkplacestress,managersmaymonitortheworkloadgivenouttotheemployees.Alsowhiletheyare

    beingtrainedtheyshouldletemployeesunderstandandbenotifiedofstressawareness.

    Giveworkersopportunitiestoparticipateindecisionsandactionsaffectingtheirjobs.

    Improvecommunications-reduceuncertaintyaboutcareerdevelopmentandfutureemploymentprospects.

    Provideopportunitiesforsocialinteractionamongworkers.

    Establishworkschedulesthatarecompatiblewithdemandsandresponsibilitiesoutsidethejob.

    Combatworkplacediscrimination(basedonrace,gender,nationalorigin,religionorlanguage).

    Bringinginanobjectiveoutsidersuchasaconsultanttosuggestafreshapproachtopersistentproblems.

    Introducingaparticipativeleadershipstyletoinvolveasmanysubordinatesaspossibletoresolvestress-producing

    problems.

    Encouragework-lifebalancethroughfamily-friendlybenefitsandpolicies

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    RGANIZATI NAL STRUCTURE

    Anorganizational structuredefineshowactivitiessuchastaskallocation,coordinationandsupervisionaredirectedtowards

    theachievementoforganizationalaims.Itcanalsobeconsideredastheviewingglassorperspectivethroughwhichindividualsseetheirorganizationanditsenvironment.

    Anorganizationcanbestructuredinmanydifferentways,dependingontheirobjectives.Thestructureofanorganization

    willdeterminethemodesinwhichitoperatesandperforms.

    Organizationalstructureallowstheexpressedallocationofresponsibilitiesfordifferentfunctionsandprocessestodifferent

    entitiessuchasthebranch,department,workgroupandindividual.

    Organizationalstructureaffectsorganizationalactionintwobigways.First,itprovidesthefoundationonwhichstandard

    operatingproceduresandroutinesrest.Second,itdetermineswhichindividualsgettoparticipateinwhichdecision-making

    processes,andthustowhatextenttheirviewsshapetheorganizationsactions.

    Job design(alsoreferredtoaswork designortask design)isthespecificationofcontents,methodsandrelationshipofjobs

    inordertosatisfytechnologicalandorganizationalrequirementsaswellasthesocialandpersonalrequirementsofthejob

    holder.Itsprinciplesaregearedtowardshowthenatureofaperson'sjobaffectstheirattitudesandbehavioratwork,

    particularlyrelatingtocharacteristicssuchasskillvarietyandautonomy.

    Theaimofajobdesignistoimprovejobsatisfaction,toimprovethrough-put,toimprovequalityandtoreduceemployee

    problems(e.g.,grievances,absenteeism).

    Anarrangementintheworkplacethathastheobjectiveofovercomingemployeealienationandjobdissatisfaction

    thatcomesaboutfrommechanicalandrepetitivetasksintheworkplace.Workdesignisusedbyorganizationsto

    boostproductivitybyofferingemployeesnon-monetaryrewardssuchassatisfactionfromagreatersenseof

    personalachievement.Alsocalledjobdesign.

    Techniques:-

    Job rotation

    Job rotationisajobdesignmethodwhichisabletoenhancemotivation,developworkers'outlook,increaseproductivity,

    improvetheorganization'sperformanceonvariouslevelsbyitsmulti-skilledworkers,andprovidesnewopportunitiesto

    improvetheattitude,thought,capabilitiesandskillsofworkers.Jobrotationisalsoprocessbywhichemployeeslaterally

    mobilizeandservetheirtasksindifferentorganizationallevels;whenanindividualexperiencesdifferentpostsand

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    responsibilitiesinanorganization,abilityincreasestoevaluatehiscapabilitiesintheorganization.

    Job enlargement

    HulinandBlood(1968)defineJob enlargementastheprocessofallowingindividualworkerstodeterminetheirownpace

    (withinlimits),toserveastheirowninspectorsbygivingthemresponsibilityforqualitycontrol,torepairtheirownmistakes,

    toberesponsiblefortheirownmachineset-upandrepair,andtoattainchoiceofmethod.FrederickHerzbergreferredto

    theadditionofinterrelatedtasksas'horizontaljobloading'.

    Job enrichment

    Job enrichmentincreasestheemployeesautonomyovertheplanningandexecutionoftheirownwork.Jobenrichmenthas

    thesamemotivationaladvantagesofjobenlargement,howeverithastheaddedbenefitofgrantingworkersautonomy.

    FrederickHerzbergviewedjobenrichmentas'verticaljobloading'becauseitalsoincludestasksformerlyperformedby

    someoneatahigherlevelwhereplanningandcontrolareinvolved.

    ORGANIZATION CULTURECulture is how organizations DO THINGS.

    Organizational cultureisthebehaviorofhumanswithinanorganizationandthemeaningthatpeopleattachtothose

    behaviors.Cultureincludestheorganization'svision,values,norms,systems,symbols,language,assumptions,beliefs,and

    habits.Itisalsothepatternofsuchcollectivebehaviorsandassumptionsthataretaughttoneworganizationalmembersas

    awayofperceiving,andeventhinkingandfeeling.Organizationalcultureaffectsthewaypeopleandgroupsinteractwith

    eachother,withclients,andwithstakeholders.

    RavasiandSchultzstatedthatorganizationalcultureisasetofsharedmentalassumptionsthatguideinterpretationand

    actioninorganizationsbydefiningappropriatebehaviorforvarioussituations.Althoughacompanymayhaveits"ownuniqueculture",inlargerorganizationstherearesometimesconflictingculturesthatco-existowingtothecharacteristicsof

    differentmanagementteams.Organizationalculturemayaffectemployees'identificationwithanorganization.

    AccordingtoNeedle,organizationalculturerepresentsthecollectivevalues,beliefsandprinciplesoforganizational

    membersandisaproductofsuchfactorsashistory,product,market,technology,andstrategy,typeofemployees,

    managementstyle,andnationalculture.Corporatecultureontheotherhandreferstothoseculturesdeliberatelycreated

    bymanagementtoachievespecificstrategicends.

    Factors and elements

    GerryJohnson(1988)describedaculturalweb,identifyinganumberofelementsthatcanbeusedtodescribeorinfluence

    organizationalculture: The paradigm:Whattheorganizationisabout,whatitdoes,itsmission,itsvalues.

    Control systems:Theprocessesinplacetomonitorwhatisgoingon.Rolecultureswouldhavevastrulebooks.There

    wouldbemorerelianceonindividualisminapowerculture.

    Organizational structures:Reportinglines,hierarchies,andthewaythatworkflowsthroughthebusiness.

    Power structures:Whomakesthedecisions,howwidelyspreadispower,andonwhatispowerbased?

    Symbols:Theseincludeorganizationallogosanddesigns,butalsoextendtosymbolsofpowersuchasparking

    spacesandexecutivewashrooms.

    Rituals and routines:Managementmeetings,boardreportsandsoonmaybecomemorehabitualthannecessary.

    Stories and myths:buildupaboutpeopleandevents,andconveyamessageaboutwhatisvaluedwithinthe

    organization.

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    Organizational change and development Organization development(OD)isadeliberatelyplanned,organization-wideefforttoincreaseanorganization's

    effectivenessand/orefficiencyand/ortoenabletheorganizationtoachieveitsstrategicgoals.ODtheoristsand

    practitionersdefineitinvariousways.Itsmultiplicityofdefinitionreflectsthecomplexityofthedisciplineandisresponsible

    foritslackofunderstanding.Forexample,VasudevanhasreferredtoODbeingaboutpromotingorganizationalreadinessto

    meetchange,andithasbeensaidthatODisasystemiclearninganddevelopmentstrategyintendedtochangethebasicsof

    beliefs,attitudesandrelevanceofvalues,andstructureofthecurrentorganizationtobetterabsorbdisruptivetechnologies,

    shrinkingorexplodingmarketopportunitiesandensuingchallengesandchaos.

    ItisworthunderstandingwhatODisnot.Itisnottraining, personaldevelopment,teamdevelopmentor teambuilding,

    humanresourcedevelopment(HRD),learninganddevelopment(L&D)orapartofHRalthoughitisoftenmistakenly

    understoodassomeorallofthese.ODinterventionsareaboutchangesoinvolvepeople-butODalsodevelopsprocesses,

    systemsandstructures.TheprimarypurposeofODistodeveloptheorganization,nottotrainordevelopthestaff.

    Objective of OD

    TheobjectiveofODis:

    1.

    Toincreasethelevelofinter-personaltrustamongemployees.

    2. Toincreaseemployees'levelofsatisfactionandcommitment.

    3. Toconfrontproblemsinsteadofneglectingthem.

    4. Toeffectivelymanageconflict.

    5. Toincreasecooperationandcollaborationamongtheemployees.

    6. Toincreasetheorganization'sproblemsolving.

    7. Toputinplaceprocessesthatwillhelpimprovetheongoingoperationoftheorganizationonacontinuousbasis.

    Thechangeagentmustaddresshimselftoallofthesehazardsandobstacles.Someofthethingswhichwillhelphimare:

    1. Arealneedintheclientsystemtochange

    2. Genuinesupportfrommanagement

    3. Settingapersonalexample:listening,supportingbehavior

    4. Asoundbackgroundinthebehavioralsciences

    5. Aworkingknowledgeofsystemstheory

    6. Abeliefinmanasarational,self-educatingbeingfullycapableoflearningbetterwaystodothings.

    Afewexamplesofinterventionsincludeteambuilding,coaching,LargeGroupInterventions,mentoring,performance

    appraisal,downsizing,TQM,andleadershipdevelopment.

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    }rganizati}n FailureGreatorganizationsdontjustemulatesuccess,theylearnfromfailure.Associationsandconsortiathataspiretogreatness

    shouldlookatthefailuresofothersforguidance.Today,thereisnoshortageoffailuresfromwhichtolearn.InNovemberof

    2009,PaulLight,aprofessorofpublicserviceatNewYorkUniversity,predictedthat,ataminimum,morethan100,000non-

    profitorganizationswouldbewipedoutinthenexttwoyears.Giventhisdireforecast,itsmoreimportantthaneverfor

    organizationstobeawareofthecommonpitfallsthatcancausefailure.Herearesomeofthethingsthathavecaused

    organizationstofailandthelessonswecanlearn.

    Associationsthatfailtendtodooneormoreofthefollowing:

    Lose mission focus

    Stray into the wrong business

    Fail to communicate benefits

    Take members for granted Price services inappropriately

    Give potential members a free ride

    Ignore the competition

    Resist change

    Fall into merger mania

    Accept irrelevance

    Reasonsoffailure:-

    1. Manmadehazards

    2. Naturalhazards


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