EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHERS’ MOTIVATION ON JOB
PERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KITAGWENDA
COUNTY, KAMWENGE DISTRICT, UGANDA
EMMANUEL KAKAAGA BYARUHANGA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA
MAY, 2018
ii
Effectiveness of Teachers’ Motivation on Job Performance in Public Primary
Schools in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District, Uganda
EMMANUEL KAKAAGA BYARUHANGA
(REG. NO.: 1022043)
A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Postgraduate Studies in
Education in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of Degree
of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Administration and Planning.
Faculty of Education
THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA
May, 2018
iii
DECLARATION
iv
DEDICATION
With great humility, I dedicate this dissertation to my beloved parents: Gideon
Kakaaga and Maria Dinavensi Kyomuhangi, for their faithful cooperation with God to
let me be. I also dedicate it to my Bishop, His Lordship, The Rt. Rev. Dr. Robert K.
Muhiirwa Akiiki, the Local Ordinary of Fort Portal Catholic Diocese, who granted
and blessed me with permission to pursue postgraduate studies.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe my sincere thanks to Almighty God for the good health, opportunity,
and blessings throughout this academic journey. I also sincerely thank His Lordship,
The Rt. Rev. Robert K. Muhiirwa Akiiki, Bishop of Fort Portal Catholic Diocese, for
the permission and support he gave me to pursue doctoral studies at The Catholic
University of Eastern Africa. I feel greatly indebted to my sponsors, Aid to the
Church in Need, for the financial support that has enabled me to achieve my academic
dreams.
I am grateful to my University Supervisors: Prof. Marcella Momanyi,
Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, and Rev. Dr. Dagobert Kabendera,
Lecturer, Faculty of Education, for their unwavering patience, encouragement,
insights, guidance, corrections and useful suggestions they offered me from the start
to the completion of my PhD Dissertation.
Most sincere thanks to Sr. Dr. Jacinta M. Adhiambo, Dean, Faculty of
Education, and to all my dear lecturers, at The Catholic University of Eastern Africa -
Nairobi, for their guidance during my doctoral studies. I am grateful to Mr. Stephen
Mailu, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Graduate Training, who offered me
professional help whenever I needed it. Special thanks to Ms. Miriam Ayieko, Editor,
CUEA Press Department, who did the editing of my work. I am also indebted to my
friends especially Rev. Fr. Deusdedit Twesigyomwe Ekyikondanjojo and Rev. Fr.
Gerald Bwenvu, and my other fellow students at CUEA, for the warm and sincere
friendship and company we shared together while at The Catholic University of
Eastern Africa. That offered me the social support I needed most.
I am greatly indebted to all my study participants for their enriching
information I accessed during the field study. I acknowledge the contribution of the
vi
DEO, Kamwenge District, Mr. Eric Tumwiringire, and the District Inspector of
schools, Mr. Apolo Mugisha Mulinde, in-charge of Kitagwenda County, all head
teachers and teachers of the primary schools where the field study was conducted.
May God bless you all abundantly.
vii
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the effectiveness of teachers’ motivation on job
performance in public primary schools. There is public concern for deteriorating
teachers’ professional conduct in Uganda characterized by teachers’ poor time
management, absenteeism, inadequate preparations and syllabus coverage, and
poor discipline management that compromise teacher job performance. Literature
revealed need of motivating teachers in order to achieve improved teachers’
performance in schools. Research study was guided by questions such as, what
professional development opportunities are available for teachers’ job
performance? How does remuneration influence teachers’ performance? To what
extent does supervision influence teachers’ performance? How do working
conditions influence teachers’ performance? Convergent parallel mixed methods,
particularly cross-section survey and phenomenological designs guided the study.
Stratified random sampling, simple random sampling, and purposive sampling
procedures were used to select participants. Research instruments included
questionnaires, in-depth interview guide, and Focus Group Discussion guide.
Descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were used to summarize
quantitative data, and Inferential statistics T-test and ANOVA were used to test
hypotheses. Qualitative data was analysed by generating codes and categories.
Findings revealed that workshops, in-service training and seminars were provided
for teachers and enhanced their teaching effectiveness. Teachers received a
meagre consolidated salary which left most teachers dissatisfied. External and
internal instructional supervision was conducted but the District Inspector of
Schools had facilitation challenges. Few schools had staff quarters, other teachers
catered for themselves. Schools had incomplete classroom structures, inadequate
reference materials and textbooks which compromised effective teaching. The
study recommends the government to increase funding for more workshops and
seminars; increase teachers’ salary and bridge salary gap between teachers and
head teachers. The government should complete the already existing classroom
structures, increase funding for supervision facilitation; construct staff quarters
and staffroom for each school; and add more textbooks.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION........................................................................................................ iii
DEDICATION............................................................................................................ iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ v
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ viii
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................ xiv
CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background of the Problem .............................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Motivation of Teachers ............................................................................ 5
1.1.2 Performance of the Education System in Uganda ................................. 14
1.1.3 Education System’s Efficiency .............................................................. 14
1.1.4 Quality of Education: A Major Issue for the System ............................. 16
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................... 22
1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................ 24
1.4 Research Hypotheses ...................................................................................... 24
1.5 Significance of the Study ............................................................................... 25
1.6 Scope and Delimitations of the Study ............................................................ 27
1.7 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................. 28
1.7.1 Strengths of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory ......................................... 30
1.7.2 Weaknesses of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory .................................... 32
1.7.3 Application of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory to the Study ................. 33
1.8 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................. 35
1.9 Operational Definitions of Key Terms ........................................................... 38
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................... 40
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............................................................. 40
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 40
2.2 Critical Review of Related Theories .............................................................. 40
2.2.1 Abraham Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory ....................................... 40
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2.2.2 Existence, Relatedness and Growth Theory .......................................... 42
2.3 Influence of Teachers’ Professional Development Opportunities on Job
Performance .................................................................................................... 43
2.4 Influence of Teachers’ Remuneration on Job Performance ........................... 55
2.5 Influence of Instructional Supervision on Job Performance .......................... 63
2.6 Influence of Working Conditions on Job Performance .................................. 75
2.7 Influence of Teachers’ Personal Traits on Job Performance .......................... 85
2.7.1 Gender and Job Performance ................................................................. 85
2.7.2 Professional Qualification Levels and Job Performance ....................... 89
2.7.3 Age and Job Performance ...................................................................... 92
2.8 Summary of Reviewed Related Empirical Studies and Identification of
Knowledge Gaps ............................................................................................ 95
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................... 98
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................................................... 98
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 98
3.2 Locale of the Study ......................................................................................... 98
3.3 Research Design ............................................................................................. 99
3.4 Target Population ......................................................................................... 102
3.5 Description of Sample and Sampling Techniques ....................................... 103
3.5.1 Rural Public Primary Schools .............................................................. 104
3.5.2 Head Teachers ...................................................................................... 105
3.5.3 Teachers ............................................................................................... 106
3.5.4 Class Teachers ..................................................................................... 107
3.5.5 District Education Officer .................................................................... 107
5.5.6 District Inspectors of School ................................................................ 108
3.6 Description of Research Instruments ........................................................... 109
3.6.1 Questionnaires for Teachers ................................................................ 110
3.6.2 In-depth Interview guide for Head Teachers ....................................... 111
3.6.3 In-depth Interview guide for District Education Officer ..................... 112
3.6.4 In-depth Interview guide for District Inspectors of Schools ................ 112
3.6.5 Focus Group Discussion Guide for class teachers ............................... 113
3.7 Validity, Pilot Testing, and Reliability of Research Instruments ................. 114
3.7.1 Content Validity ................................................................................... 114
3.7.2 Pilot Testing ......................................................................................... 116
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3.7.3 Reliability of Quantitative Instruments ................................................ 116
3.7.4 Reliability of Qualitative Instruments .................................................. 117
3.8 Description of Data Collection Procedures .................................................. 118
3.9 Description of Data Analysis Procedures ..................................................... 118
3.9.1 Quantitative Data Analysis Procedures ............................................... 119
3.9.2 Qualitative Data Analysis .................................................................... 120
3.10 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................. 123
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................... 126
ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................ 126
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 126
4.2 Return Rates of Various Categories of Participants ..................................... 126
4.3 Demographic Information of the Participants .............................................. 128
4.3.1 Participants’ Gender............................................................................. 128
4.3.2 Teacher Participants’ Age-group ......................................................... 130
4.3.3 Professional Qualification Levels of Participating Teachers ............... 132
4.3.4 Teachers’ Years of Teaching Experience ............................................ 133
4.3.5 Distribution of Teachers by their Salary Scale .................................... 135
4.4 Influence of Teachers’ Professional Development Opportunities on Job
Performance ........................................................................................................ 137
4.4.1 Testing of the Null Hypothesis One ..................................................... 149
4.5 Influence of Teachers’ Remuneration on Job Performance ......................... 151
4.5.1 Testing of Null Hypothesis Two .......................................................... 159
4.6 Influence of Instructional Supervision on Job Performance ........................ 162
4.7 Influence of Working Conditions on Job Performance ................................ 172
4.7.1 Testing of Null Hypothesis Three ........................................................ 186
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................... 189
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 189
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 189
5.2 Summary of the Findings ............................................................................. 189
5.3 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 195
5.4 Study Contribution to Knowledge ................................................................ 197
5.5 Recommendations ........................................................................................ 199
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5.5.1 The Government .................................................................................. 199
5.5.2 Ministry of Education and Sports ........................................................ 200
5.5.3 The Office of the District Education Officer ....................................... 204
5.5.4 Head Teachers and Teachers ............................................................... 204
5.5.5 Parents and School Communities ........................................................ 206
5.5.6 Foundation Bodies ............................................................................... 206
5.7 Areas for Further Research ........................................................................... 207
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 209
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 223
Appendix A: Questionnaire for Teachers .............................................................. 223
Appendix B: Interview Guide for Head Teachers ................................................. 238
Appendix C: Interview Guide for District Education Officer ............................... 239
Appendix D: Interview Guide for District Inspectors of Schools ......................... 240
Appendix E: Focus Group Discussion Guide for Designated Class Teachers ...... 241
Appendix F: Informed Consent Form ................................................................... 243
Appendix G: Cronbach’s Alpha showing Reliability Statistics ............................ 244
Appendix H: Photographs ..................................................................................... 245
Appendix I: Map of Uganda showing District Boundaries ................................... 249
Appendix J: Introductory Letter to the Ministry of Education and Sports ............ 250
Appendix K: Research Permit from DEO ............................................................. 251
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Internal Efficiency Coefficient in the Three Sub-sectors, Government
Schools, 2010 ................................................................................................. 15
Table 2: Percentage of Pupils who are not Proficient in given Subjects, 2011 ........... 16
Table 3: Teachers’ Gross Salaries per Month in US Dollars (2005-2006) .................. 60
Table 4: Target Population and Sample Size of Schools ........................................... 104
Table 5: Summary of Sampling Matrix ..................................................................... 109
Table 6: Methodological Matrix ................................................................................ 122
Table 7: Distribution of Participants’ Return Rates ................................................... 127
Table 8: Distribution of Study Participants’ Gender ................................................. 128
Table 9: Distribution of Teachers by Age-Group ...................................................... 130
Table 10: Distribution of Teachers and Head Teacher by Years of Experience ....... 134
Table 11: Distribution of Teachers’ responses on the Influence of Teachers’
Professional Development Opportunities on Job Performance .................... 138
Table 12: Teachers’ Mean Scores on Professional Development Opportunities
Based on Gender .......................................................................................... 149
Table 13: Independent Samples T-Test Teachers’ Mean Scores on Professional
Development Opportunities based on Gender .............................................. 150
Table 14: Distribution of Teachers’ Responses on the Influence of Teachers’
Remuneration on Job Performance .............................................................. 152
Table 15: Mean Scores Rating the Extent Remuneration enhances Job Performance
of Teachers Categorised by Professional Qualification Levels .................... 160
Table 16: One-way ANOVA Based on Teachers’ Professional
Qualification Levels ..................................................................................... 160
Table 17: Post Hoc Tests ........................................................................................... 161
Table 18: Distribution of Teachers’ Responses on the Influence of Instructional
Supervision on Job Performance .................................................................. 163
Table 19: Distribution of Teachers’ Responses on the Influence of Working
Conditions on Job Performance ................................................................... 173
Table 20: Mean scores Rating the Extent to which Working Conditions
Enhance Job Performance of Teachers Categorised by Age Group ............ 186
Table 21: One-way ANOVA on Working Conditions at School .............................. 187
Table 22: Post Hoc Tests ........................................................................................... 188
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework adapted from Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Factor Theory ................................................................................................ 35
Figure 2. Research Design ......................................................................................... 100
Figure 3. Professional Qualification Levels of Participating Teachers ..................... 132
Figure 4. Distribution of Teachers by their Salary Scale ........................................... 136
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
BTVET Business, Technical and Vocational Education
CAOs Chief Administrative Officer
CCT Centre Coordinating Tutors
COUPSTA Coalition of Uganda Private School Teachers’ Association
CPD Continuous Professional Development
DEO District Education Officer
DIS District Inspector of Schools
DFID Department For International Development
EFA Education For All
EGRA Early Grade Reading and Arithmetic
EPRC Education Policy Review Commission
ERG Existence, Relatedness, and Growth
ESSAPR Education and Sports Sector Annual Performance Report
ESSP Education Sector Strategic Plan
FM Frequency Modulation
GoU Government of Uganda
i/c In charge
ICT Information and Communications Technology
ILO International Labour Organization
INSET In Service Training
LGs Local Governments
MoES Ministry of Education and Sports
MPs Members of Parliament
NASPTSU National Survey on Primary Teachers Satisfaction in Uganda
xv
n. d no date
NDP National Development Plan
NGOs Non-governmental Organizations
NSS New Scheme of Service
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PLE Primary Leaving Certificate
PS Permanent Secretary
PTA Parents and Teachers Association
QUAL Qualitative
QUANT Quantitative
RDCs Resident District Commissioners
SACCOs Savings and Credit Companies
SMC School Management Committee
SPSS Statistical Package of Social Sciences
TALIS Teaching and Learning International Survey
TISSA Teacher Issues South of the Sahara
TMIS Teacher Management Information System
UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics
UNATU Uganda National Teachers’ Union
UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UPE Universal Primary Education
USE Universal Secondary Education
USh Uganda Shillings
Vol. Volume
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Problem
Motivation and performance of employees are very important factors for any
organization’s success and goal achievement. Motivation is regarded as an energizer
of behaviour from a psychological point of view (Gatsinzi, Makewa & Jesse, 2014).
According to Okumbe (2013), motivation is an intellectual or mental deficiency that
triggers the behaviour, or a drive that leads to a goal or incentive. Likewise, Hornby
(2000) defines motivation as an incitement to act or move. Motivation can also be
considered as a propensity of an individual person to expand effort at work (Gizem,
2013). Therefore, teachers’ motivation is one of the important factors in realizing
educational objectives in achieving high academic performance. Research suggests
that there is a significant and positive relationship between teachers’ motivation and
their job performance (Atiya & Palwasha, 2013; Shenaz & Noor, 2015). Research has
continuously suggested that highly motivated teachers experience job satisfaction, and
also perform better than their poorly motivated counterparts; and that a mix of
intrinsic and extrinsic factors tend to exert influence on the teachers’ motivation (Iwu,
Gwija, Olumide, & Tengeh, 2013). It is always worthwhile to inquire, from time to
time, about teachers’ motivation and how it relates to their performance in order to
identify any gap and to ensure effective performance.
The performance of employees is critical to the survival of the production
process in organizations (Namuddu, 2010). Employee work performance is an
important prerequisite for competitiveness. Various organisational aspects including,
but not limited to motivational factors may affect performance. Research has shown
that when employees are satisfied, organizations experience high productivity, low
2
absenteeism and turnover; less job stress and burnout; and a stronger tendency to
perform (Iwu et al., 2013). The opposite is that dissatisfied employees exhibit
behaviours that are incongruent with the organizational objectives and goals. In the
case of schools, teachers may lack the drive to prepare schemes of work and lesson
plans, and exhibit other related professional misconduct. For instance, in Malawi,
research found out that teacher absenteeism was on the increase and this was
attributed partly to low staff motivation (Kadzamira, 2006).
Performance of teachers highly depends on the individual teacher’s
characteristics. The characteristics may include knowledge base, sense of
responsibility, and inquisitiveness. Other factors that teacher’s performance may
depend on are learner’s characteristics; then teaching characteristics such as lesson
structure, and communication, the classroom environment among others
(Chamundeswari, 2013). If teachers would pay attention to these factors, their
performance can be enhanced and learners’ achievement too.
From the handbook of the Association of American Schools in South America
(2010), teacher performance refers to the duties that teachers are assigned with. As
performance standards, the handbook outlines instructional planning, and delivery,
assessment of learning, learning environment, professionalism and lastly learner
progress. similarly, the teacher uses school’s curriculum, effective strategies or
methods, and resources to meet learner’s needs. In assessing the learning, the teacher
systematically gathers, analyses and uses data to measure learner progress. In
ensuring a conducive learning environment, the teacher uses the resources available to
provide a respectful, positive, safe learner centred environment. The teacher also
ensures professionalism by observing professional ethics by taking responsibility for
and participates in professional growth that results in enhancement of student
3
learning. When all performance standards are faithfully met, the performance of the
teacher results in acceptable and measurable learner achievement.
In Uganda, from the Handbook for Head Teachers and Supervisors (2011),
descriptors of performance that are relevant to the teaching profession include work
targets, student performance, accuracy and completeness of work, professionalism,
resource optimization, innovativeness and self-directed or driven. These descriptors
do not differ from those outlined by the Association of American Schools in South
America (2010).
In order to perform well in their teaching activities, teachers need to be
motivated. There could be a number of factors that affect their motivation. These
factors could range from the nature of the school infrastructure to salary, teacher
status/recognition, advancement or further training, school leadership and policies,
working conditions, recruitment and deployment, among others. Such factors are also
country specific as they may vary from region to region or country to country and also
characterize the schools’ effectiveness in terms of performance. That is why it is
important to study country per country on how motivation influences performance; as
differences tend to exist even within the same country. This justifies the current study.
Research suggests that effective schools endeavour to create professional
environments that facilitate teachers to accomplish their tasks, participate in decisions
affecting their work, have reasonable autonomy and are provided with conducive
working conditions and ample staff-development opportunities (Sergiovanni, 2009).
According to Muralidharan (2012), a fundamental determinant of school
performance is the effectiveness of teachers which can be improved by hiring high-
quality teachers (with better pay and working conditions), and increasing the effort of
existing teachers by linking their pay to performance. Muralidharan further noted that
4
lack of differentiation by performance was a major demotivator for teachers, because
teachers with the highest job satisfaction were most absent from schools. This was
attributed to the reason that, almost nothing in a teacher’s professional life depends on
performance. Muralidharan (2012) in his study, recommended a program in schools
that would recognize and reward good performance. This would result in teachers’
creativity, persistence and commitment to their work, and in the long run enhance
performance.
A report, on rural teachers in Africa by International Labour Organization
(2015), reiterated that salary is a key factor in the success of high performing
education systems. It noted however, that there is a loss of prestige for the teaching
profession when the salary does not commensurate with teachers’ professional
qualification levels and their responsibilities. The report further revealed that salaries
which do not even achieve teachers’ basic household needs, especially in low-income
countries, may result into teacher recruitment difficulties, absenteeism and low
teacher performance. The report found diverse salaries among various categories of
teachers in most African countries regardless of geographical region. In Tanzania, for
example ILO reported a number of problems arising from low pay, poor working
conditions and inefficient administration systems. These included teachers engaging
in other economic activities so as to earn extra income to supplement their salaries,
even during class hours, teacher absenteeism affecting instructional activities and
disrupting pupils’ learning, teachers dropping out of the teaching professions, while
others establishing private instruction centres. The report further found strong links
between opportunities for professional development, teacher motivation, self-
confidence, teacher effectiveness and efficacy, with consequences for overall job
satisfaction. This makes it mandatory for the government to provide teachers with
5
professional development opportunities if teacher effectiveness in their job
performance is to be achieved. These findings raise many questions especially in
Uganda where most primary school teachers are deployed in rural settings.
1.1.1 Motivation of Teachers
Herzberg (1923) categorized motivational factors into extrinsic and intrinsic,
which are agreed to be crucial in motivation and performance management (Gizem,
2013). Extrinsic motivational factors are therefore understood as the desire to attain
specific outcomes, whereas intrinsic motivation is caused by positive internal feelings.
In the teaching profession, intrinsic motivation is the satisfaction derived from
teaching, recognition, enjoying teaching, career development, the challenging and
competitive nature of teaching, teaching as one’s goal in life and control over others.
On the other hand, extrinsic motivation mainly includes the award applied externally
as salary or wages, free accommodation, educational progress in paying premiums,
meals, additional payments in case of financial problems, paid leave and free medical
care. Research has also identified as major influential motivational factors, in the
teaching profession, such as working conditions, administrative support, and student
behaviours impacting on teachers’ performance (Aacha, 2010; Shehnaz & Noor,
2015).
Supervision among the extrinsic motivation factors has been reported by many
researchers as one of the major factors of motivating teachers and improving their
performance as majority of employees tend to work harder and better under
supervision than otherwise (Onasanya, n.d.; Matete, 2009; Aguti, 2015). Moreover,
supervision as a qualitative and evaluative mechanism helps in checking on the
performance of teachers in schools, on incessant late coming, absenteeism from
classes and schools. Supervision becomes very helpful especially when it focuses on
6
providing guidance, support, and continuous assessment of teachers for their
professional development and improvement in their teaching process (Okumbe, 2013;
Adewale, Adeleke, Toyin & Odusoga, 2014). Especially for the effectiveness of
teachers in their teaching duties in primary schools, instructional supervision should
be given urgent attention.
Motivation, whether extrinsic or intrinsic, is said to be ignited by incentives or
rewards, which are in form of benefits that employees receive in return for working
for an organization. Therefore, it is always important that teachers should be given
incentives and rewards in order to improve their motivation and thus, increase their
contribution to achieve the organization’s goals. Whether in educational or corporate
settings, it is with utmost necessity that such production processes are supported by a
well streamlined and purpose driven human resource which is motivated, willing and
determined to challenge itself to the maximum to meet set organizational goals and
objectives. Currently, there is an increasing interest across the globe in attracting,
retaining, developing, and motivating great teachers in educational institutions. This is
so because student achievement has been found to correlate with economic and social
progress; and teachers are key in this (World Bank, 2012). In addition, the Global
Partnership for Education (GPE) contends that education is one of the best
investments a government can make, and an investment in education leads to
economic growth as a result of a better-educated and more productive workforce
(GPE, 2012). Unfortunately, education seems not to fall among the top priorities for
the development of Uganda, as it is often given a meagre portion from the national
budget. For instance, the ministry of education and sports in the financial year
2016/17 was granted only 11.9% of the total national budget (Education and Sports
Sector Annual Performance Report, Financial Year 2016/17).
7
Teachers have a considerable impact on a country’s prosperity and its
generations, given the fact that they are traditional agents of education (Gizen, 2013).
The 21st century has witnessed exciting times for teacher professional development.
The world is witnessing unprecedented growth of the number of schools which mostly
offer a curriculum that has an international character. This has created a need for
suitably qualified and trained teachers. Teachers today need more than before to
develop their thinking capacity and practice as they carry on their professional duties.
They need to be motivated so that they can motivate learners in return. Therefore,
teacher motivation is a vital element in communicating and sharing out knowledge
and skills to learners at all levels. Teachers who are motivated and satisfied with their
profession have been found to be more creative and influencing, and their learners
have great academic productivity and achievement (Farida, Muhammad, &
Muhammad, 2012). It is also believed that highly motivated teachers experience job
satisfaction, and also perform better than their poorly motivated counterparts (Iwu et
al., 2013). Similarly, research shows that a teacher who is academically and
professionally qualified, but works under unfavourable conditions of service would be
less dedicated to his/her work, thus less productive than a teacher who is unqualified,
but works under favourable conditions of service (Etsey, 2005). This underscores
working conditions as a strong motivation factor that all teachers need as they execute
their professional duties in schools. There is a broad consensus among stakeholders,
including community members, and students that poor incentives and working
conditions have resulted in low morale and thus poor performance among primary
teachers (Kadzamira, 2006).
Teachers are key to improving quality education in any educational system;
and the quality of an educational system cannot be greater than the quality of its
8
teachers (Akyeampong, 2013). Unfortunately, quality of teachers has been limited, by
some scholars and education stakeholders, to just their academic qualifications, thus
leaving aside the environment in which teachers operate. In addition, there is not
much attention given to understanding how systems that produce teachers can be
made more effective for schools’ achievement. There has been little teachers’
professional development focused on key curriculum areas such as early reading and
mathematics in primary schools despite the importance of these subjects, especially in
developing countries (Vermeulen, 2013). In India, poor performance of primary
schools is attributed majorly to lack of adequate facilities, large scale of teacher
absenteeism, and inadequate supervision by local authorities (Ramachandran, Pal,
Jain, Shekar, & Sharma, 2005). These observations raise many concerns about
teachers’ motivation and thus demand for answers.
On both global and local levels, teacher motivation varies from region to
region and country to country depending on the level of economic development.
Literature points out that motivation is influenced by a variety of factors. For instance,
in developed countries, pay incentives have been found to be ineffective in increasing
teacher motivation. Teacher motivation is majorly based on intrinsic factors and that
true job satisfaction is based on higher order needs. For example, in the United
Kingdom, teacher motivation and satisfaction are found to be related to working with
children; while dissatisfaction is related to work overload, poor pay, and how teachers
are recognized by the society (Falla, 2013; Shao & Tamashiro, 2013).
There are commonalities in the teaching profession regardless of teachers’
different cultures and backgrounds. For example, a study titled “Global devaluing of
teaching: An international perspective” researched on ten countries picked from the
globe that included France, New Zealand, Poland, Philippines, El Salvador, Italy,
9
South Africa, Romania, Brazil and Belgium, Marantz (2013) cited in Falla (2013),
reported that most teachers expressed their being undervalued, teaching overcrowded
classrooms, receiving low pay, being provided with inadequate resources, and
desiring to quit teaching among others. Loss of motivation in the teaching profession
was a common phenomenon in both developed and developing countries. This report
shades light on how important extrinsic motivation factors are at sustaining and
maintaining teachers’ motivation levels as they perform their duties at school; and
thus a need to pay attention to the them.
Globally as well as locally, achieving the right teacher policies to ensure that
every classroom has a motivated, supported, and competent teacher remains a
challenge (World Bank Report, 2012). In old times, teaching was recognized as a
vocation and teachers were held in high esteem. Teachers were the most educated
people in the community and many people turned to them as a source of advice and
guidance. But, times have changed and in most countries, teachers no longer retain the
elevated status they used to enjoy. This impacts negatively on the levels of teacher
motivation.
In developing countries, where most teachers still lack basic needs, unlike in
developed countries, teachers’ lack of motivation is expressed in many varied ways.
For instance, a survey study on “Teacher motivation” that covered developing
countries under beneficiary of “Save the Children” from Latin America (Bolivia, El
Salvador, Haiti, and Nicaragua), Asia (Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, The
Philippines, and Tajikistan) and Africa (Egypt, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique,
and Uganda), reported low teacher motivation, which resulted in the teachers’
behaviours of absenteeism, underutilization of class time, reliance on traditional
teaching methods, poor preparation, and side income-generating activities, and other
10
professional misconduct (Guajardo, 2011). Factors blamed on low teachers’
motivation were lack of or inadequate teacher professional development, low salaries,
wanting working conditions and poor infrastructures, among others. Teachers’ low
motivation in the teaching profession thus led to high attrition rates, lack of
confidence, varying levels of professional commitment and a feeling of helplessness.
Guajardo (2011) further noted that teachers in Latin America did not feel their
profession was respected in society. In Africa, this was true of half the countries,
while teachers felt their profession was respected most in Asia. Teachers often faced
weak accountability with little support; this was observed in Bolivia, Ethiopia, Haiti,
The Philippines, Tajikistan and Uganda. Facing weak accountability and little
support undermines the role of supervision in schools, which should be aiming at
assessing teachers’ challenges and problems and suggesting ways of empowering the
teachers. Lack of supportive supervision can also be a source of demotivation for
teachers and may affect teachers’ performance. The study of Guajardo (2011) further
reported that the majority of teachers were “somewhat unmotivated” and this
observation was especially in Africa and Latin America. The overall analysis of the
study painted a picture in which teachers’ basic needs were not being met and that a
country-specific analysis portrayed a much more complex reality. This complex
reality strengthens the need to carry out an isolated and specific study within a
particular area in Uganda to find out how motivation affects teacher performance in
primary schools.
Similarly, a study by Bennell and Akyeampong (2007), which surveyed 12
countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia, identified that one of the key
factors for reduced motivation levels among teachers was teacher status. The study
found that, in Ghana, Lesotho, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Zambia and India, teachers
11
were asked whether they agreed with the statement: “Teachers at this school are
respected in the community”, in Ghana, 79% of urban teachers agreed with the
statement and only 27% of rural teachers did. However, the trend reversed when it
came to Tanzania and Zambia whereby 69% and 57% agreed in rural areas and just
43% and 42% in urban areas respectively. The study attributed this trend in Tanzania
and Zambia partly to rates of pay dropping, quality of teacher training and an
increasing number of para-professional teachers.
In a working paper published by UNESCO on teachers and the quality of basic
education in sub-Saharan Africa, Lauwerier and Akkari (2015) reported that the
quality in basic education in sub-Saharan Africa was inseparable from the quality of
the teachers involved. The paper revealed that teachers worked in tough conditions
with typically poor remuneration and loss of motivation. This unfavourable situation
of low wages may provoke teachers to engage in other practices in order to
supplement their already meagre basic salary. Further, the paper demonstrated that
both teachers’ pre-service and in-service training were superficial and inadequate and
had little bearing on their job performance. The study found out that the weak
motivation of the teachers compromised the quality of their activity, thus leading to
institutional instability in many countries with repeated strikes. The situation of poor
working conditions, low pay, low motivation, and inadequate teachers’ pre-service
and in-service training hold back the contribution of teachers to improving basic
education in Africa.
Further, in West Africa, particularly in Nigeria, research reveals that teacher
motivation is much determined by the way teachers are deployed, working conditions,
availability of opportunities for growth, and remunerations, among others (Adelabu,
2005). Adelabu further reports that some schools lack infrastructure, are overcrowded
12
and lack teaching and learning facilities. These findings confirm that there are many
similarities as well as disparities in teachers’ motivation levels in African countries.
This underlines the need to consider each country on its own. Even within a given
country, there are disparities according to urban and rural settings, from region to
region, hence the justification for the study’s limited scope in Western Uganda.
In East Africa, research has shown that teacher professional development
opportunities, among others, have been neglected despite the improvement in
universalization of primary education. For example, overcrowded classrooms, lack of
skills to handle certain topics, complaints by teachers for little support for
professional development, and lack of relevant textbooks are among the factors cited
by researchers for diminished levels of teachers’ motivation (Komba & Nkumbi,
2008). The work of primary teachers is indispensable and it requires skills, in-depth
knowledge, ability and a positive attitude of the teacher (Njoku, 2011). Teacher
performance is still a critical factor in most developing countries that are
implementing universal primary education yet the quality of an education system
depends on the performance of its teachers (Ochwo, 2013). For instance, a study
conducted in Kenya by UNESCO observed that reading levels and learning
achievement in mathematics in classes taught by teachers who had undertaken
continuing professional development were higher than those taught by newly
qualified teachers who had not participated in any continuing professional
development programs (UNESCO, 2013).
Lack of professional development opportunities and supportive working
conditions naturally lead to low motivation among teachers as teachers find
themselves lacking self-confidence, and the updated knowledge and skills to help
them improve in their performance within and outside the classroom. Reforms in
13
curriculum and pedagogy, which are so often in developing countries, affect teacher
motivation and hence the need for professional development (Sheib & Karabenick,
2011). This is so because teacher professional development interventions increase
teacher content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. This enhances
teacher’s knowledge, practices and skills, builds teacher’s confidence in teaching and
handling subject matter in class. Teacher professional development is today necessary
more than ever for the highly advanced technology that is penetrating even rural areas
and which has found its aboard in schools. Technology has made the world become a
global village and no one can afford to be left behind, including teachers in schools.
Across the East African region, findings by UWEZO Annual Report (2012)
indicate that basic numeracy and literacy skills of primary school children are lacking.
The findings reveal that 29% of the pupils in primary seven still face challenges in
reading and understanding an English test of primary two. In 2012, UWEZO
observed that although children were enrolled in school in unprecedented numbers,
they were not learning core skills expected at their age and grade level. The study
further revealed that less than a third of the children attending school in the three
countries had gained basic literacy and numeracy skills. These revelations from
UWEZO suggest that the great ambition of universal primary education, though
essential in tackling poverty and global inequality by focusing on improving access to
education, has often been at the expense of teaching quality. This observation by
UWEZO can be attributed to neglected professional development opportunities for
public primary school teachers and lack of conducive working conditions in the
schools such as academic seminars, workshops and short courses for teachers, and
improved pupil: teacher ratio, textbooks for both teachers and pupils, among others.
Yet these are some of the factors that affect public primary school teachers’
14
motivation as they go on their daily teaching duties.
1.1.2 Performance of the Education System in Uganda
Ugandan education system has experienced major changes since 1997 with
the adoption of the Universal Primary Education programme. The programme
abolished all tuition fees and all parents and teachers’ association charges for
primary education. The programme had children enrolled in primary school
increasing from 2.9 million in 1997 to over 6.9 million in 2001. This meant
increased workload for teachers, overcrowding of pupils in classrooms, challenge
of class control and assessment of pupils, among others. By 2010, the programme
was already accommodating more than 8.0 million primary school pupils.
Consequently, the government had to react by adopting a number of policies to
ensure a smooth development of the programme. The policies included building
and renovation of schools, procurement of instructional materials, implementing
of school feeding programme, training, hiring and retaining teachers, fight against
absenteeism, hard to reach hard to stay strategy, curriculum reforms and
decentralization. However, all these interventions for UPE have yet to materialize
into fully satisfactory enrolment and retention rates (MoES, 2014).
1.1.3 Education System’s Efficiency
The resources allocated to the education system are to be used to train the
children from the beginning up to the end of the cycle. These resources are scarce
and therefore need to be used efficiently. It is demonstrated that the completion of
at least a primary cycle is a minimum requirement to literate pupils for all their
life. The resources spent on pupils who start primary one but never reach primary
seven can be considered as wastage. Furthermore, the completion of primary
15
education requires seven school years but a pupil who repeats once must spend
eight years before completing primary cycle.
A pupil who reaches primary seven but has repeated once, has one
additional year, which is considered as an overuse of resources that could have
been avoided. Dropout and repetition then constitute factors of inefficiency which
is called internal efficiency coefficient, which can be computed mathematically.
The index is comprised between 0 and 1. The higher the value of the index, the
more efficient the system is; on the contrary, the lower the value of the index, the
less efficient the system is. Table 1 shows the internal efficiency coefficient in
government schools for three sub-sectors.
Table 1
Internal Efficiency Coefficient in the Three Sub-sectors, Government Schools,
2010
Sub-cycle Internal Efficiency Coefficient
(Public schools)
Primary 0.43
Lower Secondary 0.86
Upper Secondary 0.87
Source: Adapted from MoES, TISSA (2013)
As shown in the Table 1, the internal efficiency coefficient was 0.43 for
government primary schools, which implies that more than half of the resources
(57%) devoted by the government to primary schools were used inefficiently. This
is attributed partly to repetition and dropout, which point partly to poor teachers’
job performance and lack of motivation.
16
1.1.4 Quality of Education: A Major Issue for the System
Beyond access to school and system’s efficiency, it is important for
stakeholders to know whether pupils who achieve a sub-cycle have acquired the
knowledge expected. Regular students’ assessments are conducted in order to
provide this information. At national level, the Uganda National Examination
Board conducts each year a National Assessment of Progress in Education
(NAPE).
The objective of NAPE among others, is to determine the level of pupils’
achievement in numeracy and literacy. At the international level, Uganda
participated in the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring
Educational Quality (SACMEQ). The SACMEQ assesses students’ achievement
after 6 years of education at primary level. The NAPE 2011 showed that the
quality of education in Uganda was low. NAPE targeted pupils of primary three
and six, and students of senior two (MoES, 2013). The information is summarised
in Table 2.
Table 2
Percentage of Pupils who are not Proficient in given Subjects, 2011
Subjects P.3 P.6 Subjects S.2
Numeracy 37% 54% Mathematics 62%
Literacy in
English
52% 59% English
Language
34%
Oral reading 54% Biology 80%
Source: Adapted from, MoES, TISSA (2013)
The percentages of numeracy in P.3 and English language in S.2 indicate
that majority of the pupils are not proficient in the subjects evaluated. The last
SACMEQ assessment conducted in Uganda in 2007 revealed that 71% of pupils
17
enrolled in P.6 do not achieve the minimum expected level of reading. The picture
was worse in numeracy where 94% of pupils did not achieve the minimum level
expected. These results confirm that, in general, most of the pupils did not reach
the level of achievement expected according to the grade where they are enrolled.
The quality of education, therefore, is an issue that the education system must pay
attention to.
Since 1986, the current government of Uganda, through the Ministry of
Education and Sports (MoES), has undertaken various educational reforms to enable
all children to have equal access to quality education. For instance, in line with global
movements, the Government of Uganda (GoU) took wide strides on the policy of
UPE since 1997. The Constitution of Uganda stipulates that education is a
fundamental right for every citizen (GoUa, 1995); which is in consonance with the
declaration by United Nations General Assembly in1948, which adopted the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). In 2008, the Ministry of Education
and Sports in Uganda reviewed and adapted the Education Act in order to guide and
improve educational practices. The implementation of UPE has made great strides in
achieving some goals, especially with improved enrolment which more than doubled
from 3.1 million in 1996 to 6.3 million in 1999, 7.5 million in 2007 and over 8 million
in 2010 (UNESCO, 2012; Vermeulen, 2013).
Nevertheless, with all efforts made by the GoU in its education sector, still
many challenges persist, just like what has been observed globally and regionally.
There is high level of school dropout, high repetition rates, low completion rates and
high pupil-teacher ratios; alarming low performance in basic education especially in
literacy and numeracy (Ssewamala, Wang, Leyla & Nabunya, 2011; Uwezo, 2011;
Vermeulen, 2013; MoES, 2013).
18
Absenteeism and failure to cover syllabus is a common feature in public
primary schools in Uganda. This points to poor teacher performance, which affects
overall pupil academic achievement at elementary level. Kagolo (2014) observed that
teacher absenteeism in rural areas in Uganda stood at 35%, being the highest in the
world with Ugandan teachers missing two days of work per week. He also noted that
there was inadequate teacher lesson preparation and low syllabus coverage. These
problems are at alarming levels in rural public primary schools where services are
limited and teacher motivation levels are low as contrasted with urban public primary
schools (Vermeulen, 2013). This implies financial loss on the part of the government,
taxpayers’ money and development partners.
In addition, the MoES (2014), in its Report “Teachers issues in Uganda: A
shared vision for an effective teachers’ policy”, warned that if teacher issues are not
given attention, a growing number of teachers will necessarily fall into a worsening
situation. Further, the education and sports sector annual performance report -
ESSAPR for the financial year 2013/2014 indicated that 4% (that is about 7,480
teachers in public primary schools) quit work annually mainly due to poor pay
(Kagolo, 2014).
Several studies have been done to establish the factors that affect teacher
performance in Uganda. ActionAid (2010), cited poor teaching conditions in Ugandan
schools, a high workload for teachers whereby a single teacher is made to manage
several classes at one time; the study also found that Uganda offered the lowest wage
bill for teachers in comparison to their counterparts in Burundi, Malawi and Senegal.
It was also observed that teachers are absent in order to earn extra money elsewhere to
pay for basic needs because their salaries were too low. While considering national
and district expenditure on primary education and on teachers, the study found that
19
Senegal and Malawi went beyond the internationally recommended expenditure of
20% of national budget by spending 26% and 25% respectively, while Burundi
spends 19% and Uganda 18%. The research observed that low pay can be
demotivating for teachers and a major reason for leaving the profession, or
experiencing increased frustration with a climbing workload, especially where pupil-
teacher ratios are rising and poor working conditions persist. In an earlier study by
UNESCO (2009), it had been noted that such factors could affect teachers’
performance, practice, attendance and professionalism, all of which can potentially
influence children’s learning outcomes.
On the other hand, Kasiisa and Tamale (2013) examined the effect of teachers’
qualification on the performance of primary social studies; the implication of teacher
quality in primary schools in Uganda. They found out that teachers with higher
qualifications performed better than those teachers with lower qualifications; thus
making professional development for teachers a necessary factor for consideration.
Primary school level of education is globally accepted as the foundation of education
of any country; and if any flaws are not detected and corrected early enough at this
level would affect the entire education system of the country.
Public concern about primary teachers’ fate, in Uganda, as well as the teaching
profession, has been deepening over years. Teachers have complaints of low salaries
over years, including launching occasional strikes, with recent major national-level
strikes taking place in 2011 and 2013; and they are still going on. Complaints of low
salaries by public primary school teachers is just, but a tip of the iceberg.
Unfortunately, all these strikes have been quashed by the government establishment
under the pretext that there is no money. On each occasion, the teachers have been
ordered back to class in spite of pain of losing their jobs. Some officials from the
20
Uganda National Teachers’ Union (UNATU) say the Union has registered close to 50
cases of harassment and victimization of teachers involved in these industrial actions,
by Resident District Commissioners (RDCs) and Chief Administration Officers
(CAOs) (Tumusiime, n.d.). This trend in the teaching profession is compromising the
quality of education in the country as highlighted in ESSAPR, 2013/2014.
Kamwenge District has a total of 147 public primary schools and 67 schools
are within Kitagwenda County, which is the remotest of all the counties in the district.
The performance of head teachers and teachers in public primary schools in
Kamwenge District, and particularly in Kitagwenda County indicate that the situation
is alarming. The inspection report for the 4th quarter financial year 2015/2016
indicates that 51% of the head teachers in the district did monitoring and support
supervision of teaching and learning activities in the government primary schools
(DEO, 2016), implying that 49% of the school head teachers did not at all carry out
any monitoring and support supervision. Head teachers’ attendance was 81%, which
fell below the customized performance targets (95%). In regard to inspection and
supervision, in the same inspection report, teachers lesson plan preparation was at
52%, which was only in 26 schools out of 147, with teachers complaining of lack of
lesson plan preparation books in their schools. In addition, time table management in
the schools was at 59% only in 34 schools out of 147 (DEO, 2016). This revelation
highlights how both head teachers’ and teachers’ performance in public primary
schools is wanting.
The inspection report of 2015/2016 highlighted the highest rate of teachers’
absenteeism in schools like Nganiko Primary School (50%) and Kamayenje Primary
School (56%). The two schools are found in Kitagwenda County. Furthermore, the
same schools registered the highest rate of head teachers’ absenteeism at 61% in
21
Nganiko Primary School and at 59% in Kamayenje Primary School (DEO, 2016).
However, comparing with the previous inspection report, teachers’ attendance in the
whole district had improved from 76% in 2015 to 81% in 2016. Mentioned also was
lack of supervision in most schools and the timetable used was either old or was never
followed during teaching and learning. It is further stated that even those who try to
supervise, records are never availed and no feedback to the teachers. This situation in
Kamwenge District as a whole and in Kitagwenda County in particular explains partly
the public outcry about teacher performance in the public primary schools.
The analysis of the Primary Leaving Examination results (PLE) of 2015
identified Kanara sub-County as the worst performing sub-County, having no single
candidate in division one (0%). Kanara sub-County is one of the six sub-counties
comprising Kitagwenda County (DEO, 2015). In a previous analysis of PLE
performance in the whole of Kamwenge District, from 2003 to 2014, the district
registered 300 candidates in the first division; of the 300 candidates, 204 came from
Kibale County and only 96 candidates from Kitagwenda County (DEO, 2014). This
observation highlights a sensitive difference between the two counties in the district.
This above trend raises a grave concern about teachers’ job performance in public
schools in Kitagwenda County and needs immediate attention. Therefore, from the
preceding observations, it is extremely difficult for pupils to achieve quality learning
as its is also hard for teachers to perform effectively in teaching and learning of the
pupils in public primary schools with such an alarming situation. This is detrimental
to the entire nation and for human resource development.
There is a social concern as education stakeholders now take teaching and
teachers in low esteem after observing declining teachers’ professional conduct,
which currently is characterized by poor time management, absenteeism, inadequate
22
lesson preparations and syllabus coverage, poor pupil discipline management and
inadequate teaching methods, among others (DEO, 2016). In addition, there is public
dissatisfaction with teachers’ performance and the achievement of pupils at primary
school level. Teachers are responsible for the pupils’ learning taking place in and
outside the school. Teaching involves planning for lessons and effective utilization of
teaching resources, teaching methods and techniques, measurement of pupils’
achievement, besides timely guiding and counselling pupils in their crucial matters
and ensuring the pupils’ active participation in co-curricular activities. This implies
that teachers’ performance directly relates and integrates all the above-mentioned
aspects of teaching and is holistic in nature.
With increasing urbanization, rural areas tend to be somewhat left behind.
Teachers’ motivation and their performance in rural public primary schools are
important factors and need to be contextualized and understood so as to improve
education standards in Uganda as a whole. This is because over 85% of Uganda’s
population lives in rural areas and it is expanding at 3.2% per year; that means,
neglecting the rural young population of primary school going age, would create a
threat to the country’s development (International Fund for Agricultural Development
- IFAD, 2012). It is therefore imperative to investigate the effectiveness of teachers’
motivation on job performance in rural public primary schools in Kitagwenda County,
Kamwenge District, Uganda to ensure effective teaching and learning in public
primary schools.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Research indicates that teachers’ motivation is high and learners’ performance
is also high in countries where primary school teachers are respected, given career
development opportunities and are well remunerated. Conversely, where teachers are
23
overworked, underpaid and disregarded, teachers’ motivation is low and teachers’
performance is poor (Shao & Tamashiro, 2013). However, study findings (France,
New Zealand, Poland, Philippines, El Salvador, Italy, South Africa, Romania, Brazil
and Belgium) reveal that primary teachers are overworked, underpaid, and
underappreciated; they are undervalued, are provided with inadequate resources and
are unmotivated (Falla, 2013).
Literature reviewed globally, regionally and nationally has consistently
revealed that teachers’ situation needs quick intervention. In Uganda, efforts have
been made to improve standards and performance of public primary schools,
especially with introduction of UPE in 1997. The government undertook several
reforms and policies which included building and renovation of schools, procurement
of instructional material, training and hiring of teachers, fighting against teacher and
pupil absenteeism, curriculum reforms and decentralization of primary education
(MoES, 2014). Furthermore, substantial quality enhancement measures have been
initiated such as thematic curricular for teaching and learning of literacy and
numeracy in lower primary schools, salary increment, regular monitoring and
assessment of learning achievements of pupils, among others.
Despite the above interventions, the education sector in Uganda has not
achieved the desired improvement mostly in rural areas, as evidenced by the situation
in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District. Ugandan education system’s internal
efficiency at primary school level is very poor at 0.43 and with poor quality (MoES,
2013). There is a growing concern about the general decline in teachers’ professional
conduct, characterized by poor time management, absenteeism, inadequate lesson
preparations and syllabus coverage, poor pupil discipline management and inadequate
teaching methods (MOES, 2012; DEO, 2016). Hence there is a need to investigate
24
how teachers’ motivation influences their job performance in rural public primary
schools in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District, Uganda, in order to ensure
effective teaching and learning at elementary level.
1.3 Research Questions
This study was guided by the following research questions
i. What professional development opportunities are available for enhancing
teachers’ job performance in rural public primary schools?
ii. How does remuneration influence teachers’ job performance in public
primary schools?
iii. To what extent does supervision influence teachers’ job performance in
public primary schools?
iv. How do working conditions influence teachers’ job performance in public
primary schools?
1.4 Research Hypotheses
This study was guided by the following research hypotheses:
Ho1. There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean
scores in rating the extent professional development opportunities enhance teachers’
job performance when categorized by gender.
Ho2. There is no significant difference in teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent
remuneration enhances teacher’ job performance when categorized by professional
level of qualification.
Ho3. There is no significant difference in teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent
working conditions enhance teachers’ job performance when categorized by age.
25
1.5 Significance of the Study
Designing and implementing educational policies and reforms without a
contextualized understanding of how motivation influences teachers’ performance in
public primary schools, may not bear much fruits. The findings will be of great value
to various stakeholders. These include MoES, members of parliament (MPs), resident
district commissioners (RDCs), chief administrative officers (CAOs), local
government, district education department, foundation bodies, school management
committees (SMC), head teachers, teachers, pupils, parents and guardians, local
community, none-governmental organizations (NGOs) and mass media, among
others.
The MoES will find the study findings beneficial because the study presents
data which will serve in formulating better policies for and making informed decision
about education reforms as the country strives to achieve Vision 2040. The Ministry
will find study’s revelations informative of what teachers go through, what their
attitudes, expectations and interests, above all the challenges they meet in executing
their duties at school. Further still, area members of parliament will find the study
findings equally beneficial as they are the legislators who debate and recommend
education reforms among others.
The RDC as chief monitor of the government programmes in Kamwenge
District will find the study findings helpful as the study establishes public primary
teachers’ motivation levels and how this motivation affects teachers’ job performance
at school. The government as the chief employer of teachers, should have keen
interest in knowing how teachers’ motivation levels relate to their performance.
The CAO as chief executive of the district will find the study findings of great
significance as the findings would equip him/her with the general picture of teachers’
26
motivational challenges and be able to adequately brief the district council on how to
implement education reforms for improving teachers’ situation. Study findings will
also be of much importance to the local government at the district level since the local
government is responsible for monitoring and ensuring successful implementation of
education programmes, such as UPE. In addition, the study findings will assist the
district education officer (DEO) and district inspectors of schools (DIS) as these are
responsible for supervision of education programmes, for implementation of by-laws,
and to provide advice on education to political leaders through district council
meetings.
Furthermore, the findings of the study will be of paramount importance to the
foundation bodies of schools, for instance the Catholic Church, Church of Uganda,
Orthodox Church, Seventh Day Adventist Church, Islam and others, which have been
at the vanguard of providing education for the children of Uganda for many years.
Foundation bodies have established secretariats, which work with education
departments at the district. The findings will assist these foundation bodies in
mobilizing parents as stakeholders in education to be responsible, caring and
soliciting support for teachers and for schools’ development programmes. School
management committees (SMC) and head teachers as administrators at school level,
will also benefit a lot from the study findings and be of support to teachers as teachers
play a pivotal role in shaping the attitudes and mind-set of the young ones.
Direct beneficiaries of the study findings are the teachers and pupils in public
primary schools. The study aims at providing knowledge for improving basic
education by establishing how motivation affects teachers’ performance. The study
would advance practical and relevant recommendations for education reforms while
aiming at improving education quality especially at elementary level.
27
The study will itself benefit the researcher as he will be putting into practice
the research skills and knowledge he has acquired in the course of the study
programme at the University. The study will further improve his knowledge and skills
in conducting research and also in sharing knowledge from the study with other
stakeholders in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District and beyond. The study will
also be a fundamental contribution to empirical literature on motivation and teachers'
performance in rural public primary schools, especially on a local context like a
county, which will benefit very much other researchers and any other interested party.
1.6 Scope and Delimitations of the Study
This study is about the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance
in rural public primary schools. Public primary schools are aided by the government
of Uganda through taxes from the public and aid from donor agencies. The public
concern, among others, is about teachers’ professional misconduct in public primary
schools, and therefore, the public has the right to information concerning teachers’
motivation and how this affects teachers’ performance in schools. Further, the study
intends to limit itself to rural public schools in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge
District, Western Uganda. The ministry of education (2013), from a national survey
on primary teacher satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU), ranked western region as a
place where primary teachers were the most dissatisfied at 68%. Kamwenge District
lies at the centre of Western Uganda and since this study limits itself on rural public
primary schools, Kitagwenda is the most rural among the counties that comprise
Kamwenge District. Kitagwenda County, unlike other counties in the district, has no
major towns and stands isolated from the rest.
The study covered only rural public primary schools in Kitagwenda County,
Kamwenge District, Western Uganda. Public primary schools in rural areas have not
28
received much attention as most of the reviewed empirical studies considered primary
schools located in urban settings. Among the reviewed empirical studies on teacher
motivation and job performance, none reflected Kamwenge District. Therefore,
Kitagwenda County was selected as the area where this study was conducted.
In addition, this study limited itself on some key factors of intrinsic motivation
(teacher professional development opportunities) and extrinsic motivation
(remuneration, supervision and working conditions); and then teachers' performance
(timely scheming of work, lesson planning, involvement in pupils’ discipline, among
others) in order to achieve a thorough investigation.
1.7 Theoretical Framework
The study is grounded on motivational theories, specifically on the two-factor
theory by Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000). Herzberg carried out a motivational study
and interviewed hundreds of workers about critical moments when they were highly
motivated to work and other moments when they were dissatisfied and unmotivated to
work (Daft, 2005). The study asked the participants to recall an event or a time
personally experienced at work when they felt particularly and exceptionally good
about their job. The study also investigated why the employees felt as they did, and
whether their feelings of satisfaction had affected their work performance, their
personal relationships, and their feelings of well-being. Likewise, the study engaged
the participants to recall an event or a time personally experienced at work when they
felt particularly and exceptionally bad about their jobs. It further explored the nature
of the events that led to the negative expressions.
Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the products
of two separate factors: Motivating factors, which he named satisfiers, and hygiene
factors, which named dissatisfiers. Satisfiers included achievement, recognition, work
29
itself, responsibility, advancement and growth. While “dissatisfiers” included
company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary,
status, job security and personal life.
Herzberg identifies and compares the dynamics of hygiene and motivation as
illustrated below. The dynamics of hygiene are that the psychological basis of hygiene
needs is the avoidance of pain from the environment; there are infinite sources of pain
in the environment; hygiene improvements have short-term effects; hygiene needs are
cyclical in nature; hygiene needs have an escalating zero point; and there is no final
answer to hygiene needs.
On the other hand, the dynamics of motivation are: The psychological basis of
motivation is the need for personal growth; there are limited sources of motivator
satisfaction; motivator improvements have long-term effects; motivators are additive
in nature; motivator needs have a non-escalating zero point; and there are answers to
motivator needs (Herzberg, 1976 in Pardee, 1990).
Herzberg concluded that hygiene cannot motivate, and when used to achieve
this goal it can actually produce negative effects over the long run. A hygienic
environment, Herzberg asserts, prevents discontent with a job, but such an
environment cannot lead the individual beyond minimal adjustment consisting of the
absence of dissatisfaction. He further noted that a positive happiness seems to require
some attainment of psychological growth (Pardee, 1990).
Further, Herzberg noted that hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction but do not lead to
satisfaction; only motivators motivate workers on their jobs. He argued that hygiene
factors could act only as “dissatisfiers”, that is, if they are not fulfilled, they will
dissatisfy. However, the elimination of dissatisfaction is not enough to motivate; only
“satisfiers” can motivate. Herzberg added that the opposite of job satisfaction would
30
not be job dissatisfaction, but rather no job satisfaction; similarly, the opposite of job
dissatisfaction is no job dissatisfaction, not satisfaction with one’s job.
1.7.1 Strengths of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Although the two-factor theory has a number of limitations, it has greatly
contributed to the study of work motivation, not only in industries but also in
educational organizations. The theory contributed to job enrichment, which is often
used in job design in organizations. Steers and Porter (1979), cited in Okumbe (2013)
contend, in their work “Motivation and work behaviour” that “Herzberg’s ideas filled
a void in the late 1950s by calling attention to the need for improved understanding of
the roles played by motivation in work organizations” (p. 53).
Herzberg’s two-factor theory finds favour and important implications in
educational management and administration as it is still visibly seen in application in
most of the educational institutions. Teachers, as key players in educational
organizations, can be motivated through their job enrichment; granting them control
over their work to feel a sense of accomplishment; providing them with direct, clear,
and regular feedback on their job performance; and providing them with enabling
environment, among others.
Herzberg’s two-factor theory tends to be more holistic than other motivation
theories as it is interdisciplinary in nature. As a content theory, derived from
behavioural science movement, it is informed and enriched by disciplines such as
anthropology, sociology and psychology, which raise it above other theories that
preceded it (Okumbe, 2013). As an interdisciplinary theory, it tends to explain
employee behaviours in a holistic manner.
The theory is supported by a considerable empirical data and is included in
other research that is supportive of the theory’s conclusions (Shanks, n.d.; Pardee,
31
1990; Daft, 2005; NES Knowledge Services, 2007; Okumbe, 3013; Chapman, 2015).
In addition, the theory recognizes the fact that motivation comes from within the
individual as opposed to any external factors. Furthermore, the theory provides
practical solutions for organizations including educational institutions, such as
improving working conditions and providing incentives for teachers, among others.
Furthermore, an empirical study by Chu and Kuo (2015), which sought to test
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory in education settings in Taiwan, revealed that both
hygiene and motivation factors had a positive and significant effect on job
involvement when tested separately, with exception of monetary rewards as hygiene
and recognition as motivator. But when both hygiene and motivation factors were
tested together as independent variables through a stepwise regression analysis,
hygiene factors completely lost their influence on job involvement. Job involvement
meant the degree to which workplace contributes to one’s self-image and satisfies an
individual’s important need. The study findings confirmed that Herzberg’s Two-factor
theory still holds relevant and true today.
Hyun, (2009) at Iowa State University tested empirically the validity of
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory of motivation using data from foodservice soldiers and
logistics officers serving in the Korean Army foodservice operation. Hyun also
attempted to compare general job satisfaction between the sample groups so as to
assess the effect of Herzberg’s motivation and hygiene factors on general job
satisfaction. The study revealed that there was a statistically significant deference in
job satisfaction between the foodservice soldiers and logistics officers. In addition, the
study showed that, for foodservice officers, hygiene factors were more powerful
predictors of general job satisfaction than motivators. However, motivators were
found to have a more significant association with logistics officers’ general job
32
satisfaction than hygiene factors. The study upheld the validity, applicability, and
significance of Herzberg’s Two-factor theory.
Furthermore, another empirical study by Khalid (2013), which analysed
Herzberg’s two-factor theory at the University of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa in
Nigeria, found out that, although the participants received job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction from both the motivating and the hygiene factors, only working
conditions was the significant hygiene factor. Therefore, the study concluded that the
motivator factors were more effective than hygiene factors in motivating the staff at
the university. The study recommended that the university should place more
emphasis on motivator factors than hygiene, namely achievement and responsibility.
The study findings suggested that the three factors namely achievement, responsibility
and working conditions can be used to improve employees’ job satisfaction,
productivity and performance. The study therefore highlighted the validity and
relevance of the two-factor theory in motivational studies.
1.7.2 Weaknesses of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
The two-factor theory assumes that happy employees produce more, which is
not the case always as experience shows from educational organizations like schools.
Also what motivates one individual might be a de-motivator for another considering
individual characteristics. The theory, likewise, does not account for individual
personality traits that could provide a different response to a motivation or hygiene
factor (Bennell & Mukyanuzi, 2005).
Further, the theory lacks in the understanding of interrelations between some
of the motivators. For instance, one might receive adequate job description but he/she
may not be satisfied with the level of responsibility. As a result, one would question
the internal motivational value of job description for the individual.
33
Additionally, Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation ignores the influence
played by individual differences or characteristics (Khalid, 2013). The strengths of
Herzberg’s two-factor theory, however, outweigh its weaknesses. In order to mitigate
the weaknesses of the two-factor theory, the researcher employed other two
supplementary motivational theories, that is, Abraham Maslow’s needs hierarchy
theory and Existence, Relatedness and Growth theory by Clayton Alderfer. Therefore,
the researcher anchored the study on Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory.
1.7.3 Application of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory to the Study
Applied to educational organizations, Herzberg’s two-factor theory would
improve teachers’ motivation through changes in the nature of their job through job
enrichment. In addition, teachers should be empowered to have control over their
tasks, which would improve degree of their responsibility and hence their
performance. This empowerment would enhance their feeling of accomplishment.
With the theory’s application, teachers would be provided with direct, clear, and
regular feedback about their service delivery in relation to school’s objectives. It is
imperative that management ensures provision of a conducive work environment to
motivate teachers and learners to achieve effective teaching and learning processes.
The management is also tasked to ensure that the teachers are provided with
opportunities of updating their knowledge and skills, hence ensuring their personal
growth and commitment to their job.
The theory helps to explain factors that underlie teachers’ perception,
attitudes, beliefs and behaviours towards their profession. It is concerned with factors
that affect employee performance in any work environment as they influence
employee levels of motivation and job satisfaction (Pardee, 1990; Daft, 2005;
Guajardo, 2011; Richardson, 2014). Herzberg’s two-factor theory is focused on those
34
sources of management and motivation that are pertinent to the accomplishment of
work (Hall & Williams, 1986, as cited in Pardee, 1990).
Educational management would find sense in Herzberg’s two-factor theory by
not concentrating more on hygiene factors and neglecting motivators, for teachers are
likely to seek more of the hygiene factors, which would yield a negative effect on
developing a motivated workforce. Therefore, proper management of hygiene is an
important first step in applying Herzberg’s two-factor theory. First, by identifying the
type of hygiene; secondly, giving hygiene for hygiene purposes; thirdly, providing
hygiene for what hurts; fourthly, keeping the hygiene administration simple; and
finally, giving it and shutting up about it (five rules for administering hygiene by
Herzberg,1976).
35
1.8 Conceptual Framework
Figure 1. Conceptual framework adapted from Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Factor Theory
Source: Researcher (2017) and Okumbe (2013)
The conceptual framework in Figure 1 represents the relationship between the
independent variables (extrinsic and intrinsic motivation factors) and the dependent
variable (teachers’ performance). The intrinsic factors of motivation in this study are
measured in the form of professional development opportunities, while extrinsic
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
(Motivation)
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
(Job Performance)
INTERVENING
VARIABLE
EXTRINSIC
FACTORS
Teachers’
Remuneration:
- Salary
- Transport allowance
- Overtime allowance
- Duty allowance
-Break Tea
Lunch
Supervision
-External
-Internal
Working Conditions:
- Staff housing
- Staffroom
- Transport
- Pupil: Teacher Ratio
- Classrooms
- Teaching Materials
- Learning Materials INTRINSIC FACTORS
Professional Growth:
- In-service Training
- Workshops
- Seminars
PERSONAL
TRAITS
- Age
- Gender
- Level of training
JOB PERFORMANCE
- Timely scheming of
work
- Timely lesson planning
- Involvement in
discipline management
- Participation in staff
meetings
- Lesson delivery/ Actual
teaching
- Records of work
covered
- Routine assessment of
the learners
- Timely feedback to
learners
- Syllabus completion
36
factors of motivation are measured in terms of teachers’ remuneration (salaries and
allowances for transport, overtime and duty, break tea, lunch), supervision, and
working conditions (staff housing, pupil-teacher ratio, classrooms, teaching and
learning materials). Teachers’ performance was measured in terms of timely
scheming of work, lesson planning, participation in co-curricular activities, managing
pupils discipline, counselling and guidance, attending staff meetings, actual teaching,
record of work covered, being present at school and attending to pupils’ needs,
assessment of pupils’ academic progress, timely feedback, and management of pupils’
registers (MoES, 2013).
There are other factors, other than intrinsic and environmental factors of
motivation, which underlie and may affect teachers’ motivation and hence their
performance but are not catered for by Herzberg’s two-factor theory. They include
personal traits such as age, gender, teaching experience, level of training, and marital
status (Suzan, Ozden, Serkan, Mehmet, & Halili, 2010).
Teachers’ performance depends majorly on teachers’ motivation levels in the
teaching profession. Availability of intrinsic factors may lead teachers to be more
committed to their job and to self-fulfilment; and their absence may mean having
teachers who are less motivated and dissatisfied. For instance, a teacher with an
interest of pursuing further his/her teaching career, will find opportunities for
professional development very motivating as these would enhance his/her
pedagogical knowledge and skills and also confidence levels (Okumbe, 2013). This
would enhance the individual’s commitment to the teaching profession and would
also enhance their level of performance at school and in classroom.
Availability of external motivational factors will prevent teachers from being
discontented with their job and ensure positive feeling about their job; and when they
37
are lacking, teachers may exhibit less commitment to their job. Availability of
housing for teachers would ensure their presence at school, hence their attendance to
their teaching duties or performance. Absence of staff housing would encourage late
coming to school or even frequent absenteeism by teachers from school, which would
compromise teachers’ performance at school and in class (Mazaki, 2014). Thus, both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors will, in their availability or absence, affect
teachers’ performance at school and in the classroom, either positively or negatively
respectively.
Likewise, the intervening variables, that is, teacher’s demographic
characteristics, will influence their motivation levels and also their performance at
school and in the classroom. For instance, an advanced teacher in age, will most likely
not be motivated by opportunities for professional growth, while a young teacher will
most likely be motivated by availability of opportunities for professional growth.
Teachers, depending on their personal traits, will be motivated differently even when
intrinsic and environmental motivational factors are available.
38
1.9 Operational Definitions of Key Terms
Motivation: This refers to the drive or desire of the teacher to engage in effective
teaching and fulfilling all duties assigned to him/her with continued commitment.
Teachers’ job performance: This implies how teachers respond to their assigned
duties in order to enable public primary schools achieve their objectives. Indicators
for performance include but not limited to timely scheming of work, lesson planning,
involvement in co-curricular activities, involvement in discipline management,
involvement in counselling and guidance.
Rural public primary school: This is an elementary education level, in Uganda,
aided by government and located in a rural area as opposed to urban area. This level
covers seven (7) years and provides basic education leading to the Primary Leaving
Examination (PLE) certificate in four subjects (English, Mathematics, Science, and
Social Studies).
Professional development opportunities: This means any training a teacher receives
while already on the job, such as in-service training, workshops, seminars, short
courses, which are meant to improve on the teacher’s knowledge and teaching skills.
Working conditions: These are supportive services and facilities that characterize
work environment that can enable teachers to perform their assigned duties with ease
in the rural public primary schools. These include provision of staff housing,
staffroom, classrooms, teaching and learning materials, among others.
Remuneration: Refers to any monetary benefits or facilitation for the teacher while
carrying out assigned duties for the school, such as salary, transport, overtime and
duty allowances and break tea and lunch.
Instructional Supervision: This means the regular visits, by the head teacher and
district inspectors of schools, with the aim of sensitizing, mobilizing and motivating
39
teachers in classroom towards improving their teaching effectiveness. This is meant to
improve teachers’ preparations such as schemes of work, lesson plans, teaching
materials, delivery of content and giving feedback to teachers, among others.
40
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, critical review of the related theories and review of related
empirical literature are discussed. Review of related empirical literature was done as
per research questions: Influence of teachers’ professional development opportunities
on job performance, influence of teachers’ remuneration on job performance,
influence of supervision on job performance, and influence of working conditions on
job performance. These were followed by literature on teachers’ personal traits that
are related to the research hypotheses, and finally the summary of the reviewed
empirical studies and knowledge gaps.
2.2 Critical Review of Related Theories
In this section, two related theories were reviewed pointing out their main
tenets, strengths and weaknesses. The theories are the Needs-hierarchy theory by
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and the Existence-Relatedness-Growth theory by
Clayton Alderfer (1940-2015). The two theories were the pioneering motivational
theories.
2.2.1 Abraham Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory is a pioneering theory in the study of
employee motivation in organisations. The theory informs and is beneficial to most of
the subsequent motivational theories, including Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), in his Needs-hierarchy theory, believed that man is
inherently good and argued that, an individual possesses a constantly growing inner
drive that has great potential (Pardee, 1990). Maslow postulated a hierarchy of needs
41
that progresses from lowest, subsistence-level needs to the highest level of self-
awareness and actualization (Shanks, n.d.; Pardee, 1990; Kaur, 2013). The needs
include physiological (food, clothing and shelter), safety (security of life and property,
avoid pain, threat and deprivation), belonging (acceptance by others), self-esteem
(recognition and appreciation), and self-actualization needs (realizing self-potentials
and continue to develop). Maslow’s assumptions are that a satisfied need is not a
motivator of behaviour, and to the extent that lower-needs become satisfied, the next
higher-order level of needs becomes the most proponent determinant of behaviour
(Pardee, 1990; Okumbe, 1998; Kaur, 2013).
An employee’s level of aspiration, according to Maslow, is closely related to
the hierarchy of needs, and attitudes determine the individual route, which the
employees take for the satisfaction of their needs. The movement from one level to
the next was termed satisfaction progression by Maslow, and it was assumed that over
time individuals were motivated to continually progress upward through these levels.
The strength of Maslow’s theory lies in the practical implications for the
management of organizations. The theory suggests to managers how they can make
their employees become self-actualized by recognizing their accomplishments,
providing financial security, and opportunities to socialize amongst themselves
(Greenberg & Baron, 2003 as cited in Kaur, 2013). Maslow’s theory became a
pioneering theory of its time and set ground for other motivational theories.
Despite of the strengths of Maslow’s theory, there is scanty empirical data to
support Maslow’s conclusions. The theory postulated unrealistic assumptions about
employees in general. For instance, the theory assumed that all employees are alike;
all situations are alike; and that there is only one way to meet needs (Nadler &
Lawler, 1979; Graham & Messner, 2000, as cited in Kaur, 2013). The limitations of
42
Maslow’s theory outweigh its strengths, and therefore, the theory could not be
employed to ground the study but to mitigate the weaknesses of the two-factor theory
on which the study was anchored.
2.2.2 Existence, Relatedness and Growth Theory
Existence, relatedness and growth (ERG) theory by Clayton Alderfer (1940-
2015) can be perceived as an out-shoot of Maslow’s needs-hierarchy theory (Pardee,
1990; Ibietan, 2010). Alderfer criticized Maslow’s theory and maintained that there
are three groups of human needs instead of five categories (Ibietan, 2010). This
motivation theory was found by the researcher to be informative and beneficial to
Herzberg’s two-factor theory as it makes a summary of Maslow’ needs hierarchy
theory.
Alderfer, in his ERG theory, identified three components based on Maslow’s
theory but indicated that individuals were motivated to move forward and backward
through the levels in terms of motivators. The three components included existence
(related to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs), relatedness (related to
belonging needs), and growth (comprising self-esteem and self-actualization needs).
Alderfer added his frustration-regression principle that individuals would move in and
out of the various levels, depending upon the extent to which their needs were being
met. Scholars deemed this principle as more logical and convincing than what
Maslow had postulated (Shanks, n.d.; Okumbe, 1998). Furthermore, Caulton (2012),
in his article, “The development and use of the theory ERG” conceded that ERG is a
motivational construct that is concerned with the understanding of factors that
contribute to individual human behaviours.
Alderfer’s theory appears more dynamic than Maslow’s; and it allows
employees to deal only with a three set of needs at once. Alderfer’s theory is a
43
summarized form of Maslow’s theory of five categories of needs. The theory
considers critically intrinsic factors that cause an employee to take specific actions as
stipulated by Ivancevich, Konopaske and Matteson (2008), cited in Caulton (2012).
Such information about employees is useful for people who wish to improve
performance at workplace.
Further, the ERG theory may be used to explain and or predict workplace
issues, relationships at workplace and personal development choices (Caulton, 2012).
In addition, ERG theory may help organizational managers to understand what
constitutes job satisfaction and to identify incentives. Therefore, the theory has broad
relevance that is sociological, psychological and organizational.
However, Alderfer’s ERG theory has been found to be lacking originality in
its conception. The ideas embedded therein are largely borrowed from Maslow’s
theory, which it criticized. Therefore, having utilized Maslow’s theory as its
foundation, the ERG theory may not claim to be original in ideas (Ibietan, 2010).
The study by Ivancevich et al (2008) as cited in Caulton, (2012) expresses
concern that the ERG theory has not been able to stimulate a great deal of research;
and as such, it has very limited empirical information available. There is limited
contribution that ERG theory added as a motivational theory. Therefore, ERG theory
was found wanting in order to guide this study.
2.3 Influence of Teachers’ Professional Development Opportunities on Job
Performance
Professional development, which may include in-service training, seminars,
workshops and short courses among others, is intended in every organization to
enhance employee capacity to handle a given task with necessary skills, knowledge
and with a positive attitude. This is so because teachers are teaching in a changing
44
environment where they are tasked to teach in increasingly multicultural classrooms,
to integrate pupils with special learning needs, to make use of information and
communication technologies, among others. Therefore, education systems globally
are making continuous efforts to provide their teachers with professional development
opportunities so as to maintain a high standard of teaching and to ensure high quality
teaching workforce in schools. Doing such would be motivational for purposes of
reaching increased teacher job performance. Provision of effective professional
development opportunities should be an on-going process.
Shao and Tamashiro (2013), conducted a qualitative study using narrative
design to compare teacher dispositions and attitudes in student learning and
achievement in the USA and China. The study observed examples of passionate and
highly motivated teachers at all levels of education in USA and China. Nevertheless,
teachers in the USA were vocal for lack of professional opportunities, especially in
educational technology. The study pointed out that teachers have limited professional
development opportunity especially in using newer technology to improve teaching.
In addition, the study revealed that teachers in the USA were grossly concerned about
the balance between contact hours of direct teaching and time for preparation and
professional development. This finding suggests that if teachers in the USA accessed
the desired professional development in technology, this would improve their
confidence levels, knowledge and skill level, and would therefore improve their
performance.
From both countries, USA and China, teachers were enthusiastic about gaining
new knowledge and competency in technology. They valued having significant time
and priority given to advance their knowledge and pedagogical skills. Teachers
believe professional development should be continuous throughout one’s career and
45
sustained rather than isolated workshops or conferences. About 30% of the teachers
expressed their interest in pursuing advanced degrees such as master’s or doctoral
degrees. On the whole, the study observed that professional development for teachers
is a high priority in China’s elementary and secondary schools. The typical student-
contact time for teachers is 3-4 hours per day, with the rest of the day devoted to
professional development, curriculum development, lesson preparation, and faculty
meetings. The priority on professional development for teachers at all levels and a less
demanding teaching workload may explain the more consistent positive teacher
motivation across the schools in China, accompanied by improved job performance.
Teachers, both in US and China, were sensitive to individual learner’s needs and
guided students through the learning process. In addition, teachers assessed learners
regularly to ensure their learning achievement. In China, teachers were involved in
learners’ discipline and also reported poor student attendance.
The study reflects the situation of teachers in USA and China, both developed
countries, a situation that may be different in many aspects from the situation in
Africa, among developing countries. In addition, the findings of the study may not be
generalized to other geographical contexts since the study used only the qualitative
approach. Also it is not clear whether the study involved only government schools or
private schools, or both as there was no distinction made. This study employed both
quantitative and qualitative approaches and conducted in Uganda, a developing
country.
In addition, an evaluation study conducted in rural China by Meichen,
Prashant, Yaojiang, Fang, Chengfang and Rozelle (2017) on the impact of teacher
professional development program-National Teacher Training Program on student
achievement, revealed that, although the program had positive effect on mathematics
46
teaching knowledge of teachers, it had no significant effect on teaching practices in
the classroom. This finding underlines the fact that both professional development
programs and instructional supervision should supplement each other for effective
results. Instructional supervision provides an opportunity for the teacher to interact
with the supervisor and to air out other challenges regardless of the teacher’s mastery
of content knowledge. The study used both questionnaires and interviews to collect
data from participants and that enabled the study to cover many participants and to
gain in-depth knowledge reflecting individual lived experiences and personal
perspectives. Despite of the mixed methods design, the study was conducted in a
different geographical and economic setting from that of a rural Uganda. The current
study was therefore conducted in rural public primary schools in order to comprehend
teachers’ lived experiences and personal perspectives on the effectiveness of
motivation on their job performance.
In another study by Gizen (2013), conducted in North Cyprus, that used a case
study design, it was observed that most teachers complained of subject group
meetings having not enough periodic schedule, thus re-echoing what was reported by
Shao and Tamashiro (2013), in the US and China. This observation presupposes that
some teachers in North Cyprus desired to attain professional confidence, competence
and pedagogical skills for the subjects they taught in order to perform better.
Interestingly, very few teachers from the study recommended training and seminars
opportunities as motivators. This view was supported by the responses from
administrators who stated that many of the teachers did not see seminars and training
opportunities as motivators. This observation was in complete contradiction to what
the Two-factor theory, which considers professional development among intrinsic
motivators. The study, unfortunately, does not give reasons for the discrepancy among
47
teachers, vis-à-vis professional development. This perhaps explains how the desire for
professional development may depend on individual’s personal traits like age, needs,
and marital status among others.
Lack of professional development denies teachers enhanced knowledge and
skills and curtails their performance. As the study employed a case study design, it
gives an in-depth understanding of the teachers’ situation but with limited application
as the study findings cannot be generalised to other areas.
Similarly, a study by Campbell, Osmong-Johnson, Faubert, Zeichner, and
Hobbs-John (2017), using a multi-method design, examined the state of educators’
professional learning in Canada. The study found out that professional learning
programs included but not limited to workshops, collaborative inquiry or research,
conferences, professional network or learning community, mentoring and coaching,
taking on further studies at master’s or doctoral level, and observation visits to other
schools. These programs fostered teachers’ growth and development by offering
teacher learning and leadership programs, annual learning plan, teacher performance
appraisal, new teacher induction program, collegial involvement in planning, teacher-
determined learning goals, collaborative construction of knowledge, among others. In
addition, professional learning offered teachers subject-specific and pedagogical
content knowledge, trained teachers how to work with all students in an inclusive
environment, equipping teachers with teaching cross-curricular competencies, training
in instructional methods, classroom assessment, classroom management, supporting
diverse learning needs and others. All these professional learning programs enabled
teachers in Canada to appreciate the primacy of continuing career-long professional
development, the necessity of teacher autonomy, the importance of teaching-centred
and teacher-directed professional development, the diversity of effective professional
48
development needs and practices, the value of teachers teaching teachers, recognition
that teachers are learners. These varied professional learning opportunities benefited
teachers with knowledge and skills and further enhanced their job performance. The
study used both quantitative and qualitative approaches and this helped to reach many
participants and also to generate in-depth knowledge thus capturing participants’ live
experiences and understanding. Nevertheless, the study cannot claim to reflect the
situation in Uganda regarding teachers’ professional development opportunities
because of the geographical and socio-economic differences between the two
countries. In addition, the study was so broad in scope covering all provinces of
Canada, which may limit the study to provide specific details of each province. The
current study limited its scope to only Kitagwenda County and also to only rural and
public primary schools in order to obtain details on professional development
opportunities accessed by teachers and how these opportunities influence their job
performance.
In addition, the role of professional development in improving job
performance was highlighted in a study by Atiya and Palwasha (2013), conducted in
Asia. The study used a survey design in examining the effectiveness of teachers’ job
performance through motivation in ten public and private schools in Peshawar city in
the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, in Pakistan. In the study, majority of the
teachers expressed that more educated and experienced teachers had more capabilities
and confidence than others and devoted more effort towards their job. This implies
that teachers get more committed to their tasks when they are well prepared with the
necessary tools of knowledge, skills and positive attitude. This calls for attention to
teachers’ professional development opportunities offered to teachers if job
performance is to be achieved among teachers. The study lacked in-depth information
49
about the role of professional development opportunities in improving job
performance as it depended only on the cross-section survey design. The current study
employed convergent mixed methods design, including phenomenological design that
explored participants’ perspectives and lived experience for in-depth information
about the professional development opportunities provided for the teachers.
In India, a study was conducted to examine teachers’ perceptions of the
determinants of teacher motivation and job satisfaction in primary schools
(Ramachandran, et al 2005). It was qualitative study, although it also used
questionnaires for some participants, without explicitly acknowledging a mixed
methods design. The study revealed that many in-service teachers’ training
programmes were introduced in 1994 and the government of India provides central
funds for on-going in-service training of teachers. Most teachers felt that the
opportunities for upgrading professional qualifications were inadequate; and
opportunities for in-service training were just average. The study indicated that most
teachers enrolled for professional growth on their own. Often in most developing
countries, policies are made but remain on paper. This could explain the situation in
India, which may be true in other countries. The study findings suggest that teachers
yearn for professional development opportunities, a fact that if these opportunities
were provided, teachers would feel motivated and would performance better.
In African countries and in their education systems, professional development
seems not to be given the priority it deserves. For instance, in Malawi, a case study
examined the extent to which low teacher motivation is a constraint to the attainment
of UPE (Kadzamira, 2006). The study, among other factors, identified lack of
continuous professional development as a factor contributing to the current poor
levels of teacher morale and job satisfaction in Malawi. Lack of opportunities for
50
training and seminars were observed as affecting teacher’ motivation and by
extension job performance, whereby teachers with low morale found excuses to
absent themselves from school. Other teachers found private teaching in urban
schools, while others resorted to farming in rural areas. Teacher absenteeism was
reported as a serious problem in Malawian schools.
In Nigeria, a survey study by Imo, Aniefiok and Nkama (2013), on staff
development programmes and secondary school teachers’ job performance in Uyo
Metropolis, showed that teachers who participated in staff development programmes
were more effective in their job performance than those who did not. This difference
was in terms of knowledge of the subject matter, classroom management, teaching
methods and assessment of students’ work. This implies that teachers, at whatever
school level, should be regularly provided with professional development
opportunities to keep them abreast with changes in education systems such as
curriculum, teaching methods among others. The study relied only on a survey design
which brought many participants on board but fell short of obtaining participant’s
individual experiences and perspectives, which would have brought out in-depth
information on the subject. In addition, the study may reveal geographical and
economic disparity between Nigeria and Uganda as the two countries may be different
in levels of development and with different motivation levels for teachers. Therefore,
Nigerian teachers’ situation may not reflect exactly the situation of teachers in
Uganda. This current study was anchored on a mixed methods design to cover the
identified gaps.
Similarly, a survey study in Nigeria by Abiola and Oluwatovin (2016) was
conducted on professional development programs for teachers in public junior
secondary schools. It revealed that cluster type seminar, mentoring, on-job training
51
and in-service training approaches were used to update teachers’ professional growth.
However, the study found out that not all teachers in public junior secondary schools
had equal opportunities to attend the mentioned professional development programs.
This was so because teachers were selected according to their qualification levels,
years of experience, subjects taught and areas of specialisation. Another challenge
that did not favour progress of the professional development programs was poor
conditions of the infrastructure, shortage of instructional materials, and relevant
textbooks. Nevertheless, the study revealed a significant relationship between
professional development programs and teachers’ productivity in junior secondary
schools with r-calculated value of 0.79 that was greater than r-table value of 0.19 at
0.05 level of significance. This meant that the knowledge, skills, value and traits
which teachers acquire from professional development opportunities will not only
complement their efforts but also increase and improve the way the syllabus is
delivered in classroom. This in turn, will add value and quality to the teaching and
learning processes. Teachers’ pedagogical renewal would therefore enhance
instructional delivery, quality outcomes, teachers’ job satisfaction and productivity.
In Ghana, Atta and Mensah (2015) conducted a qualitative research to explore
the perspectives of senior high school teachers on the availability of professional
development programs in Sekyere District in the Ashanti region. The findings
revealed that teachers were being offered continuous professional development
opportunities, for example, to access distance learning facilities and graduate course
form institutions of higher learning. Professional development opportunities also took
the form of workshops, in-service training, conferences and seminars. These
opportunities were traditionally structured, not often organised and also limited to a
few selected individual teachers. This made many teachers in Ashanti region to
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become less effective in imparting quality teachers’ instructional practices and thus
poor teacher job performance. The study benefited by obtaining in-depth knowledge
for employing qualitative approach but missed out on reaching many participants had
the study used also quantitative approaches such as questionnaires. The study was
conducted in secondary schools which have a variety of differences when compared
to primary schools in terms of teachers’ opportunities to access professional
development, among others. In addition, the study did not specify as to whether it
took place in an urban or rural setting as there is a great discrepancy between urban
and rural schools. The current study was anchored on mixed methods design
specifically on convergent parallel mixed methods design. This methodology enabled
the study to overcome weaknesses of one approach with the strengths of another.
Further still, the current study was specifically carried out in a rural setting and in
public primary schools. Therefore, the current study was able to cover the
methodological and scope gaps identified in the Shanti region in Ghana.
In Kenya, Ngumbi (2012) using a mixed methods design, examined teacher
motivational level and its influence on student academic performance in public day
secondary schools in Nairobi County. Ngumbi observed a significant relationship
between career development opportunities for teachers and students’ academic
performance. Ngumbi’s study found out that career development opportunities had
increased teachers’ knowledge and skill levels and their confidence in class.
Furthermore, the findings suggest that lack of teacher career development may impact
negatively on students’ academic performance, also implying poor teacher job
performance. The study considered secondary school teachers in an urban setting but
the current study considered primary schools in rural setting, as there may be a sharp
difference between the two levels of education and the geographical setting.
53
ActionAid Uganda (2010), inquiring about teacher training strategies and
programmes in the four countries (Burundi, Malawi, Senegal and Uganda), found out
that none of the countries had a clear, uniting policy for pre-service and in-service
training. Concerning quality and content of training, the study recommended the need
to evaluate, debate and reform both the content and length of the training programmes
to better respond to teachers and students’ needs. Reported also were few
opportunities for career advancement and promotion, combined with limited access to
higher academic qualifications, which were seen as demotivating and reducing the
teachers’ morale. The study further indicated that in Uganda, low levels of pupils’
achievement were not surprising given that teachers themselves had not mastered the
taught subjects. The study had tested teachers on their level of competency and
discovered that most teachers achieved lower than pupils in the same examinations.
This observation raises many questions about teachers’ continued training
programmes and their effect on teachers’ performance. The study also took Uganda in
general and did not indicate specific regions where it was conducted. This study was
conducted in Western Uganda and in a rural setting to bring out specific and particular
information about teachers’ motivation and job performance.
In Uganda, Aacha (2010) investigated the effects of motivation on job
performance in Masaka Municipality, using a survey design. Aacha observed that
teachers’ performance was good although motivation was not adequate. In regard to
professional development, Aacha found out that majority of the teachers (62%) had
experienced career development. The study attributed good job performance to
intrinsic motivation and noted that there is a significant relationship between
motivation and teachers’ job performance. The study was conducted in an urban area,
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which may portray a different environment different from a rural setting where the
current study was conducted.
Furthermore, Vermeulen (2013) in his case study, analysed mismatch between
national primary education curriculum and classroom reality in rural government
schools, in Namasale sub-County, Northern Uganda. Vermeulen reported that there
was failure by the government to avail the in-service training programme to reach the
teachers and the delay in adapting the primary teaching college (PTC) curriculum to
provide pre-service training based on the new curriculum. Some teachers are reported
to have had no professional training for a long time, and that when it is provided, it is
not available for all teachers. This suggests that a number of teachers long for
professional training to enhance their knowledge and skills levels, a motivational
factor that would also improve a teacher’s performance at school and in classroom.
The study reported that some teachers, in the discussion group, revealed they were
indeed in need of more training to improve their ability to manage a class, among
others. As noted before, even within a country, there are differences between regions.
Vermeulen conducted his study in Northern Uganda, but current study was conducted
in western Uganda.
Similarly, Kagoda and Ezati (2014) conducted a study in Uganda, using mixed
methods design to explore secondary school teachers’ perception of teacher
professional development from five districts. The study sampled five rural schools
from eastern Uganda and eight schools from urban Kampala. The findings indicated
that teachers had a narrow understanding of teacher professional development.
However, the study revealed that the professional development opportunities offered
to teachers included in-service training, workshops and seminars. Kagoda and Ezati
further found out that teacher professional development was not without constraints
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and these included shortage of time, lack of finances, lack of motivation and support
by head teachers and the government. The study covered many participants by using a
quantitative approach and also obtained in-depth information through qualitative
approaches. It also was enriched by obtaining information from both rural and urban
settings. In addition, the study considered secondary schools. However, Uganda has
many regions which are different in many aspects; and there are also differences
between education levels. The current study limited its scope to only rural public
primary schools in western Uganda in order to have a more elaborated and detailed
understanding of available teachers’ professional development opportunities and how
these influences their job performance.
2.4 Influence of Teachers’ Remuneration on Job Performance
Looking at the global education systems today, there is a challenge of how to
attract most talented teachers into the teaching profession. Talented teachers are those
who can exhibit the capacity, knowledge and skills and are also capable of adapting to
the changing environment. Therefore, attractive salaries, possibilities of earning
additional allowances, coupled with good working conditions comprise incentives for
drawing many people into the teaching profession. These incentives ensure among
teachers and head teachers high levels of satisfaction and motivation.
Therefore, teachers’ remuneration comprises of salary, transport allowance,
over-time allowance, duty allowance and any other monetary reward in appreciation
of teachers’ services at school. Remuneration for teachers is considered among the
extrinsic motivational factors that would affect teachers’ job performance.
The experience of Varkey GEMS foundation, in its survey study of 21
countries (Brazil, China, Czech Republic, Egypt, Finland, France, Greece, Israel,
Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Turkey, Singapore,
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Switzerland, Untied Kingdom -UK, and the United States), revealed that the better
teachers are paid, the greater the student outcomes (Dixon, Humble & Counihan,
2015). The study further indicated that in many countries around the world, people
think that teachers deserve to be paid more. There was also an overwhelming support
for teachers to be paid according to their performance. However, the study cautioned,
that by improving teachers’ pay and working conditions alone, would not solve the
problem of status of teachers’ motivation. This finding corroborated well with the
previous study by Bennell and Akyeampong (2007). Bennell and Akyeampong had
reported that the broad consensus among occupational psychologists in the context of
developed countries was that, pay on its own does not increase motivation. However,
the two researchers were quick to add that, pecuniary motives were likely to be
dominant among teachers in those countries where pay and other material benefits
were too low for the individual and household survival needs. These observations
were in line with what Herzberg stipulates, when he refers to salary as a dissatisfier in
his two-factor theory. Although teacher remuneration may not improve teachers’
motivation, it may influence job performance greatly. The 21 countries, where the
survey study was conducted, are all developed countries and at a different economic
level from Uganda. Uganda has her unique economic challenges with a different
standard of living. The findings by Bennell and Akyeampong may not necessarily
apply to Ugandan situation. Hence, the current study was conducted in Uganda and
specifically in the rural Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District, western Uganda, to
reflect the real situation of teacher remuneration and how this affects teacher job
performance.
In another study, Ramachandran et al (2005) reported that teachers’ financial
status, in India, was fairly good and teachers were categorized as middle-class
57
professionals. Nearly all the teachers were happy with their salaries and their mean
household expenditure was less than their salaries as school teachers. The study,
which compared teachers’ salaries with other countries outside India, found out that
salaries of primary school teachers in India were better than those in middle-income
countries like Chile, Costa Rica and Thailand, but worse than other low-income
countries such as Kenya, Malawi and Zambia. In this regard, the study places Kenya
as an example from which, other East African countries could borrow a leaf in as far
as teachers’ salary is concerned. While nearly all the teachers who were interviewed
appreciated the salary increase in India, the study found that better salaries alone were
not enough to enhance motivational levels. This revelation about salary corroborates
with Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which states that salary as an extrinsic factor can
only help in avoiding dissatisfaction but does not satisfy (Pardee, 1990).
Another motivating factor for Indian teachers was the teachers’ paid leave.
Female teachers are eligible for four months of maternity leave on full pay for two
children. Further still, female teachers are eligible for six weeks leave with full pay in
case of a spontaneous or induced abortion, on production of medical proof from
government-certified hospitals. In addition to vacations, teachers are also eligible for
interest-free advance for festivals and low-interest loans for house building. Likewise,
tuition fee is waived for children of school teachers if they are studying in government
schools. Such a move to help teachers meet some of their basic and family needs,
uplifts teachers’ morale in their teaching profession, their status and also motivation,
which may also enhance their commitment to their duties as teachers in their
respective schools.
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In Africa, teachers’ situation appears to be worse than what is portrayed on the
global level. Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011), in their study “Improving the conditions of
teachers and teaching in rural schools across African countries”, observed that
teachers in many African countries are working in challenging conditions that are
aggravated by poor remuneration, delay in payment of salaries, and allowances. This
situation was negatively affecting teachers’ motivation and job performance.
Research suggests that quality in basic education in sub-Saharan Africa is
inseparable from the quality of the teachers involved. Teachers’ working conditions
and their training are seen as critical attributes in this regard (Lauwerier & Akkari,
2015). The study further demonstrated that teachers in sub-Saharan Africa worked in
tough conditions with poor pay, little job security and loss of motivation. It would be
interesting to find out how these factors of professional development and working
conditions affect teachers’ motivation and their performance in Uganda, and
especially in rural public primary schools.
Teacher remuneration for exemplary performance is a form of recognition and
appreciation of what the teacher has done and achieved for the organization. It is also
an effective motivation factor that enhances teacher’s performance. Mumbi (2010)
observed, in her survey study of the influence of work environment factors on
performance of employees of ministry of education semi-autonomous agencies in
Kenya, that management rarely recognized those employees with exemplary
performance. This partly explained why customers of the public service in Kenya had
complained concerning the quality of service, in the ministry of education, for many
years. The study recommended that mechanisms of employee recognition should be
clear, consistent and merit-based for good performance. The survey study focused on
only few work environment factors and therefore, it may not claim to provide
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adequate understanding of the factors responsible for the poor employee performance
that was observed in the ministry of education in Kenya at that time.
In most cases, professional misconduct of teachers is attributed to poor
remuneration. For instance, a case study in Malawi (Kadzamira, 2006), which
examined the extent of low teacher motivation is a constraint to attainment of UPE in
low income developing countries, revealed that majority of the participants indicated
that absenteeism has become a serious problem in schools. That was so partly because
teachers were frequently engaged in secondary employment activities to supplement
their meagre earnings. However, this study contradicts what Ramachandran et al
(2005) had reported in India about teachers’ salary being worse than that in Malawi,
although Indian teachers were satisfied with their salary. This implies that countries
differ from each other depending on their cost of living and other socio-economic
aspects. Therefore, each country deserves its own treatment when it comes to
teachers’ levels of motivation and how this affects their job performance.
A survey study conducted by Education International (2007) in Gambia,
Kenya, Lethoso, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia on teacher remuneration and
motivation, found out that teachers’ salaries were generally low and below the cost of
living. The study further revealed that the situation was worse for the unqualified
teachers who earned between 40% and 60% of the monthly salary of the lowest paid
qualified teacher. This situation led to the decline of the status of the teaching
profession in all the six countries. Worse still, in all the countries visited, except
Kenya, teachers did not have proper or effective collective bargaining structures in
place. This situation caused among others, teacher absenteeism and teacher urban
migration and the pupils lost valuable learning time. The study reported that teachers’
unions in all the six countries lamented of the dissatisfaction and demotivation of the
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teachers, mainly attributed to low salaries and poor working conditions of service.
The study demonstrated through tabulation, how teachers’ salaries varied in different
countries expressed in US dollars:
Table 3
Teachers’ Gross Salaries per Month in US Dollars (2005-2006)
Level The Gambia Kenya Lesotho Uganda Tanzania Zambia
Primary 60 152 177 115 20 200
Lower Secondary 75 272 265 144 95 250
Upper Secondary 90 305 638 260 125 325
The information in Table 3 shows that teachers’ salaries were the lowest in
Tanzania and the Gambia, and relatively higher in other countries. Although the cost
of living varies from country to country, the salary estimates shown in Table 3
demonstrate a fair comparative analysis of the basic gross salary for the different
categories of teachers. The study relied on survey approach which enabled coverage
of many participants and its results can easily be generalised to other countries but it
fell short on qualitative approaches which would have brought out a variety of
participants’ views and experiences, thus enhancing in-depth understanding of the
problem. The current study bridged the gaps by employing a mixed methods design
for in-depth understanding of teacher motivation and performance and also to cater
for the interests of both quantitative and qualitative scholars and readers.
Similarly, a quantitative study by Ondima et al (2014), argued that salary,
promotion and financial bonus in order of importance were found to affect teacher
motivation and thus teacher performance in Nyamira District, Kenya. Their study ran
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a regression analysis and found that an increase by 1 unit in salary caused an increase
of 49.1% in teacher performance. The study also found that teacher financial rewards
affect the level of teacher performance to a large extent. This suggests that when a
teacher is paid a reasonable package, their performance is likely to improve. Unlike in
developed countries, salary tends to be a strong motivational strategy, which has a
strong influence on teachers’ performance in developing countries, as observed in
Kenya and in some other African countries. This could be so because many teachers
in Africa, especially in sub-Sahara, still face challenges of meeting basic needs.
The study ran another regression analysis, which showed that an increase of 1
unit in teacher promotion was likely to cause an increase of 40% in teacher
performance. This implied that teacher promotion has a significant effect on teacher
performance in Kenyan schools. In addition, performance rewards were found to have
a substantially high effect on teacher performance, such as salaries, allowances,
wages, bonuses, duty allowances, and other monetary rewards. From multi-linear
regression, the findings revealed that teacher salary explained 14.9% of the variation
of teacher performance, while bonus explained the highest variation in teacher
performance by 69.8%. Bonus pay had the greatest effect on teacher performance in
Kenyan secondary schools. The study was limited to only quantitative approach and
therefore, the findings may not provide individual teachers’ personal perspective and
understanding of their motivation and how this affects their job performance. By not
using qualitative approach, the study may not claim to offer an in-depth understanding
of teachers’ issues. The current study employed convergent mixed methods design to
cover the gap of the methodological design.
In Uganda, Aacha (2010) found out that teachers’ motivation was inadequate
especially due to low salaries as the cost of living was high. Salary was found
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insufficient to motivate teachers to perform effectively as most teachers were found
unsatisfied with the amount of money the government paid them. The teachers
complained of the cost of living being high and thus difficult to meet daily expenses
like transport, house rent, food, medical care and school fees for themselves and also
for their family members. That left many teachers dissatisfied with their profession.
The study relied on a survey design, and this helped to cover many schools,
but did not gain an in-depth understanding of the individual teachers’ perspectives on
their motivation and performance due to the absence of a qualitative approach.
Moreover, the study took place in an urban environment where social amenities and
other facilities are most likely to be accessed by teachers, unlike in rural areas. The
current study was conducted in a rural environment, using a mixed method design so
as to fill up for the observed gaps.
Similarly, a quantitative study by Jingdong, Najjuko, and Ochwo (2017),
conducted in Rubaga Division, Uganda, examined remuneration level on teachers’
turnover in secondary schools and found out that absence of proper allowances left
many teachers dissatisfied with their job and some even left the profession. The study
indicated further that salary as a remuneration factor was very low and not enough to
cover teachers’ basic and family needs. Findings further indicated that some teachers
accessed housing and medical allowances. In addition, teachers in Rugaba Division
did not receive holiday packages and this left many teachers demotivated and their job
performance lacking. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship
between remuneration level and teacher turnover in the secondary schools that
participated in the study. By employing quantitative approaches, the study was able to
cover many secondary schools and many participants but fell short of obtaining in-
depth information such as participant’s individual lived experiences and perspectives.
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The study was conducted in an urban setting where social amenities and other living
standards are different from what is found in rural settings. Further, the study
considered secondary school level, which may be different from the elementary level
in many aspects. The current study used mixed methods design both quantitative and
qualitative approaches which supplemented each other and overcame weaknesses of
each single approach. In addition, the current study was conducted in a rural setting
since most studies have been conducted in urbans areas, and therefore made a
contribution to the knowledge bank on teachers’ remuneration and job performance in
a rural setup. The study scope was also limited to public primary schools, which have
often generated public concern.
2.5 Influence of Instructional Supervision on Job Performance
Supervision is a wide concept that is applied in both educational and non-
educational organisations. In a policy note for Poland, the World Bank (2010)
described supervision as “The regular or periodic oversight of individuals or entities,
which uses the results of evaluation and sometimes inspection to inform and direct
action of those supervised” (p.2). There is also a distinction between educational
supervision and instructional supervision. The former is more focused on school
system level quality and the latter is focused on quality teaching or effectiveness in
teaching and learning processes. The study addressed the latter.
A survey study conducted in the USA by Glanz, Shulman and Sullivan (2007),
that investigated the impact of instructional supervision on student achievement. The
study found out that in many cases principals did not have the time to undertake
regular and meaningful supervision due to many duties at school. Instead principals
delegated the supervision work to other people who were neither trained in
supervision nor given organized authority to effectuate needed reforms for quality
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teaching. Teachers mostly indicated that supervision was done as a duty without any
real interest to help teachers and yet supervision should aim at teachers’ effectiveness
in their duties.
Glanz, Shulman and Sullivan (2007), study further indicated little connection
between supervision and professional development. The researchers concluded that
instructional supervision, as best practice, was mostly absent in the schools where the
survey was conducted. The delegated people to do supervision had little impact on
altering teacher behaviour that supports quality teaching that was needed to ensure
learner achievement. The study relied on survey design and did not incorporate any
qualitative design to elicit in-depth information from participants. Therefore, the study
lacks detailed information about instructional supervision and how it influences
teacher performance. The current study used a mixed methods paradigm, to cover the
gap identified in Glanz, Shulman and Sullivan (2007), survey study.
In his survey study about teacher motivation, Guajardo (2011) points out that,
in many developing countries that benefit from “Save the children” project, teacher
accountability was very weak, systematic controls were inadequate and teachers were
rarely inspected and difficult to discipline. For instance, the study postulates that
when salaries are deposited to banks, head teachers cannot withhold them from poorly
performing teachers, and they face lengthy and ineffective alternative ways of
sanctioning them. Further, the study confirmed that teacher pay and promotion are
rarely linked to performance. When inspection is done, the process is often purely
supervisory with little support or constructive advice on how teachers can improve
their teaching knowledge and skills, or applying new teaching methods in class. With
ineffective supervision, most teachers are likely to adopt to “I don’t care” attitude and
in the long run, giving a low deal to the teaching and learning activities. Yet with
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effective supervision, teachers’ issues, which hinder them to perform to the expected
standards, would be addressed appropriately and thus impacting positively on job
performance. Uganda is among developing countries that benefit from “Save the
children” project. The current study intended to find out how Ugandan schools are
fairing in regard to supervision in schools and how it influences the conduct of
teachers at school such as covering the proposed syllabus, utilizing the scheduled time
for classes, pupils’ assessment, and regular class attendance.
In Cyprus, Gizem (2013) reported that majority of the teachers in public
schools (87%) agreed that if they knew that successful completion of a given task is
followed by a reward, and incompletion of results in punishment, they would be
motivated to perform better. This observation highlights how supportive supervision
could effect strongly on job performance in schools among teachers if it was given
attention by administrators. All participants stressed lack of inspectors and severity of
its effect on performance and motivation of teachers, as one participant expressed,
thus,
There is no system which differentiates a non-working teacher from a working
one and since there have not been any inspectors for a long time decisions
related with promotions of the teachers cannot be given objectively (Gizem,
2013, pp. 20-26).
The study reveals that senior teachers who experienced inspectors visiting
schools, reminiscent those days when both motivation and performance of the
teachers were higher. The study observed that there were inspectors for every subject
and during those years, teachers were always well prepared with their lesson plans,
were always dressed well, and were ready for the uninformed inspections.
Supervision, among other factors, was highlighted by the study as motivational
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strategy highly related to teachers’ performance at school. The study used a case study
design, which gives in-depth understanding of the phenomenon of motivation and job
performance, but limits the application of the findings to other places, especially in
developing countries. The current study employed a mixed methods design to bridge
the gap.
In another study, Ramachandran et al (2005), had praised India for motivating
teachers in many aspects, but the study faulted the supervision system. It indicated
that while school inspectors visited the school regularly, there was little supervision of
what happened inside the school. The study reports that there was no longer face-to-
face interaction between the school and inspectors, and that supervision had been
reduced to mere collection of data on enrolment and promotion of children. If and
when inspectors visited schools, the study reported, their attention was focused on
attendance registers, checking accounts of mid-day-meals and other related records
like school grants and maintenance. Without supportive supervision to teachers,
which would respond to teachers’ challenges, all other motivational strategies may
bear minimal results in effecting teachers’ job performance such as reducing on
absenteeism cases, ensuring that teachers complete the syllabus and attend to the
discipline of learners, among others. Supervision plays a monitoring role, with the
aim of correcting faults where they are observed for better performance and achieving
organization’s goals and objectives. Absence of supervision or lack of effective
supervision in schools can make all other efforts fail in achieving the desired targets;
this makes supervision necessary in schools.
Furthermore, a qualitative study by Sharma, Yusoff, Kannan, and Baba
(2011), which investigated concerns of teachers and principals on instructional
supervision in three Asian countries, reported that majority of the teachers from India,
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Malaysia and Thailand showed their concerns that supervisors did not involve them in
instructional supervision process. Also majority of the teachers from the three
countries viewed supervision by principals and others as punitive. This came about as
the supervisors would aim at fault-finding in classroom teaching and never tell
teachers their strengths. Another unfortunate thing that the study reported was that
supervisors would embarrass teachers by reprimanding them before their students.
The study found out that supervision was merely an eye wash, a paper completion and
punitive process without any benefit for the teachers. The participants from the study
stressed the involvement of teachers, subject teachers and subject specialists so as to
make supervision practices effective. The study recommended that supervision should
be a continuous development and corporate process. Sharma et al (2011) study used
only a qualitative approach and therefore it did not have many participants to enrich
the findings. The current study used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to
derive detailed and rich information about supervision in schools.
In addition, Ghavifekr and Ibrahim (2014) conducted a quantitative study in
private secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on head of departments’
instructional supervisory role and teachers’ job performance. The study findings
indicated that there was a significant relationship between teachers’ perceptions on
the instructional supervision role of head of department and improving teachers’ job
performance. This included aspects such as teaching practices, professional
competencies, and motivation. Teachers confirmed that head of departments helped
them in their teaching practices and facilitated their access to professional resources
which helped the teachers to improve their knowledge in target areas and developed
their competencies. The study recommended that it is important for head of
departments to play the role of instructional leader because this enhances better
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teaching and learning for both leaders and the subordinates. The study was able to
cover many participants because of quantitative approaches but did not achieve in-
depth knowledge and lived experiences due to lack of qualitative approaches. The
study’s scope was private secondary schools and in a developed country, both of
which have a sharp contrast from public primary schools and a developing country
like Uganda where the current study was conducted. The current study was anchored
on a convergent parallel mixed methods design that favoured the study to cover a
wide range of participants and at the same time to obtain detailed and in-depth
knowledge on instructional supervision and teachers’ job performance.
Similarly, studies in Africa indicate that supervision can boost teachers’
motivation to perform effectively in their duties. Unfortunately, a case study by
Adewale, Adeleke, Toyin and Odusogaet (2014), that investigated school supervision
effects in public secondary schools in Ogun State in Nigeria, found out that
supervision was relatively low in schools. The study reported that supervisors visited
less most rural areas. It would be interesting to know why supervisors do not
frequently visit schools located in rural areas. It would also be helpful when
supervisors visit schools in rural areas and observe what teachers do and how they do
it, the challenges they face and their strengths in order to guide them and provide the
professional help the teachers need to perform up to the expected standards. Lack of
supervision can create an atmosphere of laissez-faire among teachers and the
temptation to abandon one’s duties.
Furthermore, a survey study by Chika (2015) on appraisal of instructional
supervision and quality assurance in schools in Nigeria, found out that the
instructional supervision and quality assurance were losing control regardless of
government efforts to set up standards. This is because instructional supervision faced
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many challenges such as inadequate funding, poor management of available
resources, inadequate instructional facilities, inadequate infrastructural facilities, and
lack of transport among others. The study revealed that the rate at which inspectors
visited schools was below average. In addition, recommendations made by
instructional supervisors were never implemented by the government, which implied
that there was no political will to improve education. The prime mission of any school
is to provide adequate quality teaching and learning for the pupils, who are the direct
beneficiaries of education. This can only be ensured when administrators perform
their professional and administrative functions, among which is the instructional
supervision. When instructional supervision is carried out professionally, whether it is
external or internal, there would be an increase in teachers’ professional development,
conducive learning environment, improvement in pupils’ achievement in
examinations, and this in turn would increase teachers’ job satisfaction.
In another study carried out in Nigeria, Ikegbusi and Eziamaka (2016) sought
to find out the impact of supervision of instruction on teacher effectiveness. Using a
comparative survey research design, they found out that both external and internal
supervision of instruction had positive effect on teacher effectiveness in secondary
schools in Enugu State. The study found out that external instructional supervision
kept teachers alert and orderly in their work behaviours and took active part in
seeking solutions to instructional problems. The study revealed that the roles of
internal supervision ranged from assistance in clarifying school policies, strategies for
effective curriculum implementation and delivery of instruction to teaching skills
acquisition and educational leadership. The study therefore recommended constant
sponsored workshops and seminars for both external and internal supervisors to
ensure that they become knowledgeable on the expectations of instructional
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supervision in secondary schools. The study relied only on quantitative approach and
did not use any of the qualitative approaches which would have brought out varied
participants views and experiences on the topic for in-depth understanding. The study
was also conducted in a secondary school setting which may have several differences
from those of a public primary school. The current study used a mixed methods
approach that bridged the approach gap and catered for both quantitative and
qualitative approach leaned scholars and readers.
In Ghana, Kweku and Baffoe (2018), carried out a survey study on
instructional supervisory practices of head teachers and teacher motivation in public
basic schools in Anomabo Education Circuit and found out that all head teachers
often used instructional supervisory practices and had performed above average.
Instructional supervisory practices used by head teachers included orientation of new
staff, checking teachers’ record of work, provision of in-service training, lesson
observation and monitoring punctuality and regularity. Similarly, the study revealed
that teachers in public basic schools were highly motivated, although on the other
hand, it indicated that pupils’ performance was still poor. This implies that teachers’
motivation was not translated into their job performance. The study recommended
regular in-service training for teachers. The study may have reached many
participants using a cross section survey design but fellow short of obtaining in-depth
information from the participants for lack of qualitative approaches. Moreover,
qualitative approaches like in-depth interview guide would have obtained the reasons
as to why teachers’ high motivation levels were not reflected in pupils’ performance.
In addition, education challenges in Ghana might be different from those facing
Uganda. In order to cover these gaps, the current study employed convergent parallel
mixed methods design and was conducted in a rural environment in western Uganda.
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In Kenya, a survey study that examined the influence of work environment
factors on performance of employees of the ministry of education semi-autonomous
agencies, faulted supervisors for not consulting employees before making decisions
which employees were expected to implement (Mumbi, 2010). This finding highlights
the importance of involving and consulting employees during supervision if
supervision is to be effective in improving employee performance. Supervision done
without participation of employees will mostly bear decisions that are ineffective in
achieving organisation goals.
In addition, a survey study in Kitui County in Kenya by Nzambi (2012),
investigated the role played by teachers in instructional supervision in order to
improve on students’ academic achievement in secondary schools. The study found
out that 62.6% of the respondents agreed that teachers communicated confidently and
provided necessary resources for teaching and learning activities. The study further
indicated that 58.6% of the respondents confirmed that the head teachers to some
extent encouraged new ideas, planned and executed new service courses for teacher
professional growth. However, the study also reported that 97.0% of the respondents
acknowledged that there was failure of syllabus coverage. The survey study relied on
quantitative design and did not consider the qualitative design in order to achieve in-
depth understanding of how effective head teachers’ role was in instructional
supervision. Another gap was that, the study was conducted in a secondary school,
which may have a quite different setting from that of rural public primary schools,
leave alone the geographical disparity.
Similarly, Wabuko (2016) carried out a survey study in Lang’ata sub-County,
Nairobi – Kenya, on the influence of head teachers’ instructional supervision practices
on teachers’ job performance in public primary schools. The study attributed 67.6% of
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the teachers’ performance on head teachers’ instructional supervision practices such
as classroom observation, checking teachers’ professional records among others. The
study concluded that head teachers who consistently conduct lesson observation and
offer model teaching sessions, have a significant influence on teachers’ job
performance. The study was anchored on a descriptive survey design and was able to
embrace many participants, but lacked participant’s individual perspective and
experience due to lack of any qualitative design. In addition, the study was conducted
in an urban setting, which may have had different characteristics from those of a rural
setting that were appropriate for the current study. The current study was anchored on
a mixed methods design and was conducted in a rural setting thus covering the gaps
found in the previous study.
Further, a study by Bategeka, Guloba, Kasirye and Mugisha, (2012), on
management and motivation in Ugandan primary schools, it was found out that job
performance in education has suffered a great deal, partly from weakness of
accountability mechanisms between school administrators, teachers and the
communities. Moreover, a comparison between private and public schools in Malawi,
which reported a higher motivation and performance in private schools, attributed the
situation to close supervision by management and proprietors, among other factors
(Kadzamira, 2006).
In Uganda, another study by Buregeya (2011), that used bother qualitative and
quantitative approaches, examined the influence of secondary school head teachers’
general and instructional supervisory practices on teachers’ work performance in
Entebbe Municipality. The findings indicated that, to a great extent head teachers in
private secondary schools did not carry out the required instructional supervision but
instead carried out informal classroom visits. Head teachers were found to only give
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priority to general and informal supervision at the expense of instructional
supervision. It was also revealed that head teachers were not aware of their job
description, and were not getting the support needed to carry out instructional
supervision. The study further revealed that some teachers acknowledge non-
existence of instructional supervision in their secondary schools. That implies,
teachers in these secondary schools were not being brought to accountability of their
duties. That compromises teacher job performance and affects negatively the teaching
and learning activities in the secondary schools. The study combined the strengths of
both qualitative and quantitative designs and covered a wide range of participants.
The study was carried out in the central region that is mostly urban and with various
advantages over rural areas like western Uganda and specifically the rural
Kitagwenda County in Kamwenge. Therefore, many of the study findings may not
apply to the rural environment. Moreover, the study was conducted in secondary
schools, the education level that has many differences from the elementary level. To
bridge the identified gaps, the current study was conducted in a rural setting in the
western region and in public primary schools.
In addition, Malunda, Onen, Musaazi and Oonyu (2016), examined
instructional supervision and pedagogical practices of secondary school teachers in
Uganda using a cross-section survey design. The study targeted public secondary
schools in the four regions of Uganda, that is, Northern, Eastern, Central and Western.
The study revealed that both classroom observation and portfolio supervision had
statistically significant effect on the pedagogical practices of teachers in public
secondary schools in Uganda. The study however indicated that school authorities did
not carry out the instructional supervision adequately and left many teachers to use
ineffective pedagogical practices in the classrooms. The study recommended that
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head teachers and head of departments should be inspected often and also given in-
service training regularly, in order to bring out the desired pedagogical practices
among the teachers in public secondary schools. Malunda, et al (2016) brought on
board many and varied participants by employing a cross-section survey design.
However, the study was limited in obtaining adequate in-depth information on the
study issue since it did not use in-depth interview guides, which would have gained
participants’ lived experiences and personal perspectives on instructional supervision
and pedagogical practices. The study considered too wide a scope, covering the entire
Uganda and therefore failing to obtain much detailed information from each of the
four regions of Uganda. Further still, the study was carried out in secondary schools,
which was a more advanced and unique level from primary school level.
The current study was carried out in western Uganda, using a convergent
mixed methods design, in order to gain in-depth information on how instructional
supervision influenced teacher’s job performance. The study further benefited from
the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The scope was specific
and included only public primary schools in the rural Kitagwenda County and that
benefited the researcher with very detailed and in-depth information of the study
topic.
Many of the empirical studies above are exposed to limitations of using only
one approach, either quantitative or qualitative in their data collection and analysis.
The studies seem to have neglected rural situated primary schools, where there is a
great need to find out how supervision is conducted and how it affects job
performance among teachers. The current study intended to overcome methodological
limitations by employing a mixed methods design, and to limit its scope to rural
public primary schools in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District, Uganda.
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2.6 Influence of Working Conditions on Job Performance
Working conditions in a rural setting are assumed to be difficult and for
employees, very demotivating. This is because most rural areas are characterised by
poverty, and also experience deprivations due to scarce provision of facilities and
services such as health and education, among others. However, International Labour
Organisation – ILO, (2016), from studies conducted across countries in Africa, states
the contrary. International Labour Organisation reveals that teachers who are born and
have lived in rural areas have always strong social support and adapt easily to rural
life unlike university graduates from urban background.
Nevertheless, in every organization, employees need a conducive environment
to carry out their tasks effectively. It is the same in the education sector for every
country. In this study, working conditions comprised staff housing, transport, staff
room, pupil-teacher ratio, classrooms, and teaching and learning materials.
A quantitative study in Pakistan (Atiya & Palwasha, 2013), indicated that
teachers in private schools were more motivated and had better performance than their
counterparts in public schools partly due to supportive working environment. Private
schools had enough classroom facilities, enough teaching and learning materials,
which created a conductive teaching and learning environment for both teachers and
pupils; and teachers can have more control over their classrooms. The study would
have given a comprehensive understanding of teachers’ motivation and how this
affects their performance if it had also employed a qualitative approach seeking views
from individual teachers. Looking at the geographical location where the study took
place
In addition, a case study by Tanya (n.d.), also in Pakistan, noted late coming
among female teachers due to poor transport means, or no transport means at all, and
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lack of residential facilities for teachers at school. This also shows the extent to which
lack of staff accommodation at school can affect teachers’ motivation and
compromise their job performance as the time for teaching is spent on the way
coming to school. Also, when the teacher reaches in class, after a long distance,
he/she may be tired and thus affecting his/her performance that day in class. Lack of
transport could also encourage teacher absenteeism and failure to complete the
syllabus. Such a situation may adversely affect teachers’ job performance in the long
run. The study also cited overcrowded classrooms. That can breed poor discipline
among pupils as it can be extremely hard for a teacher to manage pupils’ discipline in
such an environment. In addition, it can be difficult for teachers to assess all pupils
effectively as the workload would be too much. This can lower teachers’ motivation
to teach effectively. Most demotivating situations were cited in rural schools where
teachers in private schools outperformed their counterparts in public schools.
Teachers in elite schools were satisfied with their salary package but complained of
their workload.
As a case study, the findings remain particular to the area studied. Even within
Pakistan, different regions and places may have their own unique aspects that can not
be fully explained by this case study. Uganda needs its own study to understand the
situation of its teachers, their motivation and performance.
Similarly, Ramachandran et al (2005) found Indian rural schools scoring low
on working conditions. In rural areas, there were no usable toilets, and sometimes not
even functioning blackboards. Also, pupil: teacher ratios were found to be high. The
study reported that working conditions in rural schools were worse than their
counterparts in urban schools and teachers had to handle more pupils in a limited
physical space. This presupposes that even pupils’ discipline may be wanting as it can
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be very difficult for teachers to control overcrowded pupils. It also presupposes that
teachers are overloaded, especially when it comes to assessing the pupils in class,
marking their work and giving feedback. Such conditions compromise the completion
of syllabus, and retaining teachers at school.
The study further found that teacher absenteeism was a serious issue in Indian
schools. This was attributed to long distances that some teachers had to travel going to
school. As such, some teachers were reported being on the lookout for alternative
employment other than continuing with teaching. The researchers also found out that
other teachers, who were attending to their school duties faithfully, were getting
discouraged by the absence of their colleagues from school and wondered why they
alone should be caretakers of education. This kind of atmosphere makes learning of
children affected as teachers would not complete the syllabus, or on the other hand,
completing the syllabus would become a race such that it becomes irrelevant as to
whether the pupils understand the subject or not, hence compromising job
performance.
In addition, the study reported that head teachers and other stakeholders
admitted that motivated and energetic teachers do not absent themselves without a
compelling reason, but a teacher who is dispirited and disillusioned with his or her
work is constantly looking for opportunities to stay away from school. Teachers who
said they were dissatisfied invariably referred to their physical work environment and
pressures from the job. Other reasons cited for dissatisfaction included high pupil:
teacher ratio, infrastructure problems, and irregular attendance of children. The study
was limited to the qualitative approach, which made it not cover many participants
who would have given more insights about their working conditions in their schools.
The current study intended to fill this gap.
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In Indonesia, Amin (2015), conducted a quantitative study with a descriptive
design to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction, working conditions,
motivation of teachers to teach and job performance of teachers in MTs, Serang,
Banten. The study found out that there was a positive relationship between teachers’
working conditions with job performance of teacher (r = 0.688). Working conditions
included pleasant working environment, availability of work, clarity of tasks of each
member and well organised work program. The study concluded that positive
improvement in the performance of teachers is influence by working conditions, job
satisfaction, and motivation of teachers to teach. The study had a wide sample of
participants because of the quantitative approach, using questionnaire guides.
However, it may not claim to have achieved in-depth information for it lacked
qualitative approaches such as in-depth interviews, focus group discussion, among
others. In addition, it is not clear from the report as to whether the study was
conducted in secondary schools or primary schools, or in both as its scope remains
ambiguous. Similarly, the study looked at few working conditions, which may not
satisfactorily show the general picture of teachers’ working conditions in Indonesia.
The current study endeavoured to cover the identified gaps by employing a
convergent parallel mixed methods design in order to benefit from the strengths of
both quantitative and qualitative approaches. In addition, the current study limited its
scope to rural public primary schools in Kitagwenda County, western Uganda in order
to obtain detailed information on the effectiveness of working condition on teachers’
job performance, among others. Further still, the current study looked widely on
working conditions against teachers’ job performance. Working conditions included
staff housing, staff room, break tea and lunch, transport, pupil-teacher ratio,
classrooms, teaching and learning materials.
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In Africa, teachers’ situation appears to be worse than what is portrayed on the
global level. Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011), in their study, “Improving the conditions
of teachers and teaching in rural schools across African countries”, observed that
teachers in many African countries are working in challenging conditions that are
aggravated by scarce teaching and learning resources, among others. Teachers, in the
study, asserted that poor teaching conditions and decreasing levels of motivation
affected their performance in the classroom and reduced the ability of learners to
achieve satisfactory learning outcomes.
In Malawi, Kadzamira (2006) found out that teachers who had left government
schools for private schools, returned to government schools following introduction of
housing allowances in 2001. Rural schools were seen as disadvantaged for lacking
suitable teachers’ housing and suitable housing within the vicinity of the school.
Actually, the study indicated that most teachers tend to migrate to urban centres where
living and working conditions are better than those in rural areas. Such a situation
could cause high teacher turnover and refusal of teachers to be deployed to the rural
schools. This is a strong indicator that accommodation at or near the school, also
availability of other key services like running water, electricity and entertainment are
contributory motivational factors to teachers’ stability at a given school, which also
may improve teachers’ performance in the long run. For the teachers who may remain
in such rural schools, such a situation may lead to stress and burnout, and
subsequently affect negatively their levels of motivation and performance.
The study recommends giving priority to rural areas especially in improving
working conditions. This justified the current study, which investigated how
motivation influences teachers’ job performance in rural public primary schools in
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western Uganda. The case study remained particular to the situation in Malawi, and
may not reveal what actually happens in Uganda.
Similarly, Ntagahali (2016) conducted study, using a mixed methods design,
on the influence of working conditions on teachers job satisfaction among public
secondary school teachers in Kisarawe District, coastal region, Tanzania. The study
found out that many teachers worked in poor conditions. For instance, some
secondary schools lacked facilities like chairs and housing. A number of teachers
were commuting from long distances to school on a daily basis, some days coming
late, which affected teachers’ job performance. This further encouraged absenteeism
of teachers. The study further indicated that teachers in Kisarawe had limited access
to social services. This made many teachers demotivated in fulfilling their studies and
therefore affecting negatively their job performance. Motivation is very key for
teachers and more so for teachers who are posted in remote places. This would
encourage teacher’s stability in their places of appointment and eventual improvement
in their job performance.
The study in Kisarawe was able to cover many participants and also to obtain
participants’ live experiences and perspectives on how working conditions influenced
their job satisfaction since the study employed a mixed methods design including both
qualitative and quantitative approaches. However, the study limited its scope to public
secondary schools. In addition, although both Tanzania and Uganda belong to East
African region, they have their differences in terms of economic conditions and
development levels. Therefore, this study may not portray exactly what may be the
situation in Uganda concerning working conditions for teachers in public primary
schools. The current study limiting its scope to rural public primary schools in
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western Uganda in order to obtain specific information regarding the rural working
conditions and how these influence teachers’ job performance.
In Kenya, Opondo and Ajowi (2015), using a descriptive survey, examined the
influence of the working conditions of the support staff on their work performance in
secondary schools in Rarieda sub-County. The study indicated that working
conditions influenced work performance of the support staff. The support staff
worked under poor conditions characterised by lack of tools, inadequate housing and
long distances between their homes and their place of work.
The study was able to reach a large group of participants for it employed
quantitative approach. Despite that, the study did not gain in-depth data for it lacked
any of the qualitative approaches. Moreover, the study had a different scope, that of
support staff and it was conducted in secondary schools.
The current study benefited from the strengths of both quantitative and
qualitative approaches, hence covering the methodological gap. In addition, the
current study had its scope limited to public primary schools. The participants were
variedly sampled from head teachers, teachers and class teachers, district education
officer and district inspectors of schools.
A study carried out in Uganda by Vermeulen (2013), reported that most
teachers were demotivated due to lack of teaching and learning materials, class sizes
being too big, as the pupil-teacher ratio was found at 120:1 in Namasale Sub-county,
Northern Uganda. Such a situation implies a large work load for primary school
teachers as each teacher has to teach the child, assess the child, assess the learning and
support the children with learning difficulties as well. It also means that teachers are
most likely to suffer from stress and burnout as they struggle with larges classes,
sometimes of uncontrollable children. This affects drastically teachers’ motivation to
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teach and to carry out all their expected duties at school and in class. In the long run,
the situation may encourage teacher absenteeism, making it difficult to do regular
pupil assessment and feedback.
The study reported alarming teachers’ living/housing conditions. Many
teachers were reported often commuting across long distances between home and
school, often on foot and rarely on Bicycle, if the teacher was lucky to own one. This
was partly because most schools lacked structures to accommodate teachers. This
occurrence was observed commonly in rural areas other than in urban centres. The
study further reported that, on rare cases, when teachers’ housing was provided at or
around the school, teachers had to share a hut with other teachers, or the quality of the
hut was abominable. Accommodation is a basic need and it is more than just
providing shelter. Among other things, accommodation determines how one is
perceived in one’s own family and by others in the community. In addition, teachers
need accommodation at or near the school to avoid reporting at school when one is
already tired after walking a long distance, or to avoid absenteeism. Therefore, lack of
or inadequate accommodation can drastically affect teachers’ motivation levels and by
extension their performance in schools.
As the study employed a qualitative approach and particularly as a case study,
its findings may not easily be generalized to reflect what happens in other parts of
Uganda. In addition, geographical regions of Uganda tend to be different from each
other in many aspects, such as education, socio-economic, among others.
It has been evidenced that in situations where teachers are provided with basic
facilities, their performance is better than otherwise. For instance, a study carried out
in Masaka Municipality, Uganda by Aacha (2010), reports that some teachers were
motivated to perform with provision of meals such as breakfast, break tea and lunch at
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school which was at 40.0%; some teachers got free accommodation at 30.0%; and
9.0% of the teachers got transport allowance. Only 18.0% did not get any of the
above. On the whole, the study reported a significant positive relationship between
intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and teachers’ job performance. Nevertheless, the study
recommended increase of teachers’ salaries as cost of living was high; provision of
accommodation for teachers, strengthening supervision as well as instituting awards
for good performance.
The study relied on a survey design, and this helped to cover many schools,
however, the study remains lacking understanding and experience from individual
teachers’ perspectives on their motivation and performance due to exclusive use of
only quantitative approach. Moreover, the study took place in an urban environment
where social amenities and other facilities are most likely to be accessed by teachers,
unlike in rural areas. This study intended to conduct its research in a rural
environment, using a mixed methods design. The study intended to cover the
methodological, geographical, and other related gaps found in the reviewed empirical
studies above.
In addition, Kasule (2016), using a survey design, examined the impact of
work environment on academic staff job performance in Ugandan universities, using
Kyambogo University as a case study. The sound revealed that working conditions at
Kyambogo university are appalling and therefore affecting negatively job
performance of the dons. This was evidenced by inadequate lecture rooms, work
stress, and dysfunctional administrative policies. The study concluded that the work
environment, such as interpersonal relationships, participative management, physical
environment, safe and security, at the university was unfavourable for many dons.
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The study recommended the university management to put in place good physical
facilities, equipment, working space, promote healthier working practices, among
others. The study was anchored on cross-survey design and was able to cover many
participants. However, in-depth information remained lacking as the study did not use
any qualitative approaches, which would have elicited participants’ lived experiences
and personal perspectives on the working conditions and lecturer’s job performance.
Further, the study was conducted in a university settings. This is different in many
aspects from the setting of a primary school.
The current study sought to benefit from both quantitative and qualitative
approaches and hence covered the identified methodological gap. The scope was rural
public primary schools. Elementary level of education is so basic for any subsequent
education level, including university education.
Similarly, a quantitative study by Jingdong, Najjuko, and Ochwo (2017),
conducted in Rubaga Division, Uganda, that examined remuneration level on teachers
turnover in secondary schools, also examined some aspects of working conditions.
The study revealed that there were good working conditions in many of the secondary
schools in Rugaba Division. This was manifested by friendly social atmosphere
among the teaching and non-teaching staff, and supportive top management. Some
teachers were provided with housing facilities which were well furnished, while
others were given housing allowances to find accommodation in the neighbourhood
of the school. This meant that many teachers were available for students and fulfilled
their teaching obligations. The study had a limitation by using only quantitative
approaches, which denied the researcher detailed and in-depth knowledge from
individual teachers. The study having been conducted in an urban environment may
not reflect what teachers experience in rural setting like in Kitagwenda County,
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western Uganda. The current study used a combination of both quantitative and
qualitative approaches in order to gain from the strengths of both approaches and
mitigate the weaknesses presented by either approach.
2.7 Influence of Teachers’ Personal Traits on Job Performance
Teachers’ personal traits, such as gender, qualification level and age, have
been known to play a part in influencing employee job performance. In this study, the
personal traits have been treated as intervening variables (Suzan, Ozden, Serkan,
Mehmet, & Halili, 2010). Gender, professional qualification levels and age were
considered for research hypotheses.
2.7.1 Gender and Job Performance
The study was guided by a number of hypotheses. The first hypothesis aimed
at determining whether there was a significant difference between male and female
teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent professional development opportunities
enhance teachers’ job performance. In this regard, the study tested a null hypothesis
of no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean scores in rating
the extent professional development opportunities enhance job performance when
categorised by gender.
Andersen (2011), using a cross-section survey design among Danish schools
both at primary and secondary levels, examined “Teacher diversity: Do male and
female teachers have different self-efficacy and job satisfaction?”. The study revealed
that female teachers had higher self-efficacy and job satisfaction than their
counterparts, although the study attributed the difference to female teachers having
higher level of empathy. The findings indicated that the difference between female
and male teachers did not depend on the proportion of female teachers at a specific
school. Further, the findings revealed that female teachers on average had higher job
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satisfaction than male teachers. The overall conclusion was that gender was both
directly and indirectly (through empathy and teacher self-efficacy) associated with job
satisfaction. There seems to be variations among female and male employees vis-à-vis
job satisfaction and by extension job performance when gender is contrasted with
other factors as the study by Andersen has indicated. The current study relied on both
quantitative and qualitative approaches, hence covering for the methodological gap in
Anderson’s study. Moreover, the current study sought to find out as to whether there
is a significant difference between teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent
professional development opportunities enhance teachers’ job performance when
categorised by gender.
Similarly, in India, Kotur and Anbazhagan (2014), examined the influence of
age and gender on performance in India, discovered that the two variables age and
gender had a direct effect on the performance of employees in an organisation in
varying degrees. The study indicated that employees in their youthful age did perform
much better than their colleagues in their extreme ages groups. In their study, Kotur
and Anbazhagan concluded that male and female employees exhibit different levels of
job performance; job performance of employees varies with employees’ age; and as
employees advance in their age, their job performance decreases gradually. These
factors were considered as intervening factors for they also may affect an individual’s
level of motivation and hence job performance.
Further still, Isalahi and Nasreen (2013) conducted a study in India using
descriptive design to investigate, “who make effective teachers, men or women?”
among secondary school teachers from Uttar Pradesh state. The study found out that,
male and female teachers showed insignificantly varied levels of effectiveness (r =
0.039; > 0.05). The t-test indicated that male participants had slightly higher mean
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scores than female participants, although there was no significant difference between
effectiveness of male and female teacher.
The study may have reached a wide range of participants by using descriptive
design. In addition, by leaving out qualitative approaches, the study may not claim to
attained individual participant’s lived experience. Moreover, India may have a
different cultural understanding about gender from that of Uganda. There may also be
different levels reached in overcoming gender discrimination between Indian and
Uganda. This presupposes gender among countries. The current study balanced the
use of quantitative and qualitative approaches and was able to cover a variety of
participants and to obtain lived experiences of many participants.
Furthermore, Bojana, Terek, Dragana, Zvonko and Zivoslav (2014), using a
cross-survey design examined job satisfaction and gender differences in job
satisfaction of teachers in Serbian primary schools. The study indicated that there was
slightly higher satisfaction among female teachers than their counterparts.
When an employee experiences job satisfaction, it follows that such an
employee is likely to perform better than a dissatisfied one. Although there is a global
attempt to eradicate and overcome gender misconceptions, still differences among
countries abound, depending on their level of development.
In Kenya, Wanakacha, Aloka and Nyaswa (2018) conducted an investigation
of gender differences in motivation and teacher performance in core functions in
secondary schools, using a convergent parallel mixed methods design. The study
found out that gender difference did not have any effect on both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation of teachers to perform their core functions. In addition, the findings
indicated that gender difference did not have any effect on teachers to perform their
core functions.
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Studies have persistently showed that there is no significant gender difference.
The current study struck a balance in the methodology by employing both quantitative
and qualitative approaches; and also endeavoured to find out specifically the extent
professional development opportunities enhance job performance when primary
school teachers are categorised by gender.
In Uganda, Anumaka and Ssemugenyi (2013) investigated gender and work
productivity of academic staff in selected private universities in Kampala. Using a
descriptive and comparative survey design, the study found out that work productivity
does not significantly differ among male and female employees. However, when the
study considered punctuality as a sub element of work productivity, there was a slight
difference between males and females. For instance, the findings indicated that male
employees (mean 3.18) are more punctual than their counterparts (mean 3.00) (sig.
0.01). This difference could be partly explained basing on the amount of
responsibilities that females hold at home, for instance, preparing children for school
and leaving the home tidy among others. This difference was not explained fully
partly because the study dwelt only on survey design. Qualitative approaches would
have brought detailed explanation with lived experiences from the participants. In
addition, the study took place in urban environment that has many advantages like
social amenities than in the rural setting. The current study employed both qualitative
and quantitative approaches hence covering the methodological gap. In addition, it
took the rural setting and public primary schools as its scope. Gender was considered
to determine the extent professional development opportunities enhance teacher job
performance.
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2.7.2 Professional Qualification Levels and Job Performance
The second hypothesis aimed at determining whether there was a significant
difference among mean scores of teachers’ professional qualification levels in rating
the extent remuneration enhances teachers’ job performance. The study therefore
tested a null hypothesis of no significant difference among mean scores of teachers’
professional qualification levels in rating the extent remuneration enhances job
performance when categorised by professional qualification levels.
In Indonesia, Pasetio, Aziz, Fadhilah and Fauziah (2017) carried out a study to
examine the effect of lecturers’ professional competency on students’ academic
performance in higher education. Using a survey research design, the study
considered students at Telkom University in Indonesia. The finding revealed that
there were differences in students’ perception regarding lecturers’ competency. This
was both according to students’ classes and gender. However, with Chi-square test of
significant value 0.435 and alpha value 0.05, the study showed that there was no
relationship between lecturers’ professional competency and students’ academic
performance. This implied that, the university could not rely on lecturers’ competency
if it was to improve students’ academic performance. There are other factors that
would boost students’ academic performance at higher education level.
The study reached many participants for it had used survey research design,
but was limited in obtaining detailed information from the participants due to lack of
qualitative approaches. In addition, the study chose the higher education level scope,
that was different from the elementary level for the current study. Moreover, the study
considered lecturers’ competencies vis-à-vis students’ academic performance,
whereas the current study looked at teachers’ qualification levels and their job
performance. The current study was anchored on a convergent parallel mixed methods
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design and obtained in-depth information the participants. Further still, the current
study endeavoured to test the hypothesis, which stated “There is no significant
difference among mean scores of teachers’ professional qualification levels in rating
the extent remuneration enhances teachers’ job performance when categorised by
professional qualification levels”.
In Nigeria, Fehintola (2014) examined teachers’ characteristics as correlates of
students’ academic performance among secondary school students in Saki-west local
government area of Oyo State. The study used descriptive research design and looked
at the relationship among teachers’ academic qualification, professional qualification,
content knowledge, instructional quality, evaluation procedure, work value, classroom
attendance and job satisfaction on the academic performance of secondary school
students. The findings indicated that teachers’ academic qualification had the most
significant relative contribution to the prediction of academic performance.
Nevertheless, the study found out that teachers’ professional qualification levels,
among others, were not potent predictors of academic performance of secondary
school students. The study does not explain as to why teachers’ professional
qualification could not be a predictor of students’ performance. This could be partly
attributed to the missing qualitative approaches in the study. In-depth interview guides
and focus group discussion would have obtained detailed explanations from the
participants. In addition, there could be differences in the influence of professional
qualification levels between secondary school teachers and primary school teachers
vis-à-vis the extent remuneration affects job performance. This gap was covered by
the current study that was anchored on a convergent parallel mixed methods design
and by testing the second research hypothesis.
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In Uganda, African Population and Health Research Center (2016)
investigated the quality of education, using a case study of Iganga and Mayuge
Districts. The study was carried out in both public and private primary schools.
Exploring teachers’ qualification levels, the study found out that most teachers in both
public and private primary schools had certificates in education. The findings further
revealed that a small percentage (12%) of teachers were untrained and these were
found mostly in private primary schools. The rest of the teachers (5%) had a
university degree, these were found in both public and private primary schools.
Regardless of teachers’ qualification levels, pupils’ achievement Mathematics and
English in primary three and six was found unsatisfactory.
The study was able to obtain some detailed information about teachers’
qualification levels and the achievement of some pupils partly because it used a case
study research design. However, due to lack of any quantitative approach, the study
did not cover many participants. In addition, the study had a wide scope covering both
public and private primary schools, and this could have limited the study to dig deep
into participants’ lived experiences and perspectives. The current study made efforts
to employ both cross-section survey research design and phenomenological research
design, that made the study to benefit from the strengths of both designs. Likewise,
the current study limited its study scope to only rural and public primary schools in
order to explore in great depth how effective motivation of teachers was on their job
performance. This study went further to test the null hypothesis “There is no
significant difference among mean scores of teachers’ professional qualification
levels in rating the extent remuneration enhances teachers’ job performance when
categorised by professional qualification levels”.
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2.7.3 Age and Job Performance
The third hypothesis aimed at determining whether there was a significant
difference among teachers’ age groups’ mean scores in rating the extent working
conditions enhance teachers’ job performance. The study therefore tested a null
hypothesis of no significant difference among teachers’ age groups’ mean scores in
rating the extent working conditions enhance job performance when categorised by
age.
In India, Kotur and Anbazhagan (2014) carried out an investigation on the
influence of age and gender on employees’ performance in the Chittoor Sugar factory,
in the state of Andhra Pradesh, south India. The study used a cross-section survey
design and found out that age and gender had direct effect on the employees’
performance. The findings indicated that male and female employees exhibited
different levels of performance in the factory. For instance, employees in the medium
age rage performed better compared to those in the extremes, that is, performance
increased with age up to 45 years. Likewise, performance of employees tended to
decrease gradually after 45 years. In addition, gender was found to be having an
influence on employees’ performance, whereby female employees were relatively
more productive. The study had a limitation for relying only on a cross-section survey
design and therefore, it did not obtain detailed and in-depth information that would
have brought out lived experiences of the employees in the factory. Furthermore, the
type of work done in the sugar factory needs a lot of effort and it can extremely strain
the employees, and that is different with the teaching profession. The current study
benefited from both a cross-section survey design and a phenomenological design,
whereby the study was able to cover a wide range of participants and to obtain in-
depth information respectively. In addition, the current study was conducted in
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educational incautions where the nature of work may be lighter compared to the
situation in a sugar factory.
In Nigeria, Alufohai and Ibhafidon (2015) examined the influence of teachers’
age, marital status and gender on students’ academic achievement in public secondary
schools. The study employed a survey research design and found out that students’
academic performance, and by implication teachers’ job performance was
significantly influenced by teachers’ age and marital status, whereas teachers’ gender
did not have a significant influence on students’ academic performance. These studies
on teachers’ personal traits provide a justification for considering teachers’ traits
when examining motivation and job performance. Traits such as teachers’ age,
gender, teaching experience and levels of professional qualification may have a
bearing influence on motivation of teachers and their job performance in public
primary schools.
The study was limited to only survey design, although it covered a large
number of participants. It may not offer in-depth information since it did not use any
of the qualitative approaches. In addition, the study had a different scope, that is,
secondary school teachers and students. The current study filled the identified gaps by
employing a convergent parallel mixed methods design and by testing the third null
hypothesis.
In Uganda, Osunsan, Kinyatta, Baliruno and Kibirige (2015) carried out a
study to examine the effect of the age of owner on the small scale enterprise
performance in Kampala. The study employed a cross-section survey and reached
four hundred and nine registered small businesses in Kampala. The findings indicated
that there was a significant difference between the performance of older and younger
small scale business owners. In addition, the study revealed that there was no
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significant relationship between age of the owner and the performance of small scale
businesses (r = 0.03). After carrying out a simple regression to ascertain if there was a
causal relation, it was revealed that explanatory variables only explained 0.1% of the
variance in performance and the model as whole was not significant. Therefore, age
of the owner of small scale enterprise was found to be a poor predictor of the small
scale enterprise performance. The study concluded that better business performance is
not limited to certain age groups.
A survey design on which the study was anchored provided an opportunity for
the study to cover a large number of participants. Despite that, the study can not offer
an in-depth explanation since it did not employ any of the qualitative approaches
which would have elicited participants’ lived experiences and personal perspectives
about their age and their business performance. In addition, business enterprises are
different from the teaching profession in varied ways, therefore the study findings
may not offer a convincing explanation in the teachers’ field. The current study used a
mixed methods design and benefited from the strengths of both quantitative and
qualitative approaches and further sought to test the third null hypothesis, which states
thus “there is no significant difference among teachers’ age groups’ mean scores in
rating the extent working conditions enhance teachers’ job performance when
categorised by age”
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2.8 Summary of Reviewed Related Empirical Studies and Identification of
Knowledge Gaps
From the foregoing literature review of the empirical studies, it can be
observed that, in both developed and developing countries, both motivation and
teachers’ job performance have a significant relationship (Atiya & Palwasha, 2013;
Iwu et al. 2013). It is also noted that motivation is derived from a number of factors,
both intrinsic and extrinsic. Highly pronounced motivational factors include
professional development opportunities, working conditions (facilities, class size,
housing staff, among others), and remunerations. Individual teacher’s traits such as
gender, professional qualification levels and age; school circumstances in terms of
rural and urban location, and supervision, were also highlighted by the studies as
bearing a strong influence on teachers’ job performance in schools (Shao &
Tamashiro, 2013; Gizem, 2013). In addition, in both developed and developing
countries, there are cases of motivated teachers and those demotivated depending on
the extent of availability of different motivation factors.
In the developed countries, however, teachers seem to be more motivated by
higher needs than the basic ones (Falla, 2013; Shao & Tamashiro, 2013); and the
reverse was observed in developing countries, where most teachers seem to be still
struggling to meet the basic needs (Kadzamira, 2006; Aacha, 2010). Various
researches reveal some differences in teachers’ professional conduct between
developed and developing countries. Teachers in developed countries tend to uphold
their professional code of ethics, while in developing countries, several cases of
professional misconduct were reported, such as alarming levels of teacher
absenteeism, late coming of teachers, lack of preparation of lesson plans, wastage of
class time, and taking on a secondary job for extra earning (Ramachandran, et al,
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2005; Kadzamira, 2006; Shao & Tamashiro, 2013; Vermeulen, 2013). All these are
indicators of demotivated staff and poor job performance.
Notwithstanding the findings from empirical studies above, most studies
employed exclusively either qualitative (Tanya, n.d.; Ramachandran et al., 2005; Shao
& Tamashiro, 2013; Gizen, 2013; Adewale et al., 2014) or quantitative (Guajardo,
2006; Atiya & Palwasha, 2013; Ondima et al., 2014; Dixon et al, 2015) approach. A
study which employs exclusively a quantitative approach may fall short of attaining
an in-depth understanding and individual perspective of motivation and how it affects
a teacher’s performance at school, apart from having its findings generalizable to
other areas. Likewise, studies that employed exclusively the qualitative approach, also
fall short of the capacity to generalize their findings to other areas, except having an
in-depth understanding and participants’ own perspective of the experience of
motivation and its influence on a teacher’s performance in the school. This gap, the
current study intended to cover by employing a mixed methods approach which
combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches, benefiting from strengths of
both approaches and overcoming weaknesses of one approach by the other.
Quantitative approach has the advantage of covering many study participants while
qualitative approach elicits in-depth understanding of the phenomenon at hand by
bringing out individual participant’s personal experiences and perspectives.
Some studies were conducted in primary schools, some in an urban
environment (Aacha, 2010; Nairuba, 2011), others in rural areas (Vermeulen, 2013;
Ondima et al., 2014), while others in both public and private schools (Kadzamira,
2006). There are many differences even among primary schools, depending on their
location, urban or rural, and their management, private or public. The study’s scope
was limited to rural public primary schools. Rural public primary schools have not
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often surfaced in empirical studies and have been given a raw deal. Moreover, some
studies conducted in Africa have recommended that priority be given to rural public
primary schools, after observing their deplorable situation in terms of working
conditions, teachers’ profession misconduct, instructional supervision among others.
In addition, the current study limited itself to a few motivational factors,
intrinsic and extrinsic, with the purpose of achieving in-depth investigation. These
include professional development opportunities (intrinsic), and remuneration,
supervision and work conditions (extrinsic). Detailed studies examining the influence
of motivation on performance of teachers in rural public primary schools in Uganda
are still scanty. This study sought to fill up the gaps identified in the related empirical
studies that were reviewed.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the geographical area where the study took place. It also
presents the research design that guided the study. The chapter describes the target
population, sample and sampling procedures. The chapter further describes research
instruments and their validity and reliability, then data collection procedures, data
analysis procedures and finally ethical considerations.
3.2 Locale of the Study
Uganda is a land locked country, located in the Eastern region of Africa and
lies mostly between latitudes 4o12’ to the North and 1
o29’ to the South and between
longitude 29o34’ and 35
o00’ to the East. It lies 1,200m above sea level. Uganda
occupies an area of about 241,500km2 and is bordered by the Republic of Kenya in
the East, Tanzania and Rwanda in the South, Democratic Republic of Congo in the
West and South Sudan in the North. Uganda lies almost entirely within the Nile basin
and the southern part of the country includes a substantial part of Lake Victoria,
which is shared with Kenya and Tanzania.
The country is administratively divided into 112 districts and spread across
four geographical regions, which include Northern, Eastern, Central and Western.
Districts are further divided into counties, sub-counties, parishes and cells.
Kamwenge District lies in the Western region of the county. Kitagwenda County is
one of the three counties that comprise Kamwenge District in Western Uganda.
Kitagwenda, where this study took place, borders Kibale County in the north, Ibanda
and Buhweju Districts in the South and Kasese District in the West (Ministry of
Education and Sports-MoES, 2013/14).
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3.3 Research Design
The study employed a mixed methods design and specifically convergent
parallel mixed methods design. The mixed methods methodology involves the
collection of both quantitative and qualitative data, analysis and integration of
both forms of data. Mixed methods methodology is divided into different designs
which include convergent parallel, explanatory sequential, exploratory sequential,
embedded, transformative and multiphase mixed methods designs (Creswell,
2014).
Convergent parallel mixed methods design was preferred to the other
mixed methods designs for its suitability and strengths in collecting, analysing and
integrating quantitative and qualitative research simultaneously in a single study
as advanced by Creswell, (2014). In addition, convergent parallel mixed methods
design enables the combination of both quantitative and qualitative research in
order to provide a better understanding of a research problem than either research
approach alone. The choice of the design was guided by the assumption that both
qualitative and quantitative data provide different types of information, which is
an in-depth description of the phenomenon through qualitative instruments, and
also statistical information through quantitative instruments, that together yield
results that are complimentary (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009).
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Figure 2. Research Design
Source: Adapted from Creswell (2014, p. 220)
Under this Convergent Parallel Strategy (QUANT+QUAL), quantitative
approach, a cross-sectional survey strategy was, specifically used to collect data that
described, explored and helped the researcher to understand the issue at hand
(Mugenda, 2011). In addition, cross-sectional survey was preferred to collect data
from participants at once in a short time. A cross-sectional survey design for the
quantitative approach was suitable for this study because it is an efficient strategy of
accessing data from many informants, such as teachers, and it also provided an
opportunity for the study to explore how motivation influences teachers’ job
performance. The survey design is also an efficient method of collecting descriptive
data about population characteristics and the data it generates can easily be
generalized to the population where the sample was drawn from. In addition, the data
Cross-section Survey
Data Results Compare
Quan Data Analysis
QUAN
Phenomenology
Qual Data Collection
Qual Data Analysis
QUAL
Interpretation
Quan Data Collection
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generated through survey design are easily adaptable to statistical data analysis
methods, and summarised in frequencies, percentages among others.
Qualitative approach used a phenomenological strategy to explore the
meaning of individual perspectives and lived experiences (Creswell, 2014) for several
teachers about their motivation levels and how this affects their job performance. In-
depth interviews were conducted to help the study realize teachers’ perspectives on
their motivation and job performance. Phenomenological design was preferred
because of its appropriateness in generating in-depth description of the perspectives of
individual teachers on how motivation influences their job performance.
Given the complex nature of the social and human problems today, using
either quantitative or qualitative approach alone would be inadequate. Using both
approaches allowed for the interests of majority of the scholars and readers who are
either well versed in quantitative or qualitative research to be met (Creswell, 2009).
The combined approaches, offered an expanded understanding about teachers’
performance in rural public primary schools. In addition, the research approach used
the strengths of an additional method to overcome the weaknesses in another method
by utilizing both in a single research study. The approach provided evidence for a
conclusion through convergence and corroboration of the findings, and it is familiar to
most modern researchers, and can result in well-validated and substantiated findings
(Burke & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Gay, et al, 2009; Creswell,2014). However, the
chosen research approach is very vigorous, expensive in terms of time and other
resources; and necessitates one to be well conversant in both quantitative and
qualitative approaches. Nevertheless, mixed methods approach was worth the effort.
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3.4 Target Population
The study target population comprised of all 67 rural public primary schools in
Kitagwenda County, all head teachers, all teachers, district education officer and all
district inspectors of schools in Kamwenge District. Nyabbani sub-County has 11
schools, Kanara sub-County 7 schools, Kicheche sub-County 14 schools, Mahyoro
sub-County 11 schools, Ntara sub-County 12 schools, and Buhanda sub-County 12
schools (DEO, 2016). From this target population of 67 rural public primary schools,
a representative of 30% sample size of schools was selected. This sample size was
justified by practical reasons in terms of time, energy and other resources.
Statistically, the sample size was also viable for the survey study as it is above the
recommended minimum of 20% (Gay, et al, 2009). The 30% sample represented 20
rural public primary schools, which participated in the study.
The district education officer (DEO), district inspectors of schools (DIS), head
teachers, and teachers, as participants, were considered in the sample because they are
the stakeholders who are charged and responsible for education at the district and
school levels. They are the education stakeholders at the grass root level. For instance,
the DEO, with decentralization of education, represents the Ministry of Education at
the district level and is fully charged and responsible for all education issues. In
addition, the DEO together with the school inspectors, among other responsibilities, is
responsible for the management, monitoring, supervising and disciplining of school
staff, and ensuring supervision of performance of staff both teaching and non-
teaching. He or she receives reports about teachers and their concerns, among others
and in turn reports to the district authorities and to the Ministry of Education and
Sports.
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Head teachers in primary schools are the immediate managers and at the same
time administrators of the schools under their care. They are also the immediate
supervisors of everything that takes place within and outside the schools, including
performance of the teaching staff. Head teachers manage, among other responsibilities
in the school, organize and coordinate the human resource within their schools, and
teachers are part of the human resource. Head teachers make reports to the school
management committee and to the office of the DEO concerning the teachers’
performance. They have knowledge of what affects teachers in their schools. Teachers
are the implementers of the most programs of the school, including the curriculum.
They are aware of what motivates them and what affects their job performance. All
categories of the sample participants above, are very important as knowledgeable
people (GoUd, 2008) as far as this study is concerned.
3.5 Description of Sample and Sampling Techniques
The study used both probability and non-probability sampling techniques for
quantitative and qualitative approaches respectively under convergent parallel mixed
methods design. Probability sampling included stratified random sampling technique
to select schools and determine the portions of schools from the different sub-counties
of Kitagwenda County. The study sampled participants from rural public primary
schools according to the sub-counties using simple random sampling technique. Non-
probability sampling techniques included purposive sampling for class teachers and
district inspectors of schools.
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Table 4
Target Population and Sample Size of Schools
Sub-counties Target Population Sample Size
Nyabbani 11 3
Kanara 7 2
Kicheche 14 4
Mahyoro 11 3
Ntara 12 4
Buhanda 12 4
Total 67 20
Source: DEO, Kamwenge (2016)
3.5.1 Rural Public Primary Schools
From Table 4, a sample size of 20 schools indicates 30% of the target
population (67 rural public primary schools) from Kitagwenda County. Each of the
six sub-counties was represented in the sample size of 20 schools by its respective
proportion. For instance, Nyabbani was represented by 3 schools, Kanara by 2
schools, Kicheche by 4 schools, Mahyoro by 3 schools, Ntara 4 schools and Buhanda
4 schools. To select these respective schools, the study adopted a stratified random
sampling procedure. Stratified random sampling is a technique which attempts to
ensure that all parts of the population have equal chance of being represented in the
sample in order to increase statistical efficiency, thus decreasing the sampling error
(Kerlinger & Lee, 2000; Bordens & Abbott, 2008; Mugenda, 2011). Stratified random
sampling is an important statistical tool and is most appropriate when (i) the
population can be divided into distinct strata, and (ii) there is a reason to believe that
the strata differ with regard to the characteristics of interest (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000;
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Kothari & Garg, 2014). Stratified random sampling technique was considered
appropriate for the current study as Kitagwenda County comprises a number of sub-
counties, which served as strata from which a representative sample was drawn.
Kitagwenda County comprises of six administrative sub-counties and all sub-
counties were included in the study as their number was small and manageable. From
within each stratum, simple random sampling was applied in selecting the schools that
participated in the study. The names of the schools were generated and each school
assigned a number, which was written on a piece of paper. The pieces of paper with
school names were put in one basket, and vigorously shaken to ensure that each piece
of paper had equal chance of being picked from the basket. Then one of the research
assistants was blindfolded and instructed to pick at random a piece of paper from the
basket. The process was repeated sequentially until the proportionate number of
schools in each stratum was reached to form a proportion of the sample. In this
process, with each school having equal chance of being picked, the researcher came
up with a representative sample of 20 public primary schools to participate in the
study.
3.5.2 Head Teachers
All head teachers from these randomly sampled schools formed the sampling
frame. From the 20 randomly sampled public primary schools, all 20 head teachers
were automatically included in the sample because of their specific designations
(Mertens, 2010) and also because their number was manageable.
Head teacher is a headmistress, a headmaster, a principal or a director of a
school (GoUd, 2008). For public or government primary schools, a head teacher is
appointed by MoES with duties and responsibilities. Among other roles and
responsibilities, the head teacher is the executive head and administrator of the
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school; administers the school on behalf of the government; and is the custodian of
the school property. In addition, the head teacher reports to the Management
Committee (MC) all the achievements of, and problems facing the school. He or she
makes regular correspondences to the MoES in regard to current affairs of the school.
He or she implements government policies in the school; supervises all academic,
social economic and religious activities of the school and reports to the MC and DEO,
among others. In addition, the head teacher ensures that job description of each and
every member of staff is made and availed to the right people in the spirit of division
of labour or of delegation of powers. He or she takes disciplinary action against pupils
and members of staff such as exclusion or suspension and report to the MC. (Fort
Portal Catholic Diocesan Education Policy, 2013).
Furthermore, the head teacher receives teachers who have been appointed in
his or her school by the Education Service Commission on behalf of the government
and inducts them. He or she assigns teachers teaching responsibilities among others.
Therefore, the head teacher is always in a position of giving credible information
about the strengths and weaknesses of the teachers, and challenges facing them.
3.5.3 Teachers
A teacher is defined by the Education Act, (GoUd, 2008) as
a person who has successfully completed a course of training approved by the
Ministry responsible for education and has been entered in the Register of
Teachers or a person licenced by the Ministry responsible for education to
teach and has been entered on the roll of teachers (p.8).
All teachers in the sampled 20 schools participated in the study because their number
was manageable and also because of their specific designations (Mertens, 2010). This
meant that teachers from the sampled public primary schools were all automatically
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included in the sample. In addition, because of their designation as teachers, each
individual teacher’s contribution in responding to the questionnaires was deemed vital
as the study was exploring teachers’ motivation and their job performance.
3.5.4 Class Teachers
Class teachers were purposively sampled to participate in the focus group
discussions as they occupy a privileged position of being in charge of a given class
and thus having more knowledge about their class situation than other teachers in the
school (Mugenda, 2011). Class teachers, apart from being in charge of their specific
classes, have the duty of supervising their co-teachers and ensuring that the class time
table is followed. In addition, they ensure that all resources needed for the smooth
running of class activities are available such as textbooks for pupils, reference
materials for teachers and other teaching materials.
They have the responsibility to report to the head teacher any challenges
facing pupils and co-teachers such as poor state of the classroom, lack of furniture, or
indiscipline cases. Therefore, class teachers have authority over their classes and can
give credible information about themselves, their co-teachers and the pupils, above
all, what affects the teaching and learning processes.
3.5.5 District Education Officer
A District Education Officer (DEO) is defined by the Education Act, (GoUd,
2008) as “an officer appointed either by Government or a local government to assist
in the administration of education services” (p. 5). Among many roles and
responsibilities, the district education officer, on behalf of the Government, ensures
provision of learning and instructional materials, structural development and teachers
welfare. Furthermore, he or she is responsible for evaluating academic standards
through continuous assessment; and recruiting, deployment and promotion of both
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teaching and non-teaching staff. He or she does the management, monitoring,
supervising and disciplining of staff; and supervision of performance in both public
and private schools. Therefore, the District Education Officer was considered to be a
resourceful person on matters concerning teachers, their motivation and performance.
Being the only individual person designated as District Education Officer in the entire
district of Kamwenge, the DEO was automatically sampled and included in the study
sample.
5.5.6 District Inspectors of School
Education Act, (GoUd, 2008), defines District Inspector of Schools as “a
person appointed for the purposes of quality control by the Education Service
Commission (ESC) or District Service Commission (DSC)” (p.7). The DIS, among
other roles and responsibilities, carries out regular visits to schools for supervision of
the school programs, teachers and the teaching and learning activities. He or she
reports to the DEO any information about schools within his or her area of
jurisdiction. From all inspectors of schools in the district, only the inspector of
schools in charge of Kitagwenda County was purposively selected since he has more
knowledge and experience about the schools within Kitagwenda County, the area of
his jurisdiction than any other inspectors in the district (Mugenda, 2011).
All study participants purposively selected to participate in the study were
considered by the researcher to be thoughtful, informative, and knowledgeable with
the teachers’ situation in their respective jurisdiction. Inspectors of schools are
supposed to oversee the formulation and implementation of schemes of work, lesson
plans, and evaluate instructional programmes. They also help in conducting and
coordinating teachers’ professional programmes like workshops and seminars. In
addition, inspectors of schools are supposed to advise and assist teachers in order to
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enhance instructional effectiveness in schools (Okumbe, 2013). Therefore, the
purposively selected participants would help in generating in-depth data and
contributing personal perspectives concerning teachers’ motivation levels and
teachers’ job performance in rural public primary schools in Kitagwenda County,
Kamwenge District, Western Uganda.
Table 5
Summary of Sampling Matrix
Participants Category Target Population
Total (N)
Sampling Technique Desired
Sample Size
n (%)
Rural Public Primary Schools 67 Stratified random sampling 20 (30%)
Head Teachers 67 Automatic inclusion 20 (30%)
Teachers 567 Automatic inclusion 210 (37%)
Class Teachers 469 Purposive sampling 147 (31%)
DEO 1 Automatic inclusion 1 (100%)
DIS 4 Purposive sampling 1 (25%)
Total 617 399 (65%)
Source: DEO, Kamwenge (2016)
3.6 Description of Research Instruments
This study employed both quantitative and qualitative instruments.
Quantitative instruments included questionnaires; while qualitative instruments
comprised of an in-depth interview guide, and focus group discussion guide. A
questionnaire is a popular instrument in social science research, which comprises of
both open-ended and closed question items and can reach a large group of
participants. In addition, the absence of the researcher gives the advantage of the
questionnaire for honest responses from participants as the participants remain
anonymous (Cozby & Bates, 2012). For instance, this study sampled teachers as
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participants. Questionnaires were intended for teachers since they were the majority
among study participants.
In-depth interview guide is also a very useful qualitative instrument, which
elicits a vivid picture of the participants’ perspective on a given phenomenon and it
gives a human face to a social problem (Creswell, 2014). Likewise, focus group
discussion is a well-organized discussion though structured in a flexible way. It
provides a chance for all participants to take part in the discussion with the help of the
moderator, and at the end, it gives a consensus on a discussed issue (Creswell, 2014).
This study administered in-depth interviews to head teachers, DEO, and district
inspectors of schools. Focus group discussion was intended for class teachers since
these teachers are responsible for what takes place in their respective classes. Class
teachers are in a better position than any other teacher to give a detailed explanation
about their classes.
3.6.1 Questionnaires for Teachers
The teachers’ questionnaire comprised of both closed and open-ended
question items. It was delivered to the study participants and collected by the
researcher personally. The questionnaire for teachers comprised of five sections
which among others linked motivation factors with teachers’ job performance. The
first section sought to know the background characteristics of teachers, which would
bring out their demographic characteristics, such as gender, age, years of teaching
experience, professional qualification levels, and salary scale.
The second section had the Likert scale with attitude items on opportunities
for teacher professional development. These included workshops, seminars, and in-
service training and their contents. The third section included the Likert scale with
attitude items on teachers’ remuneration, which included teachers’ monthly salary,
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transport allowance, duty allowances, extra-teaching or remedial allowance, break tea,
and lunch.
The fourth section contained items on how instructional supervision influences
teachers’ job performance. Instructional supervision included external instructional
supervision by the DIS and internal instructional supervision by the head teacher. The
supervision involved visits to the classroom, checking on teachers’ schemes of work
and lesson plans, teachers’ punctuality, and delivery of the actual content among
others.
The fifth section entailed attitude items on working conditions in public
primary schools which included classrooms, pupil-teacher ratio, blackboards,
teachers’ workload, staffroom, and staff quarters. Also included were benches and
desks for pupils, reference materials for teachers and textbooks for pupils. Every
section of the questionnaire with closed-ended items, was followed by questions with
open-ended items to allow the participants express their opinions without limitations
on teachers’ motivation and job performance. Each section in the questionnaire had
open-ended items that sought possible solutions to the challenges met by the teachers.
3.6.2 In-depth Interview guide for Head Teachers
An in-depth interview guide contained probing question items, which sought
to elicit significant information from head teachers. The guide had probing questions
on availability of professional opportunities for teachers, how these professional
opportunities address teachers’ needs in terms of subject content, knowledge and
teaching skills, among others. According to Neuman (2013), a probe is an impartial
request seeking clarification on an ambiguous answer or statement; a probe helps to
complete an incomplete answer or to obtain a relevant response to what is being
investigated about. In this in-depth interview guide, probing questions covered
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teachers’ professional development opportunities, remuneration, the schools’ working
conditions, and teacher supervision. Using an in-depth interview guide, the research
sought to link the aforementioned motivational factors to how they influenced
teachers’ job performance that included timely scheming of work, lesson planning and
pupils’ discipline management. Job performance also included teachers’ participation
in staff meetings, actual lesson and content delivery, records of work, routine
assessment of pupils and timely feedback. The researcher administered the in-depth
interview guide to the head teachers personally for accurate information.
3.6.3 In-depth Interview guide for District Education Officer
The in-depth interview guide contained probing questions seeking to elicit
significant information from DEO. Through the in-depth interview, a researcher had
an advantage of obtaining more information and at a greater depth from the
participant than with any other instrument. Interviews also gave the interviewer a
great flexibility and an opportunity to restructure or clarify questions in case the
interviewee meets difficulties in understanding them (Cozby & Bates, 2012).
The in-depth interview guide comprised of probing questions on teachers’
professional development opportunities, remuneration, instructional supervision, and
working conditions. The guide also had probing questions on possible solutions to the
challenges facing teachers’ motivation and job performance. The in-depth interview
guide was administered by the researcher personally to the DEO.
3.6.4 In-depth Interview guide for District Inspectors of Schools
The in-depth interview guide contained question items that sought to obtain
some demographic information about the DIS, which included gender, age group and
years of serving experience. The guide also had probing questions seeking to elicit
significant information from district inspectors of schools about teachers’ motivation
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and job performance in schools. Probing questions were on teachers’ professional
development opportunities, remuneration, instructional supervision and working
conditions. In this research instrument, the interviewer was able to catch the
interviewee off-guard and thus secure the most spontaneous reactions than would be
the case with other instruments (Kothari & Garg, 2014). Participant’s spontaneous
reactions included emotional and bodily expressions among others. This benefited the
interviewer with very important information concerning the topic under investigation
and with possible solutions to teachers’ demise. Therefore, the in-depth interview
guide was administered by the researcher personally to the DIS.
3.6.5 Focus Group Discussion Guide for class teachers
The focus discussion group guide had questions, which guided the researcher
to engage class teachers in a discussion of the study topic. This helped to elicit
significant information from the group to arrive at a consensus on the issues
concerning the influence of teachers’ motivation on job performance in public
primary schools. The discussion dwelled on professional development opportunities
provided for teachers, which included workshops, seminars, in-service training, the
content each of these opportunities entailed. The discussion further probed how the
content had influenced their job performance in terms of timely scheming of work,
lesson plans, delivery of content in class, punctuality in attending to duties among
others.
The discussion also dwelled on teachers’ remuneration in terms of salaries,
allowances, and meals at school; and how these had influenced their job performance.
The same was done on instructional supervision and working conditions and on each
item, teachers would be asked to propose ways of ensuring effective teaching in
regard to the said motivation factors. Focus group discussion has the advantage of
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group interaction and of arriving at a consensus as participants tend to respond to one
another with a variety of responses (Cozby & Bates, 2012). The research assistants
assisted the researcher in organizing and conducting focus group discussions by
ensuring that the meeting room was organised, participants’ voices were recorded and
notes written down. The researcher took lead and moderated the focus group
discussions, took also notes in a notebook and later compared these notes with those
taken by the research assistant and the recorded voices.
3.7 Validity, Pilot Testing, and Reliability of Research Instruments
This section presents how validity, pilot testing and reliability of the research
instruments was ensured in this study. Content validity was considered for the
instruments; pilot testing was used to ensure the content validity of questionnaires;
and reliability was ensured for both quantitative and qualitative instruments.
3.7.1 Content Validity
According to Mvumbi and Ngumbi (2015), validity is defined as the degree to
which an instrument measures what it purports to measure. Researchers further define
validity in terms of accuracy, truthfulness and meaningfulness of inferences drawn
based on the data that was obtained from the use of a given instrument (Mugenda,
2011). There are different techniques of ensuring validity of data in a given study.
These include content validity, criterion validity and concurrent validity (Neuman,
2013). Content validity refers to the degree to which an instrument measures the
content it is intended to measure; predictive or criterion-related validity simply refers
to the relationship between the instrument and some other criterion; while construct
validity refers to the degree to which an instrument measures hypothetical constructs
or concepts (Creswell, 2014).
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This study considered content validity, which is a measure of the degree to
which data collected using a particular research instrument represents a specific
content of a particular concept (Mugenda, 2011). The researcher requested two
experts from the department of research and two experts from department of
educational administration and planning to scrutinize the instruments intended to be
used in the study before the researcher went to the field to collect data. The researcher
further asked the experts to read through the instruments to determine whether the
intended content was covered in the questions. Experts were also asked to determine
whether the sentence construction, spacing, and grammar were clear and to detect
errors. In addition, the researcher asked the experts to identify any omitted
information in the questions. The experts assessed the instruments and provided their
judgment, which the researcher considered and perfected the research instruments
accordingly.
In addition, the study employed a variety of research instruments, such as
questionnaires, in-depth interview guide and focus group discussion, in collection of
data, which ensured instrument triangulation, hence enhancing qualitative validity of
the study. Likewise, sourcing data from different participants, such as head teachers
and teachers, the District Education Officer and the District Inspector of Schools, on
the same phenomenon further enhanced the validity of the study. After report writing,
the researcher engaged some experts in the field of research and educational
administration, who reviewed and asked questions about the study findings, thus
ensuring peer debriefing.
Moreover, the researcher used an external editor who reviewed the entire
report and provided objective assessment. The external editor looked at the accuracy
of the research report and the relationship between the research questions and the
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information obtained, grammar and sentence construction. All these validity strategies
ensured accuracy and credibility of the study findings.
3.7.2 Pilot Testing
Pilot testing of research instruments provides information about deficiencies
and suggestions for improvement. It ensures content validity of a questionnaire as it
offers the chance of improving questions and the format of the instrument (Creswell,
2014).
Questionnaires were pilot-tested before the actual collection of data from the
field. The researcher administered the questionnaires to ten teachers, both females and
males, in a rural public primary school that was similar in characteristics with, but not
part of the sampled schools for the study. After the questionnaires were filled, the
researcher held a debriefing session with the teachers who had filled in the
questionnaires, to give their assessment of the questionnaires concerning the clarity of
question items, their appropriateness and relevance as recommended by Neuman
(2013). In addition, the pilot study helped to determine whether the instrument would
generate the type of data anticipated and whether the type of data would be
meaningfully analysed in relation to the research questions and hypotheses.
3.7.3 Reliability of Quantitative Instruments
Reliability is a measure of consistency and stability of a research instrument
(Kothari & Garg, 2014). Reliability of research instruments can be ensured using
different techniques, which may include but not limited to Split-half reliability, Test-
retest reliability, Equivalent-forms or alternate-forms reliability, among others (Gall,
Gall, & Borg, 2007).
Specifically, the study employed split-half reliability for internal consistency.
From the pilot-tested questionnaires, two equivalent-halves were established for both
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odd and even numbers. Cronbach Alpha technique, which requires only a single test
to determine internal consistency of instruments, was used. The Cronbach Alpha
technique is generally the most appropriate test of internal reliability for survey
research and other questionnaires, which use more than two choices, such as the
Likert scale (Kothari & Garg, 2014). The coefficient reliability was computed using
SPSS for windows version 23 and the questionnaires were accepted at reliability
estimate of 0.897 as displayed under Appendix G. McMillan and Schumacher, (2001)
stipulate that, whatever research type undertaken, a good rule of thumb for a
satisfactory reliability is at least 0.70. Reliability estimate obtained from the
questionnaires met the rule of thumb, and therefore, the measurement instruments
were accepted to be reliable. To ensure further reliability of the study, the researcher
checked the instruments, to ensure that they did not contain mistakes or ambiguities.
The instruments were thus cleaned.
3.7.4 Reliability of Qualitative Instruments
To ensure credibility of the qualitative instruments, the researcher checked all
transcripts to get rid of all obvious mistakes made during the transcribing. At the time
of coding, the researcher ensured that thorough coding was consistent in all
instruments to mitigate divergence in codes by repeatedly comparing and contrasting
the codes generated. In addition, the researcher used member-checking strategy,
whereby, data collected from interview guides was given back to the participants to
confirm what the researcher had captured during the interviews.
To ensure dependability of qualitative instruments, the researcher used
instrument and source triangulation strategy as recommended by Creswell, (2014),
whereby, the researcher used multiple-data collection instruments which included
questionnaires, in-depth interview and focus group discussion guides. In addition,
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these instruments were used to collect data from different participants such as head
teachers, teachers, inspector of schools, and district education officer. These reliability
strategies enabled the study to generate findings, which were consistent, credible and
dependable.
3.8 Description of Data Collection Procedures
After approval by the university supervisors, the researcher requested for an
introductory letter from the Registrar, at The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, as
a basis to seek a research permit from the Ministry of Education in Uganda. The
researcher used the research permit from MoES to carry out research from various
education offices at the district and school level. Thereafter, the researcher went to the
field to collect data. The researcher distributed the questionnaires to teachers and
collected them personally after a week. On the same day of collecting the
questionnaires, the researcher had made an appointment to conduct interviews with
the head teachers in their respective schools. The researcher, personally conducted the
interviews with the DEO and district inspector on different days. The researcher, with
two research assistants conducted and managed the administration of focus group
discussions with class teachers in two schools. Before conducting interviews and
focus group discussions, the researcher sought permission from the participants to use
a voice recorder and a camera. A voice recorder was helpful to latter allow the
researcher to transcribe the interviews.
3.9 Description of Data Analysis Procedures
Data analysis is the process of organizing data into meaningful and useful
information that is used to answer research questions (Mvumbi & Ngumbi, 2015).
However, raw data, that have been collected from the filed through questionnaires, in-
depth interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis guide, can be
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challenging to analyse. The researcher processed, analysed and interpreted the data
using both quantitative and qualitative techniques as this study was guided by
convergent parallel mixed methods design.
3.9.1 Quantitative Data Analysis Procedures
After cleaning the data by removing invalid data, the researcher organized the
data into homogenous groups, then coded and entered the data into the computer.
Using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23, the data was
analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics. The data was generated into
frequencies and percentages and then presented in tables and figures. Inferential
statistics included Independent Sample t-test and One-Way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The T-test was used to measure and compare mean values of two sets of
variables in order to generate a statistic to evaluate whether the difference between the
two means was statistically significant. The Independent Sample T-test tested one null
hypothesis. One-Way ANOVA was used to compare differences between group
means in order to estimate the effect of covariates on a single dependent variable.
One-Way ANOVA tested two null hypotheses. The two inferential statistics were
deemed suitable for the analysis because the variables in the study were continuous,
with interval and ratio measurement scales (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).
For testing the hypotheses one, the following assumptions were taken into
consideration
Assumptions of Independent Samples T-test
The scores have been sampled randomly from the population, assuming
independence,
The sampling distribution of the mean is normal,
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There is homogeneity of variance. The two populations are assumed to have
equal variances.
The null hypothesis was tested at 0.05 significance/alpha level ( ). The test statistic
was converted to a conditional probability called a -value.
Decision Rule
If ≤ , the null hypothesis will be rejected, meaning that the observed
difference is significant, that is, not due to chance. However, if the -value will be
greater than 0.05 (i.e., > ), the null hypothesis will not be rejected (the study shall
fail to reject the null hypothesis), meaning that the observed difference between
variables is not significant. The decision rule is that, null hypothesis would be rejected
if -value is less than the critical level.
3.9.2 Qualitative Data Analysis
In research, data analysis is meant to make sense of the data collected through
various research instruments. In qualitative research, data collection goes hand-in-
hand with data analysis. Therefore, the researcher simultaneously collected and
analysed data by taking notes of all data from the in-depth interview and focus group
discussion sessions. These notes were finally used in writing the final research report.
In order to analyse qualitative data systematically, the researcher followed the
six steps highlighted by Creswell (2014). After collecting all data with in-depth
interviews, focus group discussions, as the first step the researcher organized and
prepared the data for analysis by grouping the data according to the instruments used
and the participants. The researcher took time to read though the data in the
instruments and also listened to the recorded voices to understand well the data
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contained therein. In addition, the researcher organised and typed the field notes
according to each research question.
In the second step, the researcher transcribed the data by hand. The researcher
again read carefully and attentively through the transcribed data. This was meant for
the researcher to have complete and credible comprehension of the overall data as
contributed by different participants.
The third step involved generation of codes. The researcher segmented
paragraphs, describing them with specific words in order to generate concepts from
the data. As the fourth sept, the researcher refined the already derived codes by
reducing them into meaningful analytical concepts. In the fifth step, the researcher
used the generated concepts for analysis according to the research questions.
Lastly, in the sixth step, the researcher used the concepts to form the basis for
interpretation, discussion and drawing conclusions. Since the study employed a mixed
methods design, the concepts generated from qualitative data were related with the
analysed quantitative data in order to establish convergence or otherwise.
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Table 6
Methodological Matrix
Key: Htrs = Head teachers; Trs = Teachers; DEO = District education officer; DIS =
District inspectors of schools.
Research Questions Type of
Data
Source
of Data
Instruments Data
collection
procedures
Data Analysis
measures
1. How do professional
development
opportunities influence
teachers’ performance
in rural public primary
schools in Kitagwenda
County, Kamwenge
District, Western
Uganda?
Quantitative
and
qualitative
Htrs,
Trs,
DEO,
DIS,
Questionnaires,
In-depth
interviews,
Focus group
discussion
Administered
in person;
and with
research
assistants
Mean
professional
development
score,
standard T-
test
2.How do remuneration
influence teachers’
performance in rural
public primary schools
in Kitagwenda County,
Kamwenge District,
Western Uganda?
Quantitative
and
qualitative
Htrs,
Trs,
DEO,
DIS,
Questionnaires,
In-depth
interviews,
Focus group
discussion
Administered
in person;
and with
research
assistants
Mean
remuneration
score,
standard
deviation,
ANOVA
3.How do supervision
influence teachers’
performance in rural
public primary schools
in Kitagwenda County,
Kamwenge District,
Western Uganda?
Quantitative
and
qualitative
Htrs,
Trs,
DEO,
DIS
Questionnaires,
In-depth
interviews,
Focus group
discussion
Administered
in person;
and with
research
assistants
Mean
supervision
score,
standard
deviation
4.How do working
conditions influence
teachers’ performance
in rural public primary
schools in Kitagwenda
County, Kamwenge
District, Western
Uganda?
Quantitative
and
qualitative
Htrs,
Trs,
DEO,
DIS
Questionnaires,
In-depth
interviews,
Focus group
discussion
Administered
in person;
and with
research
assistants
Mean working
conditions
score,
standard
deviation,
ANOVA
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3.10 Ethical Considerations
To begin with, the researcher undertook the study in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy in educational administration and planning.
The study was also undertaken within the means and timeframe of the researcher.
That justified the research study as Kombo and Tromp (2011) recommend that before
a research is undertaken, a researcher must analyse the balance of costs.
In addition, because research deals with people, the researcher had the
responsibility to protect the participants, develop trust with them, and guard against
misconduct in order to promote integrity of the research. Bordens and Abbott (2008)
caution of the need for a researcher to obtain official permission from their affiliated
institutions before doing research for purposes of regulation. Therefore, before
visiting the field for data collection, the researcher obtained an introductory letter
from the University Registrar at The Catholic University of Eastern Africa.
The introductory letter served to introduce the researcher to the Ministry of
Education and Sports in Uganda in order to obtain a research permit. The Ministry of
Education and Sports in Uganda, however, directed the researcher to the Chief
Administrative Officer (CAO) in Kamwenge District for the research permit. This
happened because of the decentralisation of some of the services by the MoES,
research permit included. Finally, the research permit was obtained from the DEO and
used by the researcher for self-introduction to the heads of schools that were sampled
for the research.
Furthermore, it is highly recommended in research that informed consent from
participants be sought before they are involved in the study. This is because, “ethical
research requires balancing the value of advancing knowledge against the value of
non-interference in the lives of others” (Neuman, 2013, p. 131). The researcher sought
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permission from the office of the DEO, and head teachers to access their schools, and
to contact teachers. Participants were requested to participate in the study by
obtaining their informed consent either verbally or by signing consent forms (Bordens
& Abbott, 2008). All participants gave their verbal consent.
Also, the researcher ensured that the purpose of the study was fully explained
to the participants before involving them in the research. To ensure confidentiality
and anonymity of the participants, participants were requested by the researcher not to
indicate their names on the questionnaires. The researchers instead used serial
numbers to refer to the participants throughout the study as recommended by Babbie
(2010). All promises made to the research participants by the researcher were kept.
During data collection, throughout the interview process and administration of
copies of questionnaires, the participants were free to respond or not to respond to the
questions. The participants were also free to withdraw from research if they felt they
would not continue due to personal reasons. The researcher explained this to the
participants before the administration of the research instruments to them. Also the
researcher did not coarse any participant against their wish to participate in the
research.
Throughout the administration of all the research instruments, the researcher
ensured that he did not in any way use any sensitive words or gestures that would
have disturbed a participant(s) physically or psychologically. In addition, during data
analysis and reporting, the researcher remained truthful and reported the findings as
they appeared. More so, the researcher endeavoured not to falsify any information or
conclusions in order to ensure accuracy of the findings as recommended by Creswell
(2014).
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Similarly, the researcher acknowledged all sources of information as used in
the research report, thus guarding against plagiarism (Mugenda, 2011). Equally
important, the researcher takes personal responsibility for his own work, his
contribution to the whole study, the conduct of the research and the consequences of
the research report. The data will be kept securely for two months after the research
report has been submitted, and thereafter data documents will be disposed off by
burning them. This procedure will safe guard the participants’ identity and ensure that
no harm is caused to participants as a result of the study.
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CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF
FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings of the study based on research questions. It
is organised in the following sub-headings: Return rates of various categories of
participants, demographic information about gender, age, professional qualification
levels, years of teaching experience, and teachers’ salary levels. It also includes sub-
headings: Influence of teachers’ professional development opportunities on job
performance, influence of teachers’ remuneration on job performance, influence of
instructional supervision on job performance, and influence of working conditions on
job performance. Finally, the chapter presents research hypotheses at the end of each
research question.
4.2 Return Rates of Various Categories of Participants
Research instruments were distributed to various participants of the study.
They comprised of questionnaires distributed to the teachers. Focus-group discussions
were held with class teachers, and interviews with the head teachers, District
Inspector of Schools in-charge of Kitagwenda Country, and the District Education
Officer. Table 7 shows return rates of the study participants.
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Table 7
Distribution of Participants’ Return Rates
Participants Sampled
Participants
Actual
Participants
Response Rate
(%)
Teachers 180 165 91.7
Designated class-teachers 14 14 100
Head Teachers 20 15 75
School Inspector i/c Kitagwenda county 1 1 100
District Education Officer 1 1 100
Total 216 196 94.9
The study results in Table 7 indicate that out of 180 questionnaires distributed
to the teacher participants, 165 questionnaires were duly filled and returned to the
researcher, thus making a return rate of 91.7%. Some teachers returned unfilled
questionnaires while others did not return them at all making the questionnaire target
less by 15. All class teachers were reached and all participated in the focus-group
discussions, thus achieving 100% response rate. Twenty head teachers had been
selected for the study but only 15 were available for the interviews, hence making a
response rate of 75%. The other five head teachers were not available as they were
engaged at the district in registration of the primary seven candidates for primary
leaving examinations (PLE). Both the District Inspector of schools and District
Education Officer were available for interviews, hence constituting a response rate of
100%.
As evidenced in Table 7, both quantitative and qualitative response rates were
very high and above the 70% response rate recommended as very good for analysis
and reporting (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2013). Further, the latter authors indicate that a
non-response rate of 30.0% and above would cause concern about the results of the
study. In this study, the non-response rate for teachers was at 8%, and for head
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teachers at 25%, which could not limit the acceptability and representativeness of the
study sample for meaningful generalisations.
4.3 Demographic Information of the Participants
The study sought to establish participants’ personal characteristics, such as
gender, age, professional qualification levels, and teaching experience, among others.
These characteristics are thought to relate to an individual’s motivation level as
reported by Suzan, Ozden, Serkan, Mehmet and Halili (2010) and Kotur and
Anbazhagan (2014). These personal traits may also affect teachers’ performance of
their duties.
4.3.1 Participants’ Gender
The study sought to establish the gender for the teacher participants in rural
public primary schools, in Kitagwenda County, to determine whether there was a
significant difference between male and female teachers in their perception in rating
the extent to which motivation influenced their job performance. The study
participants were asked to indicate their gender, except those who participated in
focus-group discussions as their views were given as a group not as individuals. Their
responses were analysed and presented in Table 8.
Table 8
Distribution of Study Participants’ Gender
Participants Male
f %
Female
f %
Total
n %
Teachers 99 60.0 66 40.0 165 100.0
Head Teachers 8 53.3 7 46.7 15 100.0
DIS 1 100.0 - - 1 100.0
DEO 1 100.0 - - 1 100.0
Total 109 59.9 73 40.1 184 100.0
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It should be noted that, Table 8 does not reflect the gender for the class
teachers who were purposively sampled to participate in the Focus group discussions.
This is so because, their gender was not relevant since their opinions on the research
questions were given and considered as focus group discussion and not individual
opinion.
Therefore, the study results in Table 8 show that out of the total number of
teachers who filled questionnaires, 60% were males and only 40% females. The
findings reveal that male teachers formed the majority while female teachers formed
the minority. Similarly, out of the total number of head teachers who participated in
the study, 53.3% were males while 46.7% were females, hence gender imbalance. In
relation to teachers’ job performance, such findings may not guarantee a better job
performance by males than their female counterparts. This observation concurs with
the report by Alufohai and Ibhafidon (2015) who noted in their study that teachers’
gender did not have any significant influence on students’ academic performance at
least in English language.
Such gender imbalance could only imply that teaching profession may be
favourable to males than to females especially in rural areas, like Kitagwenda County,
due to transport and accommodation challenges among others. This is partly because
in rural areas, majority of the teachers have to walk or ride a bicycle or a motor cycle
for several kilometres to reach the school. This is a difficult situation for majority of
the female teachers, due to security reasons. Furthermore, it may be a challenge for
married female teachers to stay in rental houses far from their families for weeks or
months due to their parental responsibilities. These findings concurred with those of
ILO (2015), in its report about Malawi, which found out that there was a strong
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association between the availability of housing in an area and the presence of female
teachers in the school. That partly explains the number of female teachers being less
than the number of male teacher in the public primary schools that participated in the
study. The study also revealed that provision of housing was considered to be a key
factor in ensuring teacher retention, especially in rural areas in Uganda. The findings
were in agreement yet with another study by Agharuwhe and Ugborugbo (2008) who
in their examination of gender’s influence on teachers’ productivity in secondary
schools in Nigeria, found out that female teachers were more influenced by location
than their male counterparts.
4.3.2 Teacher Participants’ Age-group
This study sought to establish teachers’ age groups so as to determine whether
their age had an effect on the level of teachers’ motivation and job performance.
Teachers who are still in their youthful age tend to hold more ambitions for their
career than those teachers who are advanced in age of retirement. Similarly, young
teachers may easily be discouraged by poor working environment, which demotivate
their adequate preparations for teaching. Therefore, teachers were asked to indicate
their age groups, and their responses are presented in Table 9.
Table 9
Distribution of Teachers by Age-Group
n = 165
Age-Group Frequency Percentage
21-30 114 69.1
31-40 34 20.6
41-50 17 10.3
Total 165 100.0
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The information in Table 9 indicates that majority of the participating teachers
are still in their youthful years, that is, 21-30 and 31-40, which is at 89.7%, while the
minority of 10.3%, are approaching their senior years, which is 41-50. This finding
would imply a very strong and effective teacher workforce in the public primary
schools, based on the report of Alufohai and Abhafidon (2015), who revealed in their
study that students taught by teachers between the ages of 21 and 48 had achieved a
higher score than students taught by teachers of 49 years and above.
The teachers in their youthful years tend to be ambitious, hence need a lot of
motivation, for instance conducive working conditions like staff quarters, and
professional development opportunities in order to meet satisfaction in their teaching
duties. This category of the teachers would be preoccupied with what their career
entails and would need support from their work to achieve their dreams. If such
youthful teachers feel demotivated, it may trigger their rural-urban migration in search
of teaching jobs, a situation that would deprive pupils in rural schools the services of
good and energetic teachers. These findings were confirmed by Kotur and
Anbazhagan (2014) in India who reported that employees in their youthful age are
likely to be more motivated and to perform better than the employees in their
advanced age.
Furthermore, many teachers would easily identify themselves with urban
setting, so holding them in a rural setting implies a big challenge to motivate them so
as to keep them relatively satisfied with the rural conditions. This finding concurs
with that of Kadzamira (2006) in Malawi, who found out that most teachers tended to
migrate to urban centres, where living and working conditions were better than in
rural areas.
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4.3.3 Professional Qualification Levels of Participating Teachers
The participating teachers were asked to indicate their professional
qualification levels in order to find out whether all the teachers had the required
expertise and competence to enable them to impart knowledge and skills to the pupils.
This is because qualified teachers are deemed to implement teaching and learning
activities more effectively than those without the minimum qualifications. The
participants’ responses are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Professional Qualification Levels of Participating Teachers
As shown in Figure 3, participating teachers indicated diverse attainments of
professional qualification levels. Majority of the participating teachers, that is 71.0%,
attained Grade III professional qualification level, which is the basic required level for
one to qualify to teach in a primary school. Conversely, only 2.0% of the participants
did not have any professional qualification level, implying that they were not trained
as teachers. These unqualified teachers lack knowledge and skills for teaching
particularly in preparing schemes of work, lesson plans and class management. That
implies that they cannot teach effectively, hence affecting their job performance
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negatively. This finding was consistent with the report of Uwezo (2016) in Uganda,
which indicated that 6.0% of the primary school teachers nationally were untrained.
Further, Figure 3 shows that, 24% of the participating teachers had attained
Grade V professional qualification level, while 3.0% were graduates with university
education. This implied that 27% of the participating teachers were above the
minimum requirements of the teaching profession, having attained either a diploma or
a degree. These teachers are deemed to have acquired the right knowledge and skills
of a primary teacher and therefore professionally qualified to teach in primary
schools. Such professional qualifications would normally be matched with an increase
in remuneration, promotion, among others in order to sustain their levels of
motivation. Qualified teachers have expertise and are interested in updating
themselves with new knowledge and skills especially when there are new changes in
the curriculum, or new advances in use of technologies in class teaching. This was in
line with the report by Shao and Tamashiro (2013), who found out that most teachers,
in the USA, were yearning to be updated in computer applications in order to be more
effective in their teaching profession. These findings are further confirmed by the
report of Kasiisa and Tamale (2013) who noted that teachers with higher
qualifications performed better in the teaching of social studies in Ugandan primary
schools than those teachers who had lower qualifications.
4.3.4 Teachers’ Years of Teaching Experience
The researcher wanted to establish the years of teaching experience of teachers
and head teachers, so as to determine whether the teaching staff accumulated more
knowledge and skills with years of teaching in class. The experience would help them
to apply different techniques and methods in delivering a given content in class,
applying specific methods for various subjects, thus improving their job performance.
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Head teachers’ knowledge and interaction with teachers also tends to increase with
years of administrative experience in the school. They can therefore, with much
exactness, give helpful information about their teachers’ motivation levels and job
performance. Head teachers’ years of experience were obtained during interviews by
asking them to state their particular group category of years of experience. The
information for both teachers’ and head teachers’ years of experience is summarised
and presented in Table 10.
Table 10
Distribution of Teachers and Head Teacher by Years of Experience
Years of Experience Teachers
f
%
Headteachers
f
%
1-5 23 13.9 6 35.3
6-10 62 37.6) 3 17.6
11-15 28 17.0 5 29.4
16-20 23 13.9 2 11.8
21-25 14 8.5 - -
26- above 15 9.1 1 5.9
Total 165 100 17 100
The information in Table 10 depicts that both teachers and head teachers are
fairly represented in the years of their teaching experience, although a relatively
bigger number of teachers have spent between 11 to 15 years in the teaching
profession. Most of teachers are above 5 years, that is, at 86.1% in the teaching
profession. This finding implies that majority of the teachers are well versed with
teaching experience, have knowledge and skills and can effectively carry out their
teaching responsibilities.
In addition, majority of 64.7% of the participating head teachers has been in
the leadership position for more than 5 years. This is equally a good experience for
head teachers to know the motivational challenges of their teachers and how this has
135
affected teachers’ job performance in their respectful schools. These findings concur
with that of Huang, Shi, Zheng and Zhu, (n.d.), who found out that work experience
was a key factor in hiring decisions of managers in China. In addition, the findings
were in agreement with the report by Oyewole (2011), who in his study on the
influence of teaching experience on job performance of secondary school teachers in
Ekiti State, Nigeria, found a significant relationship between teacher’s experience and
teacher’s job performance.
However, studies of Quinones, Ford, and Teachout (2001), disagree with the
findings and warn that work experience is a complex and multidimensional construct,
therefore, researchers must pay attention on their definition of the construct.
Therefore, it can be argued that, although majority of the participating teachers and
head teachers had served at least 6 years, this may not guarantee good performance
owing to the fact that, other factors can affect their performance. For instance,
qualification level of the teachers, working conditions in the school, remuneration and
incentives given to teachers, could easily affect teachers’ job performance.
4.3.5 Distribution of Teachers by their Salary Scale
Participating teachers were asked to indicate their salary scales in order to
determine if they had different salary scales and whether that difference affected their
levels of motivation. This is in line with what Abraham Maslow postulates, that
employees need to satisfy lower needs before they can aspire for the next set of needs
on the hierarchy of needs (Kaur, 2013). Teachers’ responses on salary scale are
summarised and presented in Figure 4.
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Figure 4. Distribution of Teachers by their Salary Scale
The results in Figure 4 show that teachers’ remuneration varied from the
lowest to the highest levels. The majority of 69% of the teachers earn U7 Upper as
their salary scale, which is the second lowest salary scale, followed by 20%, who
receive the salary scale of U6 Lower. The finding shows that the majority of the
teachers receive a very low salary and this is likely to cause discontentment as most
teachers rely on their salary to cater for family responsibilities particularly their basic
needs. The situation could deteriorate with delay of the payment of salaries to
teachers. The finding resonates with that of Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011), who found
out that teachers in many African countries were working in challenging conditions
that are aggravated by delay in payment of salaries and allowances, among others.
It was noted that delay of salaries caused teachers to take on loans from their
teachers’ Cooperatives in order to meet their basic needs and their family
responsibilities, as pointed out by class teachers during focus group discussions. Class
teachers expressed their stressful experience in clearing loans with high interest rates.
This experience negatively affected teachers’ attention to teaching and learning
137
activities, as they resorted to involving themselves in income generating activities
elsewhere to support their families.
This finding was in agreement with the report by ILO (2016) about teachers in
rural Africa, which indicated that as a consequence of teachers’ low payment levels in
Moshi rural district, Tanzania, teachers engaged in other economic activities in order
to earn extra income to supplement their salaries, even during class hours. This
implies that, Uganda being a developing country and having most of the public
primary schools in rural setting, teachers’ pay has an effect on their motivation and by
extension, on their job performance. However, the findings deviated from that of
Bennell and Akyeampong (2007), who reported that the broad consensus among
occupational psychologists in the context of developed countries was that, pay on its
own does not increase motivation.
4.4 Influence of Teachers’ Professional Development Opportunities on Job
Performance
In this study, participating teachers in rural public primary schools were asked
to respond to statements intended to describe the status of professional development
opportunities available and how they affect their job performance. Professional
development opportunities were defined in terms of workshops, in-service training,
fresher courses and seminars. Likewise, Likert-items were developed in relation to the
defined professional development opportunities and rated using the scale: Strongly
Agree (5); Agree (4); Undecided (3); Disagree (2); and Strongly disagree (1) such that
5 was the highest score and 1 the lowest score. The results are summarised and
presented in Table 11.
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Table 11
Distribution of Teachers’ responses on the Influence of Teachers’ professional
Development Opportunities on Job Performance
n = 165
Statement SA
f (%)
A
f (%)
U
f (%)
D
f (%)
SD
f (%)
Ministry of education gives us chances to
upgrade in our teaching profession so that we
can teacher better in class
39(23.6)
101(61.2)
7(4.2)
12(7.3)
6(3.6)
At the district, we get workshops to improve
our knowledge and skills in teaching
23(13.9)
88(53.3)
11(6.7)
20(12.1)
23(13.9)
The district organizes seminars for teachers so
that we can use new methods of teaching
25(15.2)
82(49.7)
13(7.9)
27(16.4)
18(10.9)
There is in-service training which helps
teachers to assess pupils in class
23(13.9)
61(37.0)
26(15.8)
49(29.7)
6(3.6)
I have participated in workshops organized for
teachers and this helps me to prepare schemes
of work effectively
34(20.6)
83(50.3)
9(5.5)
28(17.0)
11(6.7)
I find workshops helpful because I learn how
complete the syllabus in time
49(29.7)
72(43.6)
11(6.7)
24(14.5)
9(5.5)
We get seminars to help us do lesson planning
effectively
23(13.9)
60(36.4)
19(11.5)
48(29.1)
15(9.1)
It is very important to have workshops/in-
service/ seminars for teachers because they
help us to manage pupils’ discipline
81(49.1)
69(41.8)
5(3.0)
7(4.2)
3(1.8)
I feel a great deal of satisfaction from the
workshops/in-service/ fresher courses/
seminars for they help me know the needs of
each individual pupil in class
45(27.3)
76(46.1)
18(10.9)
17(10.3)
9(5.5)
Workshops and seminars help me to
participate well in co-curricular activities at
school
52(31.5)
80(48.5)
10(6.1)
16(9.7)
7(4.2)
Workshops and seminars help me to know the
importance of giving feedback to pupils in
time
51(30.9)
95(57.6)
10(6.1)
7(4.2)
2(1.2)
Through workshops and seminars, I am
encouraged to participate in staff meetings at
school
50(30.3)
84(50.9)
9(5.5)
20(12.1)
2(1.2)
Through workshops and seminars, I learn how
to keep records of the work I cover in class
48(29.1)
93(56.4)
12(7.3)
10(6.1)
2(1.2)
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As shown in Table 11, majority of the teachers confirmed that professional
development opportunities effectively influence their job performance at school as
90.9% agreed that it was very important to have workshops, in-service, and seminars,
which helped them to manage pupils’ discipline. This meant that professional
development opportunities were not only academically oriented but also concerned
with pupils’ behaviours at school and in class. The provision of workshops, seminars
and in-service training for teachers in Kitagwenda County concurred with the report
by Atta and Mensah (2015) in Ghana who revealed that teachers in the district of
Sekyere in the region of Ashanti accessed professional learning programs such as
workshops, in-service training and seminars among others.
From the findings, teachers also learnt to understand, through guidance and
counselling, the deviant behaviour of pupils from broken homes, talked to them and
corrected their mistakes gently. All these improved pupil-teacher relationships, shy
learners were motivated to look for help from teachers and were encouraged to work
hard. These findings concurred with the report by Imo, Aniefiok and Nkama (2013) in
Nigeria, who noted that teachers who participated in staff development programmes
were more effective in their job performance than their counterparts in terms of
masterly of subject matter, classroom management, assessment of students and
teaching methods. On the other hand, the findings of this study were in contradiction
of what Kadzamira (2006) in Malawi, had reported of lack of continuous professional
development opportunities, that left many teachers with low morale in their job
performance.
Furthermore, 88.5% of the participating teachers agreed that workshops and
seminars helped them to know the importance of giving feedback to pupils in time,
and to learn how to keep records of the work covered in class. This finding was
140
essential as it reflected how professional development opportunities targeted pupils as
the beneficiaries of the teaching and learning activities. Through giving feedback to
pupils, teachers are able to know those pupils who did not do well or did not
understand what was taught and to help them individually. This finding was in
agreement with the findings of Shao and Tamashiro (2013) in the USA and China
who reported that, through professional development opportunities, teachers were
sensitive to individual learner’s needs and guided students through the learning
processes.
Similarly, 84.8% of the teachers, acknowledged that the MoES gave them
chances to upgrade in their teaching profession so that they could teach better in class.
This revelation from teachers concurred with the report of Shao and Tamashiro (2013)
in the USA and China, where professional development opportunities were a high
priority, especially for China’s elementary and secondary schools. This finding is very
important as today, all over the world, countries are making efforts to attract the best
qualified teachers to ensure quality education for the pupils and students.
Likewise, 81.2% of the participating teachers agreed that through workshops
and seminars, they were encouraged to participate in staff meetings. It is through such
meetings that teachers are able to share ideas and challenges concerning their duties
and to arrive at concrete solutions in order to achieve success in their teaching
activities. Similarly, it is through staff meetings where head teachers make official
communications, from the district and ministry of education, concerning teachers and
their duties so that they are updated in their teaching profession.
In addition, 80.0% of the teachers agreed that they were helped to participate
effectively in co-curricular activities at school, where teachers are trained in ball
games, athletics and other sports. Effective teaching and learning process does not
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take place only in a classroom but also outside where pupils are able to interact with
one another and even compete against others. This teaches pupils virtues like sharing,
being patient with others, showing concern for others and so forth. Therefore,
participating teachers were trained in knowledge and skills to impart holistic
education to pupils, that is, both academic and human formation.
Besides, majority of 73.4% of the participating teachers felt a great deal of
satisfaction from the workshops, in-service and seminars especially with the emphasis
of knowing the needs of each individual pupil in class. For example, identifying slow
and fast learners and helping each one individually. Pupils come from different family
backgrounds, some from rural areas and others from urban setting and the two
categories often cannot learn and grasp things the same way or on the same pace. This
finding is very important and confirms the ideal purpose of teaching the individual
pupil, not pupils. The finding concurred with the report by UNESCO (2013) which
conducted a study in Kenya and found out that reading levels and achievement in
mathematics among pupils taught by teachers who had undertaken continuing
professional development opportunities were higher than for the pupils taught by
newly qualified teachers, who had not undertaken any professional development
opportunities. However, this ideal may be difficult to achieve as most of the
classrooms of the schools visited were overcrowded, hence high pupil-teacher ratio.
Further, 73.3% of the participating teachers expressed that, through
professional development opportunities, they learnt how to complete the syllabus in
time by grouping similar topics together, while making schemes of work and lesson
plans. That enables teachers to assess objectively and effectively the pupils in class.
Teachers can also have time for remedial teaching and to revise some topics that
pupils did not grasp well. These findings were in agreement with the report by ILO
142
(2015) that found strong links between teachers’ professional development
opportunities and teachers’ effectiveness in their job performance.
Another 70.9% of the teachers showed that they were helped to prepare
schemes of work effectively after updates from the workshops; while 67.2%
acknowledged to have improved in knowledge and skills in teaching. Teachers
acknowledged the value of workshops and seminars in their teaching professions. For
example, teachers were enabled to vary teaching methods depending on the nature of
the topic, and to ensure that schemes of work reflected the content within the syllabus.
Additionally, teachers were enabled to teach the syllabus systematically and to ensure
that it was covered in time. The findings concurred with the report of Atiya and
Palwasha (2013) in India, who expressed that through professional development
opportunities, teachers were equipped with knowledge, skills and a positive attitude in
performing their duties.
Regarding the contents covered in workshops and seminars, participating
teachers expressed that they trained in making schemes of work, lesson preparations
or planning, co-curricular activities like athletics, ball games, music, health care,
special education needs. In addition, teachers were equipped with knowledge and
skills in guidance and counselling, early grade reading (EGRA), teacher-pupil
relationships, teaching methods and new assessment methods, among others.
When teachers were asked to mention the usefulness of the content learnt from
workshops and seminars, their responses were varied. Teachers were updated on how
schemes of work should reflect syllabus content and how to integrate similar topics
together. This helped teachers to cover the syllabus within the scheduled time. In
addition, teachers learnt to plan for different sports activities, identifying pupils for
different sports activities depending on pupils’ talents.
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Some teachers pointed out that, the content they learnt enabled them to arouse
pupils’ interest to learn better by encouraging the pupils to ask questions for clarity in
class. They also improved in skills of good questioning especially in using simple
clear language understood by the learners, asking one question at a time, and ensured
questions were distributed to the entire class.
Other teachers were equipped with skills of catering for pupils’ individual
differences, for example ensuring that slow-learners and the physically challenged
pupils are not left behind in the teaching and learning activities. Teachers made sure
that physically challenged pupils got appropriate places in class where they would feel
comfortable to follow what is being taught in class. Teachers also endeavoured to
make sure that slow learners got along with the rest of class by posing simple and
clear questions to them and taking more time to explain with clear examples of what
was being taught in class. These findings concurred with the report by Campbell, et al
(2017) in Canada who revealed that professional learning equipped educators with
differentiating instruction which catered for pupils’ differences in learning. In
addition, teachers would encourage the pupils to seat in front rows in the classroom so
that they can pay attention to what was being taught. Hence, teaching and learning in
class became interactive and effective. These findings were in agreement with those
of Shao and Tamashiro (2013) who found out that priority on professional
development for teachers explained the more consistent positive teacher motivation
across the schools, accompanied by improved pupils’ learning in China and USA.
The study found out that the teachers’ professional development activities
were organized to equip teachers with various skills. Participating teachers mentioned
the workshops were sponsored and facilitated by the Ministry of Education, the
Uganda National Examination Board (UNEB) and the District Education officers. The
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Ministry of Education in partnership with other Non-Government Organisations
(NGOs) such as World Bank organised workshops to equip teachers with various
pedagogical skills. For instance, World Bank sponsors EGRA program, which in full
stands for “Early Grade Reading and Arithmetic” where teachers are trained in
pedagogy of handling pupils in lower classes of primary one, two and three to achieve
literacy and numeracy skills. Teachers teach pupils from primary one to primary three
in local languages. Pupils write their exercises, count and read alphabet in their local
languages and this has enhanced pupils’ understanding of the content taught. For
instance, during FGDs with participating class teachers, one teacher exclaimed and
said,
EGRA program has helped a lot. The biggest benefit has been for most of the
pupils in my class who are now able to read and understand vernacular stories.
I have also been able to experience this improvement in other subjects. Pupils
read stories from books with great interest (Class Teacher, FGD, March, 29,
2017).
Participating teachers also pointed out that other workshops were organized by
Uganda National Examination Board (UNEB) to train teachers on how to set
standardised questions, with marking schemes. As a result, participating teachers
acknowledged that, while setting examinations to assess the pupils, they ensure that
instructions are precise and provide explicit direction; they use simple sentences for
pupils to understand well what is being asked. Teachers also ensure that questions are
clearly written and at times they give visual support such as diagrams. That enabled
teachers to teach and assess pupils effectively, capturing the approved syllabus
content, and setting standardised questions from the three domains; the cognitive, the
affective and psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with thinking processes at
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various levels from the lowest to the highest level. These include Knowledge,
Understanding, Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation levels. The
participating teachers found the use of tables of specification helpful in distributing
questions through all levels of cognition.
The affective domain focuses on attitudes and feelings. These include
receiving, responding, willingness to participate, valuing what is being learnt,
organisation and characterisation, that is, incorporating the discipline values into real
life. Participating teachers employed the method of asking questions in class and they
acknowledged great interest of pupils willing to answer. Teachers also used the
method of storytelling in class for some subjects and encouraged pupils to participate
in turns. That aroused interest of the pupils to learn and understand what was being
taught. Teachers found the use of diagrams, fill-in questions and pictures effective in
enhancing the affective domain objectives in the learning process and assessment of
pupils.
The psychomotor domain deals with the things pupils can physically do. The
domain focuses on action, coordination, formation and production. Participating
teachers found the use of drama and plays as an effective method while delivering a
lesson in class. Teachers organised pupils to act out some characters from
comprehension stories. Teachers found this method very attractive to pupils as each
pupil would want to take a part in the plays. In addition, teachers also used object
diagrams and charts in class displaying sequence of object parts, of numbers and
alphabetic letters, which was effective for pupils to learn the content taught.
At the district level, workshops were organised for different subjects taught in
the primary school such as Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and English. In such
workshops, subject heads from each school are invited for training in diverse teaching
146
methodologies and assessment for their respective subjects. Workshops are held either
once or twice a year depending on a given need, and they usually last for some days
or a week as confirmed by the DEO and DIS during interviews. This finding was in
agreement with that of Abiola and Oluwatovin (2016) in Nigeria, who found out that
teachers were selected according to their qualification levels, years of experience,
subjects taught and areas of specialisation to attend professional development
programs such as workshops and seminars.
Furthermore, the District Education Officer concurred with the teachers that
through workshops, they are taught many pedagogical components that enhance their
teaching responsibilities. The content covered include changes in the curriculum, new
teaching methods and approaches, e-learning (computer) and how to use the library
and find new books from the internet to access information to enrich the teaching and
learning processes. This meant that teachers were kept updated with the changes in
the curriculum and methods in order to teach the right content effectively. Although
the District Education Officer organised workshops to equip teachers with updated
teaching methodologies, in some schools it did not assist improve delivery of the
content to the learners. This is because, in all the schools visited, the researcher
observed that teachers did not have any computer, neither electricity, nor internal
booster, which hindered teachers’ use of new technology in teaching. Teachers widely
maintained their traditional methods of teaching. While provision of continuing
professional development opportunities at district level allows greater coverage, and
permits teachers from different local areas to meet and share experiences, providing
professional opportunities in individual schools enables facilitators and trainers
greater opportunities to observe the teachers and to offer one-on-one support.
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At the school level, workshops were organised for the rest of the teachers, at
times by the subject heads upon their return from district workshops. Teachers, during
Focus Group Discussions, referred to such workshops and other training sessions as
“continuous professional development” (CPD). Furthermore, internal workshops were
organized at school or centre level whereby an expert in a given area of need is
invited to come and address teachers on that particular need. For example, EGRA
program was facilitated by Centre Coordinating Tutors (CCT), who are stationed at
particular schools within Kitagwenda County.
Seminars for teachers are said to be organised at school level to address a
specific need and included programs such as discipline management strategies, girls’
menstruation management, sanitation and hygiene, and managing clubs in schools. In
some schools, seminars were rarely conducted but occasionally held to supplement
teachers’ professional growth, not necessarily classroom teaching. For example, “a
seminar can be organised on girl child for both senior men and women, on discipline,
and on how to manage discipline in the school” (DIS, interview, April 21, 2017). That
equips teachers with knowledge and skills to help pupils to adapt well to their
biological and physical growth so as to remain in school and participate in the
teaching and learning processes.
Besides workshops, other professional development opportunities included
refresher courses such as in-service training. The District Education Officer and the
District Inspector of Schools confirmed that in-service training is attended by
individual teachers during school holidays, who express interest and can sponsor
themselves. Such teachers obtain a paid leave but with understanding that after their
course, they return to their respective schools to teach for a period not less than three
years before they can seek any transfer to another district. This is guaranteed by the
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teacher signing what the District Inspector of Schools called “Bond of Agreement”.
This is an agreement between the individual teacher and the employer, which is the
district education office, on behalf of the Ministry of Education and Sports, in which
the individual teacher commits himself or herself, that after the completion of the said
in-service training, the teacher will continue serving in district at least for three years.
In-service training is mainly for upgrading, from one level of professional
qualification to another, for example from Grade III to Grade V or from Grade V to a
Graduate.
Teachers expressed that through these professional development opportunities,
they come to learn of the new changes in the curriculum, new methods of teaching
and assessing pupils and making of teaching aids. In addition, teachers learn about
class management, primary health care, special education needs, guidance and
counselling, athletics and ball games, among others. These professional development
opportunities are perceived by teachers, head teachers, District Inspectors of Schools
and the District Education Officer as effectively enabling teachers to performance
better by improving teachers’ confidence levels in knowledge and skills. The findings
of teachers’ enthusiasm about professional opportunities concurred with that of Shao
and Tamashiro (2013) who indicated, that teachers in China and USA wished that
professional opportunities be continuous throughout ones’ career and be sustained
rather than having isolated workshops and seminars.
In order to make workshops and seminars more effective, teachers suggested
that workshops and seminar be organized every term and possibly attended by all
teachers and with financial facilitation. Teachers further suggested that workshops
and seminars be organized also at sub-county levels for all the teachers to participate,
because workshops and seminars held at district level are rare and only include a
149
section of teachers. This would enable all the teachers to attend and be updated with
new knowledge and skills in order to perform better in their duties.
4.4.1 Testing of the Null Hypothesis One
Ho1. There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean
scores in rating the extent professional development opportunities enhance teachers’
job performance when categorized by gender.
This hypothesis was tested using Independent Sample T-test to compare two
groups’ mean scores on the same variable, that is, female and male teachers’ mean
scores. This was meant to rate the extent professional development opportunities
enhance teachers’ job performance, so as to evaluate whether there is a difference in
teachers’ mean scores. The results obtained are summarised in Tables 12 and 13.
Table 12
Teachers’ Mean Scores on Professional Development Opportunities Based on
Gender
n = 165
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Male 99 3.7457 .53053 .05332
Female 66 3.5446 .57249 .07047
Table 12 indicates that the rating of mean score of males is 3.75 and that of females is
3.54. To determine whether the mean scores were statistically significant, an
independent samples T-test was performed and the results are shown in Table 13.
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Table 13
Independent Samples T-Test Teachers’ Mean Scores on Professional Development
Opportunities based on Gender
n = 165
Levene’s Test for Equality
of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean Difference
Std. Error Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Professional
Development
Opportunities
Equal
variances
assumed
1.241
0.267
2.311
2.276
163
132.031
0.022
0.024
0.20113
0.20113
0.08703
0.08837
0.02928
0.02633
0.37297
0.37593
Equal
variances not assumed
Results in Table 13 show that, Levene’s -value obtained is 0.27. Levene’s -
value being greater than the accepted significance level of 0.05, equal variances is
then assumed. The associated - value is 0.02, which is less than the alpha value
(0.05), therefore we reject the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative hypothesis.
The study concludes that there is a significant difference in the extent to which
professional development opportunities influence teachers’ job performance based on
the gender of teachers. The male teachers’ rating is a better performance with mean
score of 3.75, than female teachers with mean score of 3.54. These findings did not
concur with the report of Bojana, Terek, Dragan, Zvonko and Zivoslav (2014) in
Serbia who revealed that there was a slightly higher job satisfaction among female
teachers than their counterparts. Similarly, these findings were in disagreement with
the report of Kotur and Anbazhagan (2014) in India who noted, in their study of the
influence of age and gender on performance, that female employees were more
151
productive than their counterpart in a sugar factory. Similarly, the findings in Table
13 disagreed with the report by Alufohai and Ibhafidon (2015) who revealed that
teachers’ gender was not significant in influencing students’ academic achievement,
especially in English language.
4.5 Influence of Teachers’ Remuneration on Job Performance
Teachers in rural public primary schools were asked to respond to statements
intended to describe the status of teachers’ remuneration in rural public primary
schools in order to determine how remuneration affected their job performance.
Teachers’ remuneration included basic salary, and other allowances such as transport
allowance, provision of tea break and lunch, duty allowance, and extra-teaching
allowance. Likert-items were developed in relation to the defined teachers’
remuneration and rated using the scale: Strongly Agree (5); Agree (4); Undecided (3);
Disagree (2); and Strongly disagree (1) such that 5 was the highest score and 1 the
lowest score. The teachers’ responses are summarised and presented in Table 14.
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Table 14
Distribution of Teachers’ Responses on the Influence of Teachers’ Remuneration
on Job Performance
n = 165
Statement SA
f (%)
A
f (%)
U
f (%)
D
f (%)
SD
f (%)
I am paid a salary that is enough to cater for my
basic needs
3(1.8) 9(5.5) 12(7.3) 60(36.4) 81(49.1)
Salary payments are prompt and this helps me to be
regularly in class teaching
11(6.7)
78(47.3)
15(9.1)
44(26.7)
17(10.3)
The salary satisfies me and I am encouraged to
make schemes of work
1(0.6)
27(16.4)
22(13.30
86(52.1)
29(17.6)
Because the salary is encouraging, I assess the
pupils in class regularly
2(1.2)
46(27.9)
25(15.2)
69(41.8)
23(13.9)
Provision of transport allowance helps me to be
present in class regularly
6(3.6)
8(4.8)
15(9.1)
30(18.2)
106(64.2)
Provision of break tea at school helps me to be
present in class for lessons in time
32(19.4)
83(50.3)
7(4.2)
26(15.8)
17(10.3)
Getting lunch at school helps me to be available at
school to instil discipline in the pupils
30(18.2)
98(59.4)
8(4.8)
15(9.1)
14(8.5)
Provision of lunch at school helps me to do lesson
planning
24(14.5)
93(56.4)
10(6.1)
27(16.4)
11(6.7)
Provision of Break Tea and lunch at school helps
me to participate in co-curricular activities
21(12.7)
77(46.7)
23(13.9)
28(17.0)
16(9.7)
Having meals at school helps me to teach my
lessons in class effectively
38(23.0)
86(52.1)
9(5.5)
17(10.3)
15(9.1)
The school offers duty allowances
1(0.6)
9(5.5)
11(6.7)
33(20.0)
111(67.3)
Provision of duty allowances positively influences
teachers to give guidance and counselling to pupils
22(13.3)
29(17.6)
14(8.5)
41(24.8)
59(35.8)
Provision of duty allowances enhances teachers’
management of pupils’ discipline
18(10.9)
39(23.6)
12(7.3)
45(27.3)
51(30.9)
Provision of duty allowances enhances teachers’
management of learners’ register
17(10.3)
39(23.6)
13(7.9)
50(30.3)
46(27.9)
Provision of duty allowances positively influences
teachers’ participation in co-curricular activities
23(13.9)
46(27.9)
17(10.3)
37(22.4)
42(25.5)
Extra teaching allowances paid by the school
motivates me to teach the pupils
33(20.0)
67(40.6)
13(7.9)
23(13.9)
29(17.6)
I feel a great deal of satisfaction with teacher's
remuneration
13(7.9)
35(21.2)
25(15.2)
52(31.5)
40(24.2)
153
The information in Table 14 shows that majority of teachers disagreed that
their remuneration effectively influenced their job performance as confirmed by
87.3% of the participating teachers who acknowledged that there was no allowance
for teachers. That meant that teachers have to rely on their meagre salary to meet their
basic needs and family responsibilities as there is no any other incentive given.
Moreover, the salary that teachers received was a “consolidated” salary inclusive of
all costs transport, medical bills, meeting family needs. This situation can easily
demotivate teachers who carry out other duties apart from teaching in class. These
findings were in agreement with the report by Jingdong, Najjuko and Ochwo (2017)
who indicated that in Rubaga Division in Kampala, the absence of proper allowances
demotivated teachers and some had even left the teaching profession.
In the same way, 85.5% of the participants expressed that, the salary was
inadequate to cater for their basic needs and family responsibilities. This finding
concurred with the survey report by Education International, (2007) which revealed
that teachers’ salaries were generally low and below the cost of living in six countries
in sub-Saharan Africa, which included Gambia, Kenya, Lesotho, Tanzania, Uganda
and Zambia.
Furthermore, 82.4% of the teachers expressed that lack of transport allowance
did not motivate them to be present in class regularly. These findings may imply that
these teachers are likely to be tempted to look for alternative income generating
activities besides teaching, in order to supplement the basic salary to meet their basic
needs. This may encourage teachers absenting themselves from their teaching duties,
leading to incomplete coverage of the syllabus and hence poor teacher performance.
The study found out that some schools provided tea break and lunch for
teachers and this enabled the teachers to remain in school instead of going out to look
154
for food elsewhere as acceded by 77.6% of the participating teachers. During FGDs,
teachers appreciated such a kind gesture from the contributions of parents as resolved
by Parents-Teachers’ Association (PTA). The provision of meals at school motivated
teachers to teach lessons effectively and to do lesson planning while in school as
pointed out by 75.1% and 70.9 % of the participating teachers respectively. These
findings reveal that teachers were available at school to use the allocated time for
teaching and for other duties.
However, it should be noted that, provision of tea break and lunch did not
happen in all schools. This meant that some teachers catered for their food by going
out of school during lunch. The teachers found it challenging as hotels were not
available to buy food due to the remote location of some schools from communities.
The participating teachers said that some stayed in school hungry and others opted to
travel to their homes for lunch and often returned to school late. The situation
encroached on instructional time as teachers return late and delay the commencement
of the afternoon lessons, hence affecting the coverage of the syllabus.
The study established that in some schools, teachers were motivated to do
their duties from extra remedial earning. That was pointed out by 60.6% of the
teachers who agreed that extra teaching allowances, paid by the school, motivated
them to teach the pupils. It encouraged them to extend more hours at school teaching
and doing remedial lessons. Teachers who benefited from extra-teaching allowance
were extremely happy and appreciative that it helped them to settle some of their
needs. However, paid extra-teaching, though widely practiced, is illegal; it raises the
cost of education to parents or guardians. It may also trigger laxity on the part of the
teachers not to cover the syllabus on time so that they do extra coaching for payment.
155
In general, the findings give an impression that teachers’ job performance was
negatively affected by unsatisfactory teachers’ remuneration.
Remuneration, especially in monetary terms, had been addressed by Herzberg,
categorising it as a hygiene factor and therefore a dissatisfier, which cannot motivate;
and when used to achieve this goal, could only produce negative effects in the long
run (Okumbe, 2013). However, this view finds relevance only in developed countries,
which have transcended their basic needs. In developing countries, and especially in
Africa, where most people have not yet satisfied their basic needs, Herzberg’s
dissatisfiers may turn into motivators. This is supported by Bennell and Akyeampong
(2007), who found out that, dissatisfiers were likely to be dominant among motivating
factors. The latter authors based their views on the broad consensus among
occupational psychologists, in reference to countries, where pay and other motives
were too low for individual and household survival needs. In this regard, Maslow’s
needs-hierarchy theory becomes relevant to the African situation. The needs-hierarchy
theory states that, the extent that the lower needs become satisfied, the next higher-
order level of needs becomes the most prominent determinant of behaviour (Okumbe,
2013).
In the teaching profession, without satisfying teachers’ basic needs, motivators
such as the urge for professional growth, may not necessarily influence teachers’ job
performance. For instance, in the questionnaires, teachers were asked to comment on
how they felt about their remuneration, and their responses were diverse. Most
teachers, that is, 85.5% of the participating teachers, expressed that their salary was
inadequate compared to the efforts and time they put in teaching, in that it cannot
even offset many of their basic needs. Teachers indicated that there was no transport
allowance as confirmed by 82.4% of the teachers. That meant that teachers who come
156
from far always have to walk a long distance. That may cause some teachers arriving
late for teaching and also becoming demotivated in their teaching profession.
Further still, 55.7% of the teachers expressed their dissatisfaction with the
level of remuneration. That cannot be taken lightly as most teachers depend solely on
what they earn from school to look after their family needs such as school fees for
their children, apart from other expenses. A dissatisfied teacher cannot devote his or
her total efforts and time on teaching with good results.
As stated before, the salary that teachers receive was termed as a
“consolidated” salary, which meant that it was inclusive of all costs transport, medical
bills, meeting family needs among others. That left teachers in debts as they tried to
meet their basic needs and those of their families. However, during focus group
discussions, class teachers appreciated that the salary comes on time, although they
spend it all and still remain in debts. Teachers did not only get low remuneration but
the meagre salary was subjected to heavy mandatory taxes such as “Pay As You
Earn” (PAYE), local service tax, subscription to Uganda national teachers union
(UNATU), and bank charges. During Focus Group Discussions, teachers lamented on
spending all salary income and still remain in debts. One teacher remarked,
we always have debts to shop owners who lend us food items on credit, loans
borrowed from banks to cater for family needs. While we are in class, we have
stress when one thinks of these loans and other debts, then there is less
concentration on class work as one is demotivated (Class teachers, FGD,
March 29, 2017).
Another teacher remarked that, “money is not enough to meet even our basic
needs. We just teach because we have a parental heart, otherwise we would be doing
something else at home” (Class teachers, FGD, April 3, 2017).
157
The District Inspector of Schools concurred with the teachers’ dissatisfaction
of their remuneration but brought another issue. His main concern was about the wide
monthly salary range earning of the class teacher and the head teacher, yet both work
hard together, when he said:
Looking at the salary and performance, the salary may not be too little, and it
is not much. But the challenge I am seeing is the salary gap because you find a
classroom teacher is getting 460,000Ush and a head teacher 900,000Ush,
which is a big range. I would suggest that the government bridges this gap.
Also in the secondary schools, for example, the secondary school teacher who
is U5, is getting 470,000Ush monthly salary whereas a head teacher who is in
U1E is getting 1,600,000Ush. The gap is too big, yet these teachers help head
teachers. (DIS, Interview, April 12, 2017).
These findings are in line with what Education International (2007) reported in
its survey study in six sub-Saharan African countries that teachers’ salaries were low,
and indicated estimated gross salary for teachers in Uganda at US$ 115 as indicated in
Table 3, which was equivalent to 402,500Ush. This information implies that since
2007, teachers’ salary in Uganda has only increased by 57,500Ush, equivalent of
US$16. This has demotivated teachers in their teaching profession and also affected
negatively their job performance.
The alarming range of the salary between teachers and head teachers
demotivated the teachers as they complained of being overloaded with teaching than
the head teacher who did mostly administrative work. It also triggered teachers’ non-
punctuality to school; they first attend to other income generating projects, such as
horticulture and shop keeping at home before reporting for school duties. That
reduced the time of teacher’s availability in class, hence affecting completion of
158
syllabus, and the teaching and learning activities. The findings are in agreement with
those of ILO (2015), which reported of disparity of salaries quite pronounced within
developing countries in Africa according to teacher category and qualification.
The District inspector of schools, however, attributed alarming salary gap
between teachers and head teachers to the slow implementation of the “Teachers’
Scheme of Service” policy, which provides for promotional ladders, with salary
increment. Implementation of the policy would imply a variation in teachers’ salaries,
depending on a teacher’s position along the ladders of promotion. And this would
motivate teachers to work hard, in order to be promoted and earn a higher salary.
The District Inspector of Schools and District Education Officer confirmed
what the teachers called “consolidated salary” as entailing teacher’s accommodation,
water, electricity and other utilities that one would require. Teachers expressed their
dissatisfaction with the “consolidated salary”. The District Education Officer partly
concurred with teachers’ views although he expressed that;
Teachers agitate that they get little money but the government has improved
their salary. Although remuneration is not yet so good, it is better than what it
was previously. Of course, it is not enough compared to their requirements in
life. So, teachers should appreciate their current salary (DEO, Interview, April
23, 2017).
All participating class teachers during the Focus Group Discussions did agree
that, despite of their dissatisfaction with their level of remuneration, teachers were
making efforts to go to school to teach. There were rare cases of absenteeism. The
finding deviated from that of ILO (2015), on rural teachers in Africa, which reported
that, where salaries in poor countries do not achieve even the basic household poverty
line, there is teacher absenteeism and teacher recruitment difficulties.
159
Class teachers’ views concurred with the report by the District Inspector of
Schools who expressed that absenteeism was not so alarming partly because, when a
teacher absents himself or herself often, he or she is considered an absconder. Then a
report is written by the head teacher and submitted to the Chief Administrative
Officer for disciplinary action. The consequences are serious in that it may either lead
to the suspension of the concerned teacher’s salary or dismissal from the teaching
service.
The findings about teacher remuneration confirm one of the tenets of
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory, which states that salary was a dissatisfier but not a
motivator (Pardee, 1990), thus providing teachers with contentment. However much
motivated teachers may be, they cannot teach effectively when hungry. These
findings corroborated with that of Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011) who reported that
teachers in many countries in Africa were working in challenging conditions that are
aggravated by poor remuneration, among others. To improve teachers’ levels of
remuneration, participants suggested increment of their salary, provision of medical
allowance besides the official salary, provision of bursaries for teachers’ children and
the government to provide soft loans for teachers.
4.5.1 Testing of Null Hypothesis Two
Ho2. There is no significant difference in teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent
remuneration enhances teacher’ job performance when categorized by professional
qualification levels.
One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis due to its
multiplicity of more than two means. The results obtained as summarised in Tables
15, 16 and 17.
160
Table 15
Mean Scores Rating the Extent Remuneration enhances Job Performance of
Teachers Categorised by Professional Qualification Levels
n = 165
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Professional
Qualificatio-n
Levels
N Mean Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Minimum Maximum
Grade III 117 2.7625 .60153 .05561 2.6523 2.8726 1.13 4.13
Grade V
39 2.8996 .52893 .08470 2.7281 3.0710 1.21 4.13
Graduate 3 2.2639 1.06420 .61442 -.3797 4.9075 1.17 3.29
None 6 2.4583 .90523 .36956 1.5084 3.4083 1.00 3.63
Total 165 2.7747 .60975 .04747 2.6810 2.8685 1.00 4.13
Table 15 shows that, professional qualification levels for teachers, in the public
primary schools, have relatively diverse mean scores when rating the influence of
remuneration on teachers’ job performance. For instance, Grade III teachers’ rating
mean score was 2.76 and that of Grade V was 2.90. The graduate teachers’ rating
mean score was 2.26. To determine whether the rating mean scores were significant,
One-Way ANOVA Test was carried out. The results are contained in Table 16.
Table 16
One-way ANOVA Based on Teachers’ Professional Qualification Levels
n = 165
Remuneration
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups
2.009 3 .670 1.828 .144
Within Groups 58.966 161 .366
Total 60.975 164
161
Results in Table 16 indicate a -value of 0.14, which is greater than the alpha
value of 0.05. Therefore, the study fails to reject the null hypothesis. Hence, the study
concludes that there are no significant mean differences of teachers’ remuneration and
their job performance categorised by their professional qualification levels. This
implies that teachers’ rating on teachers’ performance based on their remuneration is
not influenced by their professional qualification levels. These findings concurred
with the report of Fehintola (2014) who indicated that, among other factors, teachers’
professional qualification levels were not potent predictors of academic performance
among secondary school students in Saki-west local government area of Oyo State in
Nigeria.
Table 17
Post Hoc Tests
n = 165
Multiple
Comparisons
Dependent
Variable:
Remuneration
Bonferroni
(I) Highest level of
professional
qualification
(J) Highest
level of
professional
qualification
Mean
Difference (I-
J)
Std. Error Sig. 95%
Confidence
Interval
Lower
Bound
Lower
Bound
Grade III Grade V -.13711 .11190 1.000 -.4360 .1618
Graduate .49858 .35386 .965 -.4467 1.4438
None .30413 .25332 1.000 -.3726 .9808
Grade V Grade III .13711 .11190 1.000 -.1618 .4360
Graduate .63568 .36259 .489 -.3329 1.6043
None .44124 .26539 .590 -.2677 1.1502
Graduate Grade III -.49858 .35386 .965 -1.4438 .4467
Grade V -.63568 .36259 .489 -1.6043 .3329
None -.19444 .42793 1.000 -1.3376 .9487
None Grade III -.30413 .25332 1.000 -.9808 .3726
Grade V -.44124 .26539 .590 -1.1502 .2677
Graduate .19444 .42793 1.000 -.9487 1.3376
162
Results in Table 17 show multiple comparisons of different professional qualification
levels with diverse mean scores. That is, Grade III with mean score of 2.76, Grade V
with mean score 2.89, Graduate with mean score 2.26 and None with mean score
2.46.
4.6 Influence of Instructional Supervision on Job Performance
Instructional supervision, as opposed to general supervision, aims at assisting
teachers to improve their teaching effectiveness. It is concerned with the overseeing
and guiding the teaching and learning process in schools. Thus, instructional
supervision is concerned with pupils’ learning in the classroom (Okumbe, 2013). The
study sought to find out how DIS and head teachers carried out their external and
internal supervision respectively, and the effect it had on teachers’ performance of
their duties, to ascertain formulation and implementation of schemes of work and
lesson plans by teachers, delivery of content, giving feedback to teachers, among
others.
Teachers in rural public primary schools were asked to respond to statements
intended to describe the status of supervision in rural public primary schools.
Supervision was defined in terms of head teachers’ supervision and DIS supervision.
Then Likert-items were developed in relation to the defined supervision and rated
using the scale: Strongly Agree (5); Agree (4); Undecided (3); Disagree (2); and
Strongly disagree (1) such that 5 was the highest score and 1 the lowest score. The
results are summarised and presented in Table 18.
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Table 18
Distribution of Teachers’ Responses on the Influence of Instructional Supervision
on Job Performance
n = 165
Statement SA
f (%)
A
f (%)
U
f (%)
D
f (%)
SD
f (%)
The head teacher supervises teachers on duty to see
how activities are going on at school
66(40.0)
96(58.2)
1(0.6)
1(0.6)
1(0.6)
The head teacher supervises actual teaching in
class
54(32.7)
102(61.8)
3(1.8)
5(3.0)
1(0.6)
The head teacher checks whether teachers have
schemes of work
76(46.1)
87(52.7)
2(1.2)
-
-
The head teacher checks whether teachers have
lesson plans
64(38.8)
99(60.0)
2(1.2)
-
-
Head teacher checks teachers' records of work 38(23.0) 106(64.2) 13(7.9) 6(3.6) 2(1.2)
The head teacher is friendly to teachers whenever
he/she conducts supervision
46(27.9)
95(57.6)
11(6.7)
11(6.7)
2(1.2)
District inspectors of schools visit our school for
supervision regularly
34(20.6)
115(69.7)
7(4.2)
8(4.8)
1(0.6)
District inspectors of schools hold meetings with
teachers to discuss about issues from their
supervision
27(16.4)
102(61.8)
12(7.3)
19(11.5)
5(3.0)
Supervision helps me to complete the syllabus
effectively
26(15.8)
115(69.7)
5(3.0)
14(8.5)
5(3.0)
Supervision helps me to teach my class effectively
28(17.0)
110(66.7)
9(5.5)
15(9.1)
3(1.8)
Supervision encourages me to give exercises to
pupils
28(17.0)
100(60.6)
6(3.6)
24(14.5)
7(4.2)
Supervision influences me to avoid absenteeism
from school
37(22.4)
85(51.5)
7(4.2)
29(17.6)
7(4.2)
Feedback from supervision helps me to teach my
lessons effectively
34(20.6)
111(67.3)
11(6.7)
8(4.8)
1(0.6)
Supervision helps me to manage pupils’ discipline 22(13.3) 92(55.8) 13(7.9) 27(16.4) 11(6.7)
164
The findings as shown in Table 18, indicate that overwhelming majority of the
teachers either strongly agreed and or agreed that supervision by head teachers and
district inspectors of schools had effective influence on teachers’ job performance.
This was confirmed by 98.8% of the participants who stated that head teachers
checked whether teachers made appropriate schemes of work and lesson plans. This
finding concurred with that of the participating head teachers during interviews. They
mentioned of supervising teachers principally twice in a term, documented the
supervision report called Assessment Form and submitted it to the District Inspector
of Schools twice a term. But in reality, the head teachers explained that they do
internal supervision almost on a daily basis. These findings indicate that supervision
played a key role in keeping the teachers updated in terms of good preparations and
also consolidating information related to lesson content. This finding concurred with
the report by Wabuko (2016) who attributed 67.6% of the teachers’ job performance
on head teachers’ classroom observation and checking teachers’ professional records,
among others.
Further still, 98.2% of the participating teachers agreed that head teachers
supervised teachers on duty to see how they managed pupils’ discipline, their
punctuality in classes and participation in co-curricular activities like, athletics and
games among others. These findings concurred with the report of Kweku and Boaffoe
(2018) in Ghana who revealed that head teachers often checked on the punctuality and
regularity of teachers, teachers’ records of work, lesson observation among other
instructional supervisory practices.
Another 94.5% of the participating teachers agreed that head teachers visited
classrooms to confirm the presence of teachers, to see how teachers delivered lesson
content, the methods used and the participation of pupils. This internal instructional
165
supervision encouraged teachers to prepare adequate content, to go to class on time
and to focus pupils on key learning activities. That enhanced the completion of the
syllabus. Teachers ensured that pupils participated actively in class, hence making
teaching and learning process effective. These findings imply that teachers did not
stop only at preparing schemes of work and lesson plans, but ensured their
actualization in class teaching and learning activities. These findings were in
disagreement with the report by Buregeya (2011) who revealed that teachers in
secondary schools in Entebbe Municipality, Uganda had confessed of not having
experienced instructional supervision by head teachers for decades.
External instructional supervision was done by the District Inspector of
Schools to supplement the internal supervision by the head teachers in order to
enhance effectiveness of teaching and learning activities in the classroom. External
instructional supervision was acknowledged by 90.3% of the participating teachers,
who said that the District Inspector of Schools visited their schools regularly. Among
the key areas checked were teachers’ preparation in terms of schemes of work, lesson
plans and visited classrooms to see actual delivery of content. This finding concurred
with the report of the participating class teachers who, during Focus Group
Discussions, expressed that the District Inspector of Schools supervised their schools
twice a term.
Teachers found both internal and external supervision beneficial as it enabled
them improve their job performance. For instance, 88.5% of the participants
confirmed that the external instructional supervision kept them alert in updating
schemes of work to reflect all the themes and sub-themes within the syllabus.
Teachers also were encouraged to submit the schemes of work to the head teacher’s
office at the beginning of every term. The participants acknowledged that after
166
external supervision, the District Inspector of Schools held talks with them, pointed
out areas of weakness, corrected the identified mistakes and provided advisory
feedback to individual teachers. The entire supervision exercise guided the teachers
not to deviate from the recommended syllabus and to ensure that all topics are
covered in detail. The finding concurred with 87.9% of the participants, who agreed
that feedback from both external and internal supervision enabled them to teach their
lessons effectively, drawn from the schemes of work, by adopting supervisors’
recommendations and remarks. To enhance learning, the supervisors encouraged all
teachers to select and use the teachers’ guide which is in line with supplied textbooks.
Teachers who adhered to the supervisors’ feedback improved their teaching as the
guide enabled them to select the appropriate teaching and learning activities for a
given topic. This supervision ensured combined efforts of both the head teachers and
district inspectors of schools to ascertain teachers’ preparedness to deliver the right
syllabus content in class, hence improved teachers’ job performance. Furthermore,
the feedback after supervision ensured that teachers were active and took part in the
supervision process as they were given space and time to air out their views and ask
questions on teaching and learning activities. These findings deviated from the reports
of Adewale, Adeleke, Toyin, and Odusogaet (2014) in Nigeria, who found out that
most rural schools were less visited by supervisors.
An effective teacher must be a good planner and commence lessons on time.
Explanations to pupils must be clear and related to the syllabus content. An effective
teacher must incorporate a variety of teaching and learning activities to cater for
pupil’s interests and adjust lessons accordingly where appropriate. In this way, a good
teacher constantly checks the understanding of the pupils before proceeding to the
next concept of the lesson.
167
The findings further revealed that 85.5% of the participants perceived head
teachers and District Inspector of Schools as friendly during supervision. The finding
reveals that teachers have a free atmosphere during supervision and are free to share
with the head teachers and District Inspector of schools the challenges which limit
them to teaching effectively. That implies that, teachers can easily seek solutions from
their supervisors in order to overcome their limitations.
Likewise, 85.5% of the participating teachers stated that both internal and
external instructional supervision motivated them to complete the syllabus. That is an
indicator that supervision has a positive influence on teachers’ job performance. That
implies that, teachers are encouraged to teach the recommended content and complete
it in time and that pupils gain the knowledge and skills expected at their level.
Equally important, majority of 83.7% of the participating teachers
acknowledged having benefited from supervision to teach their class effectively. That
owes to the fact that, teachers always remain alert as head teachers make abrupt class
visits. Teachers try always to be prepared and to teach following the recommended
syllabus and lesson plans meant for each day. These findings contradicted the report
by Malunda, et al (2016), who found out that authorities inadequately carried out
instructional supervision and this left many teachers to use ineffective pedagogical
practices in public secondary schools in Uganda.
Furthermore, 78.2% of the participating teachers confirmed that supervision
influenced them to keep records of work regularly. By checking on teachers’ records
and pupils, the District Inspector of Schools and head teachers enabled teachers to be
alert to keep updated information. Effective record keeping ensured accountability to
the learners, parents as well as the Ministry of Education and Sports as it shows the
progress and development of the learner. These findings concurred with those of
168
Ikegbusi and Eziamaka (2016) in Nigeria who found out that external supervision of
instruction kept teachers alert and orderly in their work behaviours and took active
part in seeking solutions to instructional problems, hence improving their
performance.
The study revealed that, 77.6% of the participating teachers indicated that
supervision encouraged them to give exercises to pupils. Teachers felt encouraged to
adopt a more active approach to teaching and to encourage classroom interaction.
They provided varied learning activities where learners work either in groups to
discuss issues and share ideas or alone in doing assignments while the teachers move
round to monitor their progress as well as assisting low achievers. Teachers kept mark
books and progress records as important means of proving feedback to the pupils and
parents on the overall academic progress. They also identified areas where learners
experience difficulty for teachers to take a corrective action by providing remedial
work. The participating teachers noted that record keeping enabled them to take
responsibility of their teaching duties, and involve parents in discussing their
children’s learning progress. In this regard, supervision effectively motivated teachers
by holding them accountable to keeping their work updated and conducting class
teaching as expected of them, hence effective teacher performance.
The findings showed that teachers benefited from both internal and external
supervision as it influenced their job performance. For instance, majority avoided
absenteeism as pointed out by 73.9% of the participating teachers. Absenteeism leads
to instructional time wastage and leads to either non-completion of the syllabus or
superficial coverage of the content. Thus, supervision enabled teachers to improve
their school attendance, to start and end their lessons on time.
169
However, school attendance per se cannot guarantee teachers’ performance as
mediocre teachers may be present at school but not teaching. Another finding
revealed that 69.1% of the participating teachers indicated that supervision helped
them to manage pupils’ discipline. Nevertheless, given the fact that some schools
have high pupil enrolment, it may be difficult for teachers to effectively manage
pupils’ discipline, however much teachers would be willing to do their duty.
When teachers were asked to mention the aspects that head teachers and
District Inspector of Schools considered during supervision, the participating teachers
mentioned schemes of work, lesson plans, class environment, class register,
assessment sheets or pupils’ exercise books, records of work covered, and content
delivery in actual teaching. Participating teachers further mentioned aspects such as
methods used in teaching, time management, syllabus coverage, use of instructional
materials, attendance of teachers, and sanitation among others.
The participating teachers appreciated that internal supervision by head
teachers improved their record keeping of class registers. They took their
responsibility seriously by checking pupils’ attendance in the morning before starting
the lessons and after lunch. This remarkably reduced the learners’ truancy and
absenteeism from school. On the other hand, the DIS as an external supervisor
identified the individual teacher’s weak points during actual lesson observation. For
instance, some teachers asked pupils to put down points from blackboards or from
books without clear explanation, which is unprofessional practice. Good teachers try
to understand the subject in order to teach the learners to understand it. The DIS
advised the concerned teachers to improve their quality of teaching by explaining the
concept using simple language that learners can understand and illustrating concepts
using relevant familiar examples.
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Most teachers acknowledged reporting early to school and improvement in
teachers-pupil relationships. Further improvement in teachers’ performance, accruing
from supervision, was seen in enhanced use of teaching aids in class, teachers’
increased self-confidence and regular assessment of pupils in giving classroom
exercises and homework.
Participating teachers contended that supervision by both head teachers and
District Inspectors of Schools was to a large extend helpful to them as they found it
supportive with the feedback. It is important to note that not all teachers found both
internal and external supervision helpful. Some among participating class teachers
during Focus Group Discussions lamented that at times either the head teacher and or
DIS do not listen to their views; and seldom this would result into the dismissal of a
teacher. But teachers were reluctant to reveal cases that would see one of their own
dismissed from the job. This meant some teachers found supervision harsh, negatively
judgmental which did not help the teacher to improve. This finding concurred with
that of Sharma, Yusoff, and Baba (2011) who found out that majority of the teachers
in India, Malaysia and Thailand viewed supervision as punitive.
Participating head teachers were unanimously satisfied that the mode of
supervision had effective influence on teachers’ performance. This implied that head
teachers conducted supervision, with knowledge and skills, to address the needs of the
individual teacher and school. In addition, the District Education Officer confirmed
during interviews that every head teacher is officially required to carry out
supervision of teachers in class and outside class twice a term, so as to provide a
documented report for the office of the District Education Officer. That acted as a
mechanism to keep teachers alert in their preparations for teaching and learning
activities even when the District Inspector of Schools was not around or did not visit
171
the schools for some time due to other reasons. The findings about supervision did not
agree with the report by Glanz, Shulman and Sullivan (2007) who carried out a survey
study in the USA on instructional supervision and found out that often principals
delegated the supervision work to other people who were neither trained nor had
authority to do so.
With regard to the frequency of supervision, the District Inspector of Schools
confirmed what participating teachers had reported by disclosing that every inspector
of schools principally should supervise each individual school at least once a term.
However, effective supervision was negated by inadequate facilitation in terms of
funds and transport. The funds meant for supervision are sent quarterly, but Ministry
of Education and Sports delays to disburse the funds on time, hence inspectors are not
able to visit schools to give needed advice and support to teachers. The District
Inspector of Schools pointed out that means of transport posed a great challenge in the
supervision. The available means of transport, which is usually a motorcycle, District
Inspector of Schools reported, often has mechanical problems.
At other times, the District Inspector of Schools is forced to hire a Bodaboda,
that is, a Motorcycle in order to reach the schools. These difficulties create situations
that compromise effective supervision of schools and teachers. This would imply that
some schools would not be visited for some time in case the District Inspector of
Schools lacked funds and did not have means of transport. These findings concurred
with those of Chika (2015) who found that instructional supervision and quality
assurance had failed in schools in Nigeria due to lack of funds, poor transport and
infrastructural facilities, among others.
In order to improve both external and internal instructional supervision for
effective teachers’ performance, participating teachers suggested that supervisors
172
should always be friendly and give feedback to teachers after the supervision session.
Participants further suggested that supervisors should give demonstration lessons in
classrooms, and also motivate teachers who excel in performance.
4.7 Influence of Working Conditions on Job Performance
Teachers in rural public primary schools were asked to react to statements
intended to describe the status of working conditions in rural public primary schools,
in order to determine how the conditions influenced teachers’ performance. Working
conditions were defined in terms of classrooms, blackboards, workload, staffroom,
furniture in classrooms, textbooks, reference materials for teachers, and staff houses.
Then Likert-items were developed in relation to the defined working conditions and
rated using the scale: Strongly Agree (5); Agree (4); Undecided (3); Disagree (2); and
Strongly disagree (1), such that 5 was the highest score and 1 the lowest score. The
results are summarised and presented in Table 19.
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Table 19
Distribution of Teachers’ Responses on the Influence of Working Conditions on
Job Performance
n = 165
Statement SA
f (%)
A
f (%)
U
f (%)
D
f (%)
SD
f (%)
Uncrowded classroom enables me to
manage pupils’ discipline
45(27.3)
77(46.7)
6(3.6)
10(6.1)
27(16.4)
As classrooms are not over-crowded, I
give timely feedback to pupils
38(23.0)
84(50.9)
5(3.0)
19(11.5)
19(11.5)
Provision of blackboards in class
enables me to teach my lessons well
46(27.9)
102(61.8)
2(1.2)
6(3.6)
9(5.5)
Provision of blackboards enables me
to complete the syllabus
27(16.4)
67(40.6)
18(10.9)
38(23.0)
15(9.1)
Provision of staffroom enables me to
do schemes of work
17(10.3)
61(37.0)
13(7.9)
41(24.8)
33(20.0)
Provision of staffroom helps me to do
lesson planning
17(10.3)
62(37.6)
12(7.3)
47(28.5)
27(16.4)
Provision of staffroom helps me to
mark pupils’ work and give feedback
in time
20(12.1)
64(38.8)
12(7.3)
42(25.5)
27(16.4)
Provision of benches in classrooms
helps me to manage pupils’ discipline
26(15.8)
84(50.9)
9(5.5)
27(16.4)
19(11.5)
Provision of textbooks for pupils helps
to teach the pupils effectively
32(19.4)
83(50.3)
14(8.5)
24(14.5)
12(7.3)
Provision of textbooks helps me to
give exercises to pupils
26(15.8)
91(55.2)
13(7.9)
25(15.2)
10(6.1)
Provision of teachers’ reference
materials helps me to prepare well
schemes of work
35(21.2)
107(64.8)
6(3.6)
11(6.7)
6(3.6)
Provision of teachers’ reference
materials enables me to do lesson
planning effectively
32(19.4)
103(62.4)
9(5.5)
16(9.7)
5(3.0)
Provision of teachers’ housing helps
me to do schemes of work
26(15.8)
54(32.7)
11(6.7)
35(21.2)
39(23.6)
Provision of teachers’ housing enables
me do lesson planning
23(13.9)
56(33.9)
11(6.7)
39(23.6)
36(21.8)
Provision of teachers’ housing enables
me to manage pupils’ discipline
12(7.3)
56(33.9)
16(9.7)
48(29.1)
33(20.0)
Provision of teachers’ houses helps me
to provide feedback to pupils timely
11(6.7)
61(37.0)
17(10.3)
43(26.1)
33(20.0)
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The results in Table 19 show that majority of the teachers either strongly
agreed and or agreed that working conditions at school do effectively influence their
job performance. This was confirmed by 89.7% of the participating teachers who
revealed that provision of blackboards in classrooms enabled them to teach their
lessons effectively. Teachers found blackboards handy in serving all pupils in class
since text books were not enough for each pupil to have a copy. Blackboards facilitate
effective learning since pupils can access and use them, especially in practicing
mathematics exercises and any other subject. This finding concurred with the report
of Atiya and Palwasha (2013) in India who revealed that teacher performance was
better in private schools than in their counter parts due to provision of enough
teaching and learning materials in the classrooms. This was encouraging finding that
all schools visited during the study, had blackboards which facilitated effective
teaching and learning processes.
Another 86.0% of the teachers indicated that provision of teachers’ reference
materials enabled them to prepare well schemes of work. This meant that teachers had
resources to use with guidelines to prepare schemes of work and lesson plans as
required, reflecting the actual content of the recommended syllabus. Availability of
reference materials made it easy and favourable for teachers to prepare themselves
well for effective teaching and learning activities, hence ensuring teachers’
satisfaction. The finding resonated well with another 81.8% of the teachers who
confirmed that, with provision of reference materials, they were able to prepare their
lesson plans effectively. These findings were in disagreement with the report by Falla
(2013) who observed that globally most teachers expressed their dissatisfaction for
inadequate teaching resources, teacher reference books included.
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In addition, 71.0% of the participating teachers agreed that the provision of
textbooks for pupils facilitated them to give exercises to pupils often. That was
observed in the lower classes, that is, primary one, two and three which had adequate
textbooks donated by the World Bank. However, for upper classes, textbooks
remained a big challenge for teachers as well as pupils. Although in most schools,
pupils’ text books were inadequate, teachers ensured the available ones were utilized
well by giving group work assignments. That encouraged learners to discuss, share
ideas and that enhanced their understanding of the concepts.
There were other schools where both teachers’ reference materials and pupils’
textbooks lacked or were inadequate. That made it difficult for teachers to teach
effectively and pupils to learn effectively. Nevertheless, these findings were in
agreement with Herzberg’s two-factor theory about hygiene factors as dissatisfiers,
which provide contentment and prevent dissatisfaction among employees.
In addition, 74% of the participating teachers intimated that, they found
uncrowded classrooms favourable for managing pupils’ discipline. Teachers can
easily reach pupils in a class that is not overcrowded and are able to pay attention to
an individual pupil for effective learning. Giving exercises also becomes easy in
uncrowded class and the teacher can mark and give feedback to pupils timely. These
findings concurred with the report of Amin (2015) in Indonesia who revealed that
working conditions, specifically pleasant working environment, favoured
improvement in teachers’ job performance.
The findings also revealed that 73.9% of the participants were encouraged by
uncrowded classes to assess the pupils effectively and give feedback timely. That was
only possible in some schools that had a proportional number of pupils and enough
classroom space to accommodate them. It should however be noted that not all
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teachers found assessing pupils easily nor marking pupils’ exercises easily as the
pupil-teacher ratio was high in some schools. The situation changes when classes are
overcrowded. For example, the researcher observed that some schools had over 60
pupils in a single classroom under one teacher. This finding was in agreement with
the report by Adelabu (2005), in Nigeria, who revealed that some schools were
overcrowded, and this affected negatively teacher job performance. For instance,
during Focus Group Discussions with class teachers, one teacher confessed that
I always feel happy whenever some pupils from my class are absent. Then I
have a manageable number of pupils, and giving class exercises and marking
them becomes easier. Otherwise, I often have over 90 pupils in my class and
this is not easy for me (Class teachers, FGD, March 29,2017).
This finding revealed that teaching an overcrowded class was not effective,
and that teaching and learning objectives would never be achieved as only a section of
pupils would benefit and the other left without proper learning. This was an indication
that some teachers were demotivated with overwhelming class sizes, hence heavy
workload for teachers.
Furthermore, the study results revealed that 66.0% of the participating teachers
did not agree that they had staff quarters at school. This meant that many teachers
were not enabled to participate in co-curricular activities as confirmed by 46.7% of
the teachers, which activities usually take place at the end of afternoon classes. Many
teachers would prefer to travel back home immediately as afternoon classes end since
they commute from far. These findings concurred with those of Atiya and Palwasha
(2013) in Pakistan who reported of teachers’ late coming due to lack of residential
facilities at school, which affected teachers’ levels of motivation and their job
performance. On the other hand, these findings deviated from the report by Jingdong,
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Najjuko and Ochwo (2017) who revealed that, teachers in the secondary schools
within Rubaga Division in Kampala, Uganda had well furnished and convenient
housing facilities and those who did not have, were given housing allowances. That
encouraged teachers to perform well in their assigned duties at school.
Another 56.4% of the participating teachers felt they were not helped to
provide feedback to pupils timely since they lacked accommodation at school. This
finding resonated with another 52.1% of the participating teachers who stated, due to
lack of staff quarters, they felt inconvenienced in preparing lesson plans. Teachers
only endeavour to do their plans while at school. When teachers are occupied with
other duties while at school, lesson plans are done hurriedly and that may compromise
the quality of these lesson plans. The teachers expressed that, as they get home, they
get occupied with other chores and family responsibilities, and find no time to do the
marking of pupils’ exercises. Some teachers prefer not to give class exercises
frequently due to lack of time. Also 51% of the teachers lamented lack of teachers’
accommodation at school which hindered them in the making of schemes of work.
Many teachers find difficulties in making their schemes of work amidst equally
important chores in the family home.
In the same way, 49.1% of the participating teachers confirmed that due to
lack of teachers’ housing they could not effectively manage pupils’ discipline during
co-curricular activities as they would be returning to their distant homes. These
findings agreed with the report by Education International (2007) that conducted a
survey study in six sub-Saharan African countries and found out that conditions of
service were poor and many schools did not have accommodation, or adequate
accommodation for teachers.
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However, the findings on staff quarters deviated from the views of the
participating class teachers from the two schools where Focus Group Discussions
were conducted. The participating class teachers revealed that staff quarters were
available. However, in one school, what was referred to as staff quarters was a semi-
permanent structure in a very poor condition. The staff quarters, as seen in Figure 5
and 6, and their bath-room in Figure 7 in Appendix H, reflect the alarming conditions
of teachers’ accommodation. The structure and its conditions could easily lower the
esteem of and respect for teachers. The structure has no windows, implying lack of
enough light in the rooms where teachers are expected to do their schemes of work
and lesson plans. In the same room, the teachers are expected to mark pupils’
homework and also prepare teaching aids. The teachers reported that they have no
source of light in the evening and at night apart from improvising with flashlight.
Such conditions show the extent to which working conditions can negatively affect
teachers’ job performance. These findings concur with that of Vermeulen (2013) in
the rural northern Uganda, who reported that, on rare cases when teachers’
accommodation is provided near the school, the quality of the house was abominable.
In another primary school, teachers’ accommodation, as portrayed in Figure
8, in Appendix H, is one of the rare staff houses found in Kitagwenda County. The
structure is ideally meant to accommodate only two teachers but instead it is occupied
by six teachers, and even some with their families. Such a situation of congested
teachers in one house or room would breed easily stress and develop conflicts among
teachers. Psychologically such stress and anger from conflicts would easily be
rechannelled to pupils in class, hence affecting negatively teachers’ performance.
Other class teachers, who did not find accommodation at school, rented nearby
the school while others commuted from their family homes. Most teachers found this
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situation of lacking decent staff houses or no accommodation at all very
inconveniencing in carrying out teaching and learning activities. Some teachers found
it a reason to absent themselves whenever it rained. This implied that some teachers
would not teach on that day. In addition, some teachers would come late and leave
school too early due to long distance between the school and their homes, which
reduced on the hours of teaching.
Information from Focus Group Discussions resonated with what head teachers
reported during interviews. Most participating head teachers expressed that few
schools had staff quarters, while most of the schools had none. This finding was
further clarified by the District Inspector of Schools who reported that the government
commits itself every financial year to grant staff quarters to only two schools in every
district. In Kitagwenda County alone, there are 67 public primary schools and yet
Kamwenge District has three counties. This implies that it will take decades for each
school in the district to have staff quarters.
These findings concur with the findings of Tanya (n.d.) in Pakistan, who
found out that late coming among teachers was caused by poor or no means of
transport at all, and lack of residential facilities for teachers at school. The findings
further concur with that of Vermeulen (2013) in northern Uganda, who reported that
many teachers were commuting across long distances between home and school, often
on foot and rarely on Bicycle, as most schools lacked accommodation for teachers.
Results in Table 19 further revealed that 56.3% of the participating teachers
disagreed that there was a staffroom at school. This finding concurred with 52.7% of
the teachers who lamented of the inconvenience caused by lack of staffroom in the
preparations of schemes of work. In addition, 44.9% of the teachers regretted having
no staffroom as they found it difficult to make and update their lesson plans. This
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finding was in line with the reports of participating class teachers during the FGDs
who concurred that there were no staffrooms in their schools. Teachers in these
schools simply improvised where they can seat when they are not in class teaching.
Often teachers are too congested in the rooms which they improvise as staffroom. One
teacher, in agreement with the other participating class teachers said,
At times a teacher wants to make a chart or teaching aid but there is nowhere
to do it from. One would want to make lesson plans but there is no conducive
place. You cannot imagine that it is also difficult to find a place where one can
mark pupils’ exercises at ease. Most classrooms are congested, the room we
improvise as staffroom is also congested because it serves also as a store, so
lack of a staffroom is a big problem (Class teachers, FGD, March 29, 2017).
These findings concurred with the reports of participating head teachers during
the interviews, who sympathised with their teachers. In addition, the District Inspector
of Schools categorically stated that there is no provision for staffrooms in the primary
schools. He further clarified that when the government is constructing classrooms,
and it adds an office for the head teacher, usually it adds a store. It is this store that is
improvised by teachers as a staffroom. It is in this situation where teachers have to
find a way of working on their schemes of work, lesson plans, teaching aids and
marking pupils’ exercises, amidst different items and tools kept in the store. At other
times, teachers are forced to use classrooms as an alternative to do their teaching
preparations but amidst noise and other inconveniences from pupils. Classrooms are
not ideal places where teachers can make teaching and learning aids, or even interact
with their fellow teachers given that classrooms themselves are congested with pupils.
This implies that teachers have limited opportunities to interact with each other on
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how to improve their teaching and learning activities, hence causing dissatisfaction
among teachers and negatively affecting their performance.
Participating teachers made an alarm about insufficiency of text books for
pupils. This was revealed in Table 19 by 52.1% of the teachers who disagreed that all
pupils in class can access text books. This was found to be a key hindrance to
effective teaching especially in upper classes where each pupil needs to have own
textbook copy for subjects like English and mathematics. This finding was further
confirmed by class teachers during Focus Group Discussions, who complained about
the lack of enough text books for pupils, although they appreciated that reference
books for teachers were sufficient. This was also in line with the report by head
teachers who conquered that teachers’ reference books were sufficient except text
books for pupils.
Clarifying on the availability of textbooks, the participating head teachers
revealed that text books for lower classes were relatively sufficient except for the
upper classes, that is, from primary four to primary seven. On average, each desk,
with five pupils, in upper classes got two text books while in lower classes, each child
accessed a text book. This was further confirmed in the interview with the District
Education Officer who stated that,
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Previously due to change of the curriculum, schools did not have adequate text
books, but now the government has provided most of the teaching and
learning materials, especially text books, especially for lower classes. The
situation is a little better today than before when teachers would look for
information from here and there or share one text book, but now they have a
good number of text books to give to pupils and references to use when they
are preparing schemes of work and lesson plans (DEO, Interviews, April 23,
2017).
The text book situation in primary schools has relatively improved partly
because, as the DIS intimated, the government of Uganda has patterned with World
Bank. The World Bank funds the program called “Uganda Teacher School Effective
Project”, and also supplies text books which match with the syllabus taught in the
schools. These findings however, deviated from the report by Uwezo (2016), which
indicated a major challenge of lack of textbooks, especially in P.2 classrooms
nationally, with no textbooks or just one copy for the teacher. The report found
national estimates for textbooks, in P.2 classrooms, only at 49.9% for local languages,
31.8% for Mathematics, and 23.5% for English. Nevertheless, the findings from this
study agreed with those of Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011) in Nigeria; and Vermeulen
(2013) in Uganda, who reported that teachers, in many countries in Africa and in
northern Uganda respectively, were working in challenging conditions with scarce
teaching and learning resources.
The study revealed a lack of enough classrooms to accommodate all pupils in
some schools which participated in the study. This situation was observed by the
researcher in one of the visited schools, where pupils were found attending classes
under a tree. This means that the effectiveness of the teaching and learning activities
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for both the teacher and the pupils would depend on the mercy of the weather
conditions. Otherwise, rains and winds would distract the teaching and learning
activities, hence compromising teacher’s performance. In addition, pupils may not
attend the lessons attentively due to unavoidable distraction from other activities
taking place in the surroundings. For example, when people are passing, animals
grazing, vehicles passing among others, pupils would not hesitate to take a look while
the lesson is taking place. These findings were similar to those of Ramachandra, Jain,
Shekar and Sharma (2005) in India, who reported that rural schools scored low on
working conditions, whereby some schools did not have functioning blackboards and
enrolled pupils lacked enough classrooms.
Lack of enough classrooms was also acknowledged by the participating class
teachers, who concurred that often pupils were congested in some classrooms and this
situation was also confirmed by the researcher during the visits to some schools. This
situation limits teacher’s movements to reach all the pupils in order to make a follow
up on how the pupils are progressing with given exercises. In addition, teachers find
it difficult to display teaching and learning aids to benefit all the pupils in class. The
few classrooms available, which are in permanent materials, were not completed well
as Figure 11 under Appendix H shows; while other classrooms were in semi-
permanent materials, as seen also in Figure 9 and 10 under Appendix H. These
classroom structures cannot withstand weather conditions like rains and winds during
teaching and learning activities. In addition, teachers cannot leave teaching aids in
such structures for pupils to interact with for deeper understanding, as the structures
cannot close to ensure security of the teaching aids and materials.
These findings concurred with the views of one head teacher, who remarked,
thus “primary four, which I teach, has 96 pupils, and they are too squeezed. I am
184
helped when some are absent, even then I try to give few numbers or little work as an
exercise, but also marking it takes long” (Head teacher, Interviews, March 30, 2017).
Normally such a class should be divided into two streams for effective teaching and
learning. This situation highlights the heavy workload on the shoulders of teachers in
class, which makes it difficult for teachers to give exercises and mark them in time,
hence hindering effective teaching and learning processes. The findings were
reinforced by what the DEO disclosed, stating that,
We still have cases where children seat and study under trees, they are not
many but they are there. And of course, teachers who work under such
conditions are demotivated, and their performance is negatively affected. Our
teachers are enduring a lot (DEO, Interviews, April 23, 2017).
The case of a high pupil-teacher ratio, in the primary schools visited, was
consistent with the report by Uwezo Uganda (2016), which indicated a national
average pupil-teacher ratio of 45.8%, which was worse than the ratio 40:1
recommended by government. The findings further confirmed those of the report by
ILO (2016) which revealed that in Uganda, facilities did not match pupil enrolment,
which led to overcrowded classrooms and high pupil-teacher ratios.
In regard to provision of furniture, class teachers during Focus Group Discussions
reported of an alarming situation for pupils in class. They reported of lower classes
(primary one to three) that 6 pupils shared a desk which normally should be shared by
only 3. In upper classes (primary four to seven), teachers reported that a desk was
shared by 5 pupils instead of only 3. Furthermore, some classrooms in some schools
did not have furniture for pupils at all. Several times, the researcher found some
pupils seated on the classroom floor and very congested while the lessons were going
on. Although some pupils in congested classrooms had textbooks, it can be difficult
185
for the teacher to move around reaching each individual pupil to check how they are
learning. More so, it can be difficult for the pupils to effectively use the few provided
textbooks as there is no place where to place the textbook, just holding it in hand and
close to one’s face due to overcrowding. These findings were also attested to by the
participating head teachers. These findings further concurred with the report of Kasule
(2015) who revealed that, at Kyambogo University, physical environment such as
lecture halls, office space and furniture hindered favourable job performance among
the lecturers.
In order to improve working conditions for better teachers’ performance,
participating teachers suggested increase of classroom structures fitted with windows
and doors. Adequate classrooms will reduce congestion; each pupil can sit
comfortably and concentrate to learning what is essential. There will be enough space
for teacher movement in class to reach every pupil to monitor their progress and
attend to their individual needs. Teachers further suggested the construction of staff
quarters and staffrooms furnished with cupboards for every school. This is likely to
enable teachers to reside within the school, minimise instructional time wastage,
absenteeism and lateness by commencing lessons on time. Increase of pupils’ text
books and other relevant reference materials will enable teachers to give pupils
homework in written exercises. It means pupils will be able to read on their own and
practice further what they have learnt in school, to internalize the information for
better understanding. Teachers will be motivated to guide all learners appropriately in
accordance to their individual learning needs. Furthermore, teachers do not have to
write the assignments and notes on the chalkboard as the pupils already have the text
books. Instead they guide the pupils to refer to particular exercises in their course
books. Teachers also recommended the involvement of parents in providing meals for
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teachers at school. This is likely to reduce the loss of instructional time wastage when
teachers travel far to look for lunch and often return late to start afternoon classes.
4.7.1 Testing of Null Hypothesis Three
Ho3. There is no significant difference in teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent
working conditions enhance teachers’ job performance when categorized by age. The
results obtained as summarised in Tables 20, 21 and 22.
Table 20
Mean scores Rating the Extent to which Working Conditions Enhance Job
Performance of Teachers Categorised by Age Group
n = 165
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Age
Group
N Mean Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Minimum Maximum
21-30 114 4.1711 .53497 .05010 4.0718 4.2703 2.61 5.28
31-40 34 4.2124 .54166 .09289 4.0234 4.4014 3.06 5.28
41-50 17 4.1144 .43322 .10507 3.8916 4.3371 2.94 4.67
Total 165 4.1737 .52462 .04084 4.0931 4.2544 2.61 5.28
Table 20 shows that all age groups, of the teachers in the public primary schools, have
relatively diverse mean scores. Therefore, the study sought to determine whether the
mean scores were statistically significant, One Way ANOVA was ran and the results
are presented in Table 21.
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Table 21
One-way ANOVA on Working Conditions at School
Working Conditions
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups .112 2 .056 .201 .818
Within Groups 45.025 162 .278
Total 45.137 164
Results in Table 21 indicate a -value of 0.82, which is greater than the alpha value of
0.05. Therefore, the study failed to reject the null hypothesis. Hence, the study
concludes that there is no significant difference between teachers’ mean scores in
rating the extent working conditions enhance teachers’ job performance when
categorized by age. This implies that teachers’ rating on their job performance based
on working conditions is not influenced by their age groups. This led to the Post hoc
tests, to determine -value for multiple comparisons. The results are contained in
Table 22.
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Table 22
Post Hoc Tests
n = 165
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: Working
Conditions
Bonferroni
(I) Age group (J) Age
group
Mean
Differenc
e (I-J)
Std. Error Sig. 95%
Confidenc
e Interval
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
21-30 31-40 -.04137 .10302 1.000 -.2906 .2078
41-50 .05667 .13707 1.000 -.2749 .3882
31-40 21-30 .04137 .10302 1.000 -.2078 .2906
41-50 .09804 .15660 1.000 -.2808 .4769
41-50 21-30 -.05667 .13707 1.000 -.3882 .2749
31-40 -.09804 .15660 1.000 -.4769 .2808
Information shown in Table 22 indicates that mean scores for different age groups are
relatively diverse. However, a -value of 0.82 was observed in Table 21, which is
greater than the alpha value of 0.05. This meant that the age-groups of the
participating teachers, as an intervening variable, did not have any influence teachers
rated their job performance with their level of motivation. These findings were in
agreement with the report of Osunsan, et al (2015) who indicated that there is no
significant relationship between age of owner and the performance of small business.
This contradicted the report of Kotur and Anbazhagan (2014) who indicated that age
had a direct effect on the performance of employees in the Chittoor sugar factory in
south India.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary of the whole work, conclusions drawn
from the findings, and contributions to knowledge. The chapter concludes by
highlighting recommendations. Recommendations are given according to what is
to be done, by who and how, following the ranks of educational stakeholders
including the ministry of education, district officers, foundation bodies, head
teachers, teachers and parents. Lastly, this study proposes areas for further
research.
5.2 Summary of the Findings
The research questions that guided this study included: What professional
development opportunities are available for enhancing teachers’ job performance in
rural public primary schools in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District, Western
Uganda? How does remunerations influence teachers’ job performance in rural public
primary schools? To what extent does supervision influence teachers’ job
performance in rural public primary schools? How do working conditions influence
teachers’ job performance in rural public primary schools?
The study was guided by the two-factor theory of Frederick Herzberg (1923 –
2000). The study adopted convergent parallel mixed methods design for data
collection and analysis (Creswell, 2014). The convergent parallel mixed methods
design used both cross-section survey and phenomenology designs for quantitative
and qualitative data respectively. Kitagwenda County in Kamwenge District, Western
Uganda was purposively selected for its remote location and poor school performance
190
in comparison to other areas of Uganda. Both probability and non-probability
sampling procedures were used to select study participants. A stratified random
sampling was used to select 20 public primary schools from different sub-counties
that comprise Kitagwenda County. Purposive sampling was used for the selection of
14 class teachers from the remaining 2 primary schools who participated in FGDs.
Data collection instruments included questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and focus
group discussions.
Before data was collected, permission was sought from the ministry of
education and sports, from the office of the DEO, head teachers and teachers. All
ethical concerns were adhered to throughout the entire process and period of data
collection, writing and presentation. These included obtaining a letter of introduction
from the University Registrar at The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, obtaining
permission from the MoES and from the office of the DEO, Kamwenge District. The
researcher introduced himself to the head teachers of the sampled schools and got
permission to access teachers. Unwritten consent was obtained from the head
teachers, teachers and class teachers before holding interviews and giving out
questionnaires. Participants’ confidentially was ensured by not mentioning peoples’ or
schools’ names. The information obtained has been used only for this academic
requirement.
Descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were used to
summarise quantitative data and presented in distribution tables and figures.
Inferential statistics such as Independent Sample T-test and ANOVA tested the
hypotheses. Qualitative data were analysed by identifying codes and analytical
concepts, and later presented into narratives, direct quotations and excerpts. Study
findings were presented according to research questions.
191
The study sought to find out how teachers’ professional development
opportunities influenced their job performance in public primary schools in
Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District in Western Uganda. The results revealed that
a number professional development opportunities were provided for teachers and
these included workshops, in-service training and seminars.
The professional development opportunities covered aspects that included
making schemes of work, lesson plan, co-curricular activities (athletics, ball games,
and music), health care, special education needs. In addition, teachers were trained in
guidance and counselling, early grade reading (EGRA), teacher-pupil relationships,
teaching methods and new assessment methods among others. Workshops and
seminars were more often and organised by the ministry of education and sports, in
comparison to in-service training which was rare and dependent on the individual
teacher’s initiative and self-sponsored.
Through professional development opportunities, teachers were updated in
knowledge and skills to manage pupil’s discipline both in and outside classroom, and
to know the importance of giving feedback to pupils in time. Furthermore, teachers
learnt how to keep records of work covered in class. Teachers were motivated to
prepare schemes of work, do lesson plans, and cover the syllabus. Therefore,
professional development opportunities motivated teachers to carry out their
respective duties effectively within and outside the classroom.
In order to make professional development opportunities more effective,
participants proposed that workshops and seminars be organized every term and
possibly attended by all teachers and with financial facilitation. Teachers further
suggested that workshops and seminars be organized also at sub-county levels so as to
attract more teachers and increase participation.
192
The first null hypothesis was rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis,
as the -value of 0.02 was found to be less than the alpha value of 0.05. The study,
therefore, concluded that there was a significant difference in the extent to which
professional development opportunities influenced teachers’ job performance based
on the gender of teachers. Male teachers posted a better performance, with the mean
score of 3.75, than female teachers with mean score of 3.54. Therefore, the study
concluded that, Herzberg’s theory could be enriched by considering personality traits
of individual employees, while dealing with their motivation and job performance.
Furthermore, the study sought to determine how remuneration influenced
teachers’ performance in public primary schools in Kitagwenda County. Data analysis
and interpretation of the perceptions of the participants revealed that remuneration,
offered by MoES, did not have a significant influence on teachers’ motivation to
perform better in their professional duties. Teachers are not provided with transport
allowance and yet most teachers have to travel long distances to reach their schools.
Furthermore, teachers are dissatisfied with the basic salary, which cannot cater for
most of their basic needs.
Teachers received a “consolidated salary” monthly, that is inclusive of all
costs such as transport, medical bills, feeding and accommodation expenses, among
others. The salary was also subjected to heavy taxation such as pay as you earn,
contribution to UNATU, and bank charges, among others. In addition, the study found
a remarkable alarming salary gap between what class teachers and head teachers
earned monthly. This situation left most teachers dissatisfied and demotivated in their
performance of the teaching duties.
Nevertheless, some participants acknowledged that, provision of break tea and
lunch, and extra-teaching allowance, contributed by PTA significantly encouraged
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teachers to be available at school, and to teach their lessons in class effectively. It also
encouraged teachers to report to school very early in the morning for extra-teaching
before the official time for classes and also to wait for extra-teaching in the evening
after official time for classes has ended. To improve teachers’ levels of remuneration
for effective job performance, participants suggested increment of teachers’ salary,
provision of medical allowance besides the basic salary, provision of bursaries for
teachers’ children, and the government to provide soft loans for teachers.
Inferential statistical analysis for the second null hypothesis, revealed a -
value of 0.14, which was found to be greater than the alpha value of 0.05. The study,
therefore, failed to reject the null hypothesis. The study concluded that, there was no
significant difference between teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent to which
remuneration enhanced teachers’ job performance by professional qualification levels.
In addition, the study looked at how external and internal instructional
supervision influenced teachers’ performance. Participants’ responses confirmed a
positive influence of supervision on teachers’ job performance in rural public primary
schools in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District. Instructional supervision created
an opportunity for teachers to remain alert and mindful of their duties. The
supervision was found to be frequent, supportive and motivating. Head teachers
checked regularly teachers’ schemes of work, and lesson plans. In addition, head
teachers supervised actual teaching in class.
Furthermore, DIS paid supervision visits to schools but not regularly due to
facilitation and transport challenges. However, head teachers supervised their
respective schools almost on a daily basis. Both external and internal instructional
supervision encouraged teachers to do schemes of work and lesson plans in time, to
teach their lessons effectively, to complete the syllabus, and to avoid unnecessary
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absenteeism. Therefore, supervision increased a sense of accountability among the
teachers. There was a general agreement among participants, about the effectiveness
of instructional supervision on teachers’ performance, and also a great level of
satisfaction.
In order to make instructional supervision influence teachers’ job performance
more effectively, participants suggested that supervisors should be always friendly to
the teachers, and that there should be regular feedback. Participants further suggested
that supervisors should occasionally give demonstration lessons, and also grant
rewards to motivate teachers who excel in performance.
The study sought to determine how working conditions in schools affected
teachers’ performance. Working conditions included availability of classrooms,
blackboards, provision of staffroom and staff quarters, textbooks and reference
materials. Participants acknowledged that to a large extent, working conditions
positively influenced teachers’ job performance. For instance, provision of reference
materials for teachers and textbooks for pupils guided teachers to prepare schemes of
work and lesson plans, and to teach lessons effectively.
Availability of classrooms in some schools and provision of desks and
benches for pupils enabled teachers to have class control, and manage discipline.
Furthermore, it enabled teachers to assess and give pupils feedback timely, hence
influencing teaching and learning activities effectively.
However, many participants indicated dissatisfaction with some working
conditions such as lack of staff quarters and staffrooms in most of the schools. Other
participants lamented about the lack of enough classrooms to accommodate enrolled
pupils. Therefore, many teachers rented for themselves houses in the neighbourhood
of the school or commuted from their family homes, a situation that encouraged late
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coming and sometimes absenteeism. This created the challenge of time management
for teachers and affected negatively teaching activities and completion of syllabus.
Lack of staffroom inconvenienced teachers in preparation of schemes of work,
lesson planning, making of teaching aids and marking pupils’ exercises. This caused
discontentment among teachers and retarded their effectiveness in carrying out their
duties.
In order to improve working conditions for better teachers’ job performance,
participants suggested that more class structures be constructed and fitted with
windows and doors. They further suggested that every school should get staff quarters
and staffrooms, the latter be furnished with cupboards. They called for an increase of
textbooks and reference materials, and involvement of parents especially in providing
meals for teachers.
Basing on the inferential statistical analysis for the third null hypothesis, -
value of 0.82 was found to be greater than the alpha value of 0.05. The study,
therefore, failed to reject the null hypothesis and concluded that there was no
significant difference between teachers’ mean scores in rating the extent working
conditions enhance teachers’ job performance when categorized by age. This implied
that teachers’ rating on their job performance based on working conditions was not
influenced by their age groups.
5.3 Conclusions
Teachers expressed their satisfaction with the provision of professional
development opportunities which updated them with knowledge and skills, and
enabled them to adapt to changes in the curriculum, and to teach the content
effectively.
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However, most participants wished to see workshops and seminars organised
more often, and for all teachers, with facilitation in terms of transport,
accommodation and feeding. Participants were satisfied with the scope of topics
covered during workshops and seminars, where teachers were trained in new methods
of teaching, setting standardised assessment tests and marking schemes, and updated
about changes in the curriculum, among others. In-service training, however, was not
embraced by many teachers, as individual teachers had to sponsor themselves, only
they would enjoy paid-leave.
There was great concern among participants about teachers’ remuneration.
There is dissatisfaction among teachers about the basic salary. The salary is
insufficient to enable them meet most of their basic and family needs. There is an
alarming salary gap between what teachers earned monthly and that of the head
teachers, that is, US$131 and US$257 respectively. Basic salary and other forms of
remunerations did not motivate teachers effectively as teachers’ “consolidated” salary
was meagre and yet inclusive of transport, accommodation, feeding, medical care and
variety of taxes, among others. This caused a lot of dissatisfaction among teachers and
also affected their level commitment in carrying out their duties.
Many teachers got involved in other income generating activities, like shop
keeping, which reduced their time of availability at school, hence affecting
completion of syllabus, among others. Other teachers accessed loans from SACCOs,
in order to meet some of their basic needs. This in turn increased, on the teachers,
financial stress, which reduced their concentration on school duties.
Participants appreciated the influence supervision had on teachers’ job
performance as it addressed their needs, although some schools did not receive the
supervision of the DIS often. Teachers felt committed in class and in carrying out
197
their duties as supervision held them accountable. Participants acknowledged that
head teachers and DIS were often friendly and helpful during supervision sessions.
This encouraged teachers to ensure that they had schemes of work and lesson plans,
assessed pupils in class and marked their work and also covered the syllabus.
Working conditions, such as availability of reference materials, textbooks,
blackboards, staff quarters and staffrooms in some schools, enabled teachers to
prepare well for teaching, carry out teaching and learning activities effectively. They
also enabled teachers to manage pupils’ discipline and be punctual in class.
Other working conditions left majority of the teachers dissatisfied at their job.
In most schools, there was a remarkable lack of staff quarters, lack of staffroom, lack
of text books for the upper classes, classrooms being not enough for the enrolled
pupils and lacking doors and windows. All these conditions did not favour effective
preparations of schemes of work and lesson plans. Effective teaching was challenged
as in some subjects like English, in which a pupil needs to have its own book. In some
schools, pupils were seated on the classroom floor and overcrowded, making it
difficult for teachers to have class control and reach every child for effective teaching
and learning. It was difficult to make teaching aids, hang and leave them in
classrooms for pupils to keep referring to them as there was no security with most
classrooms lacking doors and windows.
5.4 Study Contribution to Knowledge
The findings of this study offer a substantial contribution to the existing
knowledge pool of research on teacher motivation and job performance in the field of
education. From review of related empirical literature, it was found that there have
been limited studies done on the influence of teachers’ motivation on their job
performance in rural public primary schools in Uganda. This study therefore strikes a
198
balance, with the urban located schools where most research has been done, by
considering the often neglected and ignored rural setup where teachers endeavour to
provide educational services to the majority of the Ugandan children. In addition, this
study will serve as a primary source for researchers and the subsequent studies which
will be considering teachers’ motivation and job performance in a rural environment.
This study exposed the alarming lack of staff quarters and staffrooms in rural
public primary schools, which caused accommodation challenges to most teachers
and encouraged late coming and at times absenteeism. In addition, lack of staffrooms
denied teachers the chance to interact and share ideas on how to improve their
teaching and learning activities. This also posed a challenge in preparations of
schemes of work, lesson plans and teaching aids, due to lack of space.
In addition, the study exposed the alarming salary disparity between teachers
and head teachers. The situation triggered teachers’ dissatisfaction and at times
absconded their teaching duties to engage themselves in other income generating
activities, which is unprofessional.
The findings revealed a novelty about teachers’ salary which was referred to
as “consolidated” salary. The district education officials confirmed what the teachers
called “consolidated” salary as entailing teacher’s accommodation, transport, water
and electricity bills, feeding, taxes, insurance, duty allowance, medical insurance.
This salary was heavily taxed as teachers had to pay a variety of taxes including pay
as you earn, local service tax, subscription to UNATU, and bank charges. This
situation caused most teachers to access loans, and in turn, they suffered financial
stress as they tried to service the loans. These challenges impacted negatively on
teaching and learning activities.
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The study revealed that, Two-factor theory of Herzberg could be enriched by
enjoining personal traits on motivation factors, especially the gender of employees.
The study also discovered that, the Two-factor theory cannot be used in isolation of
other motivational theories, especially the theory of the hierarchy of needs by
Abraham Maslow, which gives significance to human basic needs.
The results of the study will inform all education stakeholders including the
MoES, DEO, DIS, head teachers, teachers and the communities served by the schools.
The study raises issues that concern teachers’ motivation and their performance,
which affect the pupils as direct beneficiaries of the teaching and learning processes.
5.5 Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the researcher underlines a number of
recommendations to different educational stakeholders, who have different roles to
play to ensure effective teacher performance in schools. Therefore, this section
highlights recommendations to the government of Uganda, the ministry of education
and sports, district officials, head teachers and teachers, parents, school communities
and foundation bodies.
5.5.1 The Government
The study recommends that, in the near future, the government should develop
technological infrastructure such as information communication and technology
(ICT), e-learning and online learning in public primary schools to benefit both
teachers and pupils. The electricity infrastructure should be extended to reach all
primary schools. More to that, the government should employ an ICT expert at every
coordination centre, who will be training and helping teachers and pupils in schools
under his or her jurisdiction. That would enable teachers and pupils to easily access
information on any subject of their interest other than relying only on textbooks which
200
are even inadequate in most schools. This technological infrastructure would help
teachers and pupils updated with recent information and boost their teaching and
learning activities. Online learning would enable teachers to upgrade themselves in
various programs to improve their effectiveness in teaching. That would solve the
challenge of relying only on in-service training during school holidays, which can
only be accessed by a few who can meet the costs involved.
Since most rural areas can access and listen to programs on FM radios, the
government should run educational programs once a week or once a month sensitising
parents and communities on their roles in supporting education. This can be done
through the office of the DEO and ran in local languages that people can easily
understand. Parents and community roles could include but not limited to providing
lunch for teachers financially or in kind. Also, they could help in putting semi-
permanent structures as staff quarters for teachers who come from far. That would
enable teachers to remain at school and concentrate on their duties.
Equally important, the government should, as soon as possible, establish
guidance and counselling unit and employ qualified personnel in all schools. For
instance, there are some teachers who are dissatisfied and demotivated in their
teaching profession, who easily succumb to alcohol drinking and can easily become
addicts. Also, there are pupils who come from broken families and are overwhelmed
by many challenges which cannot allow them to learn effectively. Through
counselling, teachers can overcome some of their problems and be able to concentrate
on their teaching duties.
5.5.2 Ministry of Education and Sports
This study recommends the MoES to increase funding, in the annual
educational budget, to increase the frequency of workshops and seminars in primary
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schools and at the district for all teachers through the offices of the DIS and DEO
during school holidays. This would enable most teachers to be updated and re-skilled
regularly with the frequent changes in the curriculum and the introduction of e-
learning, driven by social and economic needs of the time.
Another recommendation to the MoES is to bridge the salary gap between
what the class teacher earns monthly (US$131) and that of the head teacher (US$257)
by revising and increasing the salary scale of the class teacher during the annual
budget of the ministry. The MoES should be realistic to increase the salary for
teachers based on the cost of living so that teachers are able to meet their basic needs
and their family responsibilities. That would motivate teachers who are now
dissatisfied with the low consolidated salary they earn monthly. This would also
encourage those teachers engaged in other income generating activities to keep at
school and concentrate on teaching.
In addition, the MoES should, in the next annual budget, implement the
“Teachers’ scheme of service” policy to provide promotional ladders for all teachers.
This would ensure some increment in teachers’ salary levels and encourage
commitment to their duties at school and in class. Furthermore, the MoES should
introduce incentives every term in the annual budget in order to attract teachers in
rural public primary schools. Incentives may include salary top-up, housing
allowances, transport allowance, medical coverage, annual or monthly bonuses and
hard-to-reach allowances, scholarships for teachers’ children. These incentives should
be linked to teachers’ qualification, and location or classification of the school and
they should be known by all teachers in all the schools so that there is fair competition
for them.
202
The study further recommends the government, through the ministry of
education and sports, to create more avenues for funds such as seeking funding from
external donor agencies and widening tax base locally. This would enable the MoES,
as a matter of urgency, to put up more classroom structures for schools, especially
those in rural areas where there is overcrowding of pupils. Likewise, the funds would
be used for construction of staff quarters so that some teachers who come from far can
reside near or at the school and be available and punctual for their duties. That would
solve the late coming by some teachers who travel long distances to school and also
alleviate the problem of absenteeism. The funds would further be used for
construction of a staffroom for every primary school so that teachers have a
conducive environment where they can do their preparations from, hold discussions
with each other and mark pupils’ exercises among others.
The MoES should increase its annual budget for more capitation grant, which
can be used to provide furniture for all pupils in the schools. This would enable all
teachers to have a well organised class, easy to control and teach. Likewise, this
would enable all enrolled pupils to have desks and benches so that they can attend
lessons well in a conducive environment other than sitting on the floor. This would
ensure a favourable teaching and learning environment for both teachers and pupils.
Another recommendation to the MoES is to add more textbooks for upper
classes to facilitate effective teaching and learning activities in schools. The MoES
could partner with non-governmental organisations which can provide textbooks for
primary schools, like World Bank has done for the lower classes. That would enable
the teachers to teach effectively in class; and the pupils in upper classes to learn
effectively.
203
The government, through the MoES, should introduce the policy of cost-
sharing and community participation, where parents and the communities served by
the schools can contribute every term some local materials in the construction of staff
quarters and staffroom for teachers. That would enable some teachers who come from
far to reside near the school, hence minimising cases of absenteeism and late coming
by some teachers. That would enable the MoES to concentrate on construction of
classrooms, provision of teaching and learning materials, paying teachers’ salaries,
among others.
The MoES should ensure regular and timely quarterly release of funds to the
district for the facilitation of the offices of the DIS and DEO so as to sustain regular
supervision of primary schools. This would ease the movements of the DIS during
supervision visits and teachers would always remain alert and prepared in their work.
In addition, this would keep the DIS and DEO updated about the schools’ needs and
for timely intervention.
The MoES, through the office of the DEO, should implement the policy of
employing qualified teachers in primary schools in order to ensure effective teaching
and learning process in the primary schools. The DEO should encourage those
unqualified teachers to enrol for in-service training in teacher training colleges (TTC)
or other institutions during school holidays to be equipped with knowledge and skills
required for effective teachers’ performance.
Furthermore, the MoES should incorporate in the annual budget medical
insurance policy for all teachers in schools. This would ensure quick medical service
for the teachers whenever they are sick. That would also improve their motivation in
fulfilling their teaching duties effectively at school.
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5.5.3 The Office of the District Education Officer
The office of the DEO should play the role of the advocacy before the MoES
by presenting quarterly and annual budgets from the district and requesting for
increased funding for head teachers’ and teachers’ workshops and seminars. The DEO
should also present to the ministry of education and sports quarterly and annually
accountability reports for the funds used for conducting workshops and seminars at
school and at the district. This is meant to keep both head teachers and teachers
updated with the changes in the curriculum or any other educational innovation meant
to enhance teaching effectiveness in schools and also to show how the workshops and
seminars were conducted and how they benefited the head teachers and teachers.
The DEO should request from MoES in his quarterly and annual reports for
addition of more classroom structures to alleviate overcrowding of pupils, staff
quarters and staff rooms for every school. This can also be done by the DEO liaising
with area members of parliament to increase the lobbying and advocacy capacity for
teachers’ and school needs.
5.5.4 Head Teachers and Teachers
Head teachers and teachers are key implementers of educational programs and
projects at the school level where beneficiaries are found. The study recommends that
both head teachers and teachers should express their needs and those of the schools to
the office of the DEO, such as inadequate classrooms, textbooks, salary delays among
others. This could be done through head teachers’ termly and annual reports to the
DEO at the district on school achievements and challenges and in turn the DEO would
ask the ministry of education and sports to intervene.
Another recommendation for the head teachers is to engage parents, through
cooperation with local leaders and politicians, to solicit support for the needs of the
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teachers and pupils, such as meals and remedial teaching allowances. This should be
done by head teachers and teachers holding meetings with parents and community
members every term at school to sensitise the communities about their much-needed
participation in the education of their children. This would create awareness, among
parents and community members, of the teachers’ and school needs. For instance,
schools where pupils still attend lessons under trees, head teachers and PTA could
mobilise parents and local community to put up at least semi-permanent structures.
This would shield pupils and teachers from bad weather conditions and other
distractions during teaching, while waiting for the government’s intervention.
In addition, the head teachers, teachers and the PTA should think of
encouraging the formation of alumni of the former pupils for each school. This
encourage the alumni to support the schools through financial contributions,
construction materials, and provision of textbooks among others. Such a move would
ensure improvement in the working conditions of the schools to enable effective
teaching and learning processes. Such alumni meetings could be held twice a year so
that the alumni are kept updated with what is happening with their respective schools
and for easy follow up.
The school leadership should be creative to open up lucrative school projects
to serve some needs of the schools and of teachers. Viable projects would include
gardening, piggery, poultry and the like to supplement teachers’ meals at school.
Gardening projects could be done during the term with participation of pupils and for
other projects, the schools could employ support staff. This would boost the
motivation of teachers and keep them at school to concentrate on their duties other
than leaving school in search of meals elsewhere or teaching on empty stomach.
206
5.5.5 Parents and School Communities
Parents bear the first responsibility for the education of their children.
Therefore, parents should show cooperation by attending termly meetings called by
the school leadership and local leaders and accept to take up their responsibility of
supporting schools and teachers. This study recommends parents to be involved in
putting up teachers’ quarters and staffroom in the primary schools where these
infrastructures are lacking. Semi-permanent structures are better than having nothing
at all. This move would enable those teachers who commute from far to have
accommodation at school and in turn perform effectively in their duties.
Another recommendation is that, local school and community leadership
should sensitise and encourage parents and community members, through termly
meetings, to provide meals for both teachers and pupils at school by making termly
contributions either financially or in kind. That would enable teachers to have lunch at
school and be available during the hours allocated for their duties at school. Parents
are capable of providing for teachers’ and school needs, only that they need someone
to challenge and inspire them.
5.5.6 Foundation Bodies
The Education Act (GoUd, 2008) spells out some of the responsibilities of the
foundation bodies in schools. The foundation bodies have the responsibility of
“participating in education advocacy; mobilisation of resources for education
purposes; and participating in implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
education and services” (p.12).
Foundation bodies which include churches and communities should recall
their responsibility about schools before the government took over ownership of
schools shortly after the country gained its independence from colonial masters.
207
Foundation bodies played a key role by then, in building schools and providing all-
round education to young people. This study recommends that also today, foundation
bodies be involved by having their representatives, that is, education secretaries
working with the district and school leadership in planning, monitoring and evaluating
school programs and projects.
Furthermore, the Foundation bodies should create awareness, among parents
and school communities, of the need to support teachers’ and school needs so that
teachers can carry out their duties at school without disturbance. This could be done
when there are prayer gatherings, and community meetings. Through such meetings,
Foundation bodies can use their capacity to inspire and encourage people who are
able financially and materially to give donations to schools. Donations could include
items like textbooks, building materials, and foodstuffs which would alleviate the
situation of inadequacy of textbooks, classrooms and meals for teachers in primary
schools.
5.7 Areas for Further Research
The current study considered only some of the motivation factors in order to
have a thorough in-depth understanding. The research questions in this study were
adequately addressed. The study findings provide considerable insights on teachers’
motivation and job performance. The study considered only some of the intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation factors. As the study could not consider all motivation factors,
due to time and other resources, the following areas recommended for further
research.
i. The current study can be replicated and conducted in other regions of Uganda
since this study limited its geographical scope to only western Uganda.
208
ii. A research should be done on other motivation factors, such as achievement,
recognition, work itself, responsibility, policy, interpersonal relations, and
status, which were not considered by this study
iii. A comparative study between teachers’ job performance and pupils’
academic achievement could be considered in public primary schools since
this study limited itself only on teachers’ motivation and performance.
209
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223
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Questionnaire for Teachers
Dear Participant, I am carrying out a study in which your assistance is of great
importance. The study is part of the requirements for my PhD studies in Education.
Title of the Study: “Influence of teachers’ motivation on job performance in public
primary schools in Kitagwenda county, Kamwenge District, Uganda”. Kindly
respond to the items presented in this Questionnaire. The information you give will be
treated and kept with maximum confidentiality and will be used only for this study.
Thank you for your support in this study.
Instruction: Please read each sentence carefully and put a tick [ ] or a brief
explanation in options provided
Section I: Demographic Information
1. What is your gender?
i) Male [ ]
ii) Female [ ]
2. Which one is your age group?
i) 21-30 [ ]
ii) 31-40 [ ]
iii) 41-50 [ ]
iv) 51-60 [ ]
3. What is your marital status?
(a) i) Single [ ]
ii) Married [ ]
iii) Divorced [ ]
iv) Widowed [ ]
224
(b) How does your marital status affect your job performance as a teacher?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What is your highest academic level of education?
i) Primary [ ]
ii) O' Level [ ]
iii) A' Level [ ]
iv) College [ ]
v) University [ ]
5. What is your highest level of professional qualification?
i) Grade III [ ]
ii) Grade V [ ]
iii) Graduate [ ]
iv) None [ ]
6. How many years of your teaching experience? -------------------------------------------
7. What class do you teach? P. ------------------------------------------------------------------
8. What are your teaching subjects?
(a) i) ------------------------------------
ii) -----------------------------------
iii) ----------------------------------
(b) What does the school do to ensure that you teach the subjects effectively?
i) Provision of textbooks [ ]
ii) Provision of reference materials [ ]
225
iii) Organizing subject seminars [ ]
iv) Any other? Please specify ----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. How much is your total monthly income?
i) Salary: --------------------------Ugs
ii) Estimation of other income from school: --------------------------Ugs
10. Which salary level is your salary?
i) U7 Lower [ ]
ii) U7 Upper [ ]
iii) U6 Lower [ ]
iv) U6 Upper [ ]
v) U5 Lower [ ]
vi) U5 Upper [ ]
vii) U4 Lower [ ]
viii) U4 Upper [ ]
Section II: Teacher professional development influence on job performance.
11. The items below are meant to highlight on the opportunities provided for teachers
in advancing their knowledge and skills in order to improve their job performance.
Choose only one answer for each statement from the alternative answers provided by
indicating with a Tick [ ] how strongly you agree or disagree with the statements
using the scale: Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Undecided (3), Disagree (2), Strongly
Disagree (1), such that 5 is the highest score and 1 the lowest score.
226
No Statement 5 4 3 2 1
i The ministry of education gives us chances to upgrade in
our teaching profession so that we can teacher better in
class
ii At the district, we get workshops to improve our
knowledge and skills in teaching
iii The district organizes seminars for teachers so that we
can use new methods of teaching
iv There is in-service training which helps teachers to assess
pupils in class
v I have participated in workshops organized for teachers
and this helps me to prepare schemes of work effectively
vi I find workshops helpful because I learn how complete
the syllabus in time
vii We get seminars to help us do lesson planning effectively
viii It is very important to have workshops/in-service/
seminars for teachers because they help us to manage
pupils’ discipline
ix We regularly hold peer teaching amongst ourselves at
school in order to teach our subjects in class effectively
x I feel a great deal of satisfaction from the workshops/in-
service/ fresher courses/ seminars for they help me know
the needs of each individual pupil in class
xi Workshops and seminars help me to participate well in
co-curricular activities at school
xii Workshops and seminars help me to know the importance
of fiving feedback to pupils in time
xiii Through workshops and seminars I am encouraged to
participate in staff meetings at school
xiv Through workshops and seminars, I learn how to keep
records of the work I cover in class
xv There are workshops organized for teachers
xvi We often hold seminars for teachers
xvi There is in-service training for teachers
227
12. From the workshops, seminars, and in-service training, indicate the content learnt
and its usefulness:
(a) Content learnt: (b) Usefulness of the content:
i) -------------------------------------------------- i) --------------------------------------
ii) ------------------------------------------------- ii) -------------------------------------
iii) ------------------------------------------------ iii) ------------------------------------
iv) ------------------------------------------------- iv) ------------------------------------
v) ------------------------------------------------- v) -----------------------------------
13. Propose how any workshop, seminar and in-service training attended can be made
better:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section III: Teacher remuneration influence on job performance
14. The statements below indicate teacher remuneration in terms of salary, transport
allowance, duty allowance among others. Please indicate by putting a Tick [ ] to one
statement only showing how strongly you agree or disagree with the statements using
the scale: Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Undecided (3), Disagree (2), Strongly
Disagree (1), such that 5 is the highest score and 1 the lowest score.
228
No Statement 5 4 3 2 1
i I am paid a salary that is enough to cater for my basic needs
ii Salary payments are prompt and this helps me to be regularly
in class teaching
iii The salary satisfies me and I am encouraged to make schemes
of work
iv Because the salary is encouraging, I assess the pupils in class
regularly
v The school provides me with transport allowance
vii Provision of transport allowance helps me to be present in
class regularly
viii The school serves us with Break Tea
ix I get lunch at school
x Provision of break tea at school helps me to be present in
class for lessons in time
xi Getting lunch at school helps me to be available at school to
instill discipline in the pupils
xii Provision of lunch at school helps me to do lesson planning
xiii Provision of Break Tea and lunch at school helps me to
participate in co-curricular activities
xiv Having meals at school helps me to teach my lessons in class
effectively
xv The school offers duty allowances
xvi Provision of duty allowances positively influences teachers to
give guidance and counselling to pupils
xvii Provision of duty allowances enhances teachers’ management
of pupils’ discipline
xviii Provision of duty allowances enhances teachers’ management
of learners’ register
xix Provision of duty allowances positively influences teachers’
participation in co-curricular activities
xx Extra teaching allowances paid by the school motivates me to
teach the pupils
xxi Allowances motivate me to participate in staff meetings
229
5 4 3 2 1
xxii Provision of advance payment encourages me to avoid
absenting myself from school
xxiii Teachers who perform well are given prizes
Rewards for good performance influence me to teach pupils
better
xxiv I feel a great deal of satisfaction with teacher's remuneration
15. Briefly comment on how you feel about the remunerations you receive as a
teacher in form of
i) Salary -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) Duty allowance -----------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) Transport allowance -----------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) Allowance for extra work -----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16. How does teacher remuneration affect your performance as a teacher?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
230
17. Kindly propose how teachers' remuneration can be improved:
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section IV: Supervision influence on job performance
18. The statements below are meant to show how you have experienced instructional
supervision at your schools, both from your head teacher and from District inspectors
of schools. Choose only one answer for each statement from the alternative answers
provided by indicating with a Tick [ ] how strongly you agree or disagree using the
scale: Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Undecided (3), Disagree (2), Strongly Disagree
(1), such that 5 is the highest score and 1 the lowest score.
No Statement 5 4 3 2 1
i The head teacher supervises teachers on duty to see how
activities are going on at school
ii The head teacher supervises actual teaching in class
iii The head teacher checks whether teachers have schemes of
work
iv The head teacher checks whether teachers have lesson plans
ii Head teacher checks teachers' records of work
iii The head teacher is friendly to teachers whenever he/she
conducts supervision
231
5 4 3 2 1
iv District inspectors of schools visit our school for supervision
regularly
v District inspectors of schools hold meetings with teachers to
discuss about issues from their supervision
vi Supervision helps me to complete the syllabus effectively
vii Supervision helps me to do schemes of work
viii Being supervised helps me to do lesson planning effectively
ix Supervision helps me to teach my class well
x Supervision encourages me to give exercises to pupils
xi Supervision influences me to avoid absenteeism from school
xii Supervision by head teacher/ District inspectors influences
me to keep records of work
xiii Supervision motivates me to participate in co-curricular
activities
xiv Feedback from supervision helps me to teach my lessons
effectively
xv Supervision helps me to manage pupils’ discipline
19. a) Which aspects of the teachers' activities did the head teacher look at during
his/her supervision?
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Which aspects of the schools did the district inspectors of schools look at during
their visits at your school?
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
232
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20. What advice did the district inspectors of schools give you?
a) Advice
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Indicate how the advice supported you in carrying out your teaching duties:
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
21. How does instructional supervision affect teachers' performance?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22. Propose how instructional supervision at your schools and in classroom can be
improved:
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
233
Section V: Working conditions' influence on job performance
23. The statements below are meant to highlight on working conditions in which
teachers work. Please choose only one answer for each statement from the alternative
answers provided by indicating with a Tick [ ] to show how strongly you agree or
disagree with the statements using the scale: Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4),
Undecided (3), Disagree (2), Strongly Disagree (1), such that 5 is the highest score
and 1 the lowest score.
No Statement 5 4 3 2 1
i The school has enough classrooms to accommodate all pupils
ii Classrooms are not over-crowded by pupils
iii Uncrowded classroom enables me to manage pupils’ discipline
iv Because the classroom is not over-crowded, I am encouraged to
assess the pupils effectively
v As classrooms are not over-crowded, I give timely feedback to
pupils
vi All classrooms are fitted with blackboards
vii Provision of blackboards in class enables me to teach my lessons
well
viii Provision of blackboards enables me to complete the syllabus
ix Class workload is manageable
x Because class workload is manageable, I teach my lessons
effectively
xi Because class workload is manageable, I assess pupils regularly
xii At school there is a staffroom for teachers
xiii Provision of staffroom enables me to do schemes of work
xiv Provision of staffroom helps me to do lesson planning
xv Provision of staffroom helps me to mark pupils’ work and give
feedback in time
xvi All classrooms have benches for the pupils
xvii Provision of benches in classrooms helps me to manage pupils’
discipline
234
5 4 3 2 1
xviii Provision of benches helps to teach my lessons well
xix Provision of benches enables me to give exercises to pupils in class
xx All pupils in class can access textbooks
xxi Provision of textbooks for pupils helps to teach the pupils
effectively
xxii Provision of textbooks helps me to give exercises to pupils
xxiii Provision of textbooks helps me to give feedback to pupils timely
xxiv The school provides reference materials for teachers to use in class
xxv Provision of teachers’ reference materials helps me to prepare well
schemes of work
xxvi Provision of teachers’ reference materials enables me to do lesson
planning effectively
xxvii Provision of teachers’ reference materials motivates me to teach
my lessons in class effectively
xxvii Teachers are given houses at school
xxviii Provision of teachers’ housing helps me to avoid being absent from
school
xxix Provision of teachers’ housing helps me to do schemes of work
xxx Provision of teachers’ housing enables me do lesson planning
xxx Provision of teachers’ housing helps me to participate in co-
curricular activities
xxxi Provision of teachers’ housing enables me to manage pupils’
discipline
xxxii Provision of teachers’ houses helps me to provide feedback to
pupils timely
24. Comment on how you find working conditions at your school in terms of
i) Staff houses -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
235
ii) Staffroom ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) Meals -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) Classrooms -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v) Textbooks ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25. How does each of the working conditions above affect teachers' performance at
your school?
i) Staff houses -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) Staffroom ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) Meals -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) Classrooms -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v) Textbooks ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
236
26. Kindly suggest how working conditions at school can be improved
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section VI: Teachers' Job Performance
27. The following statements intend to explore your opinion on how motivation
influences your performance at school. Choose only one answer for each statement
from the alternative answers provided by indicating with a Tick [ ] to show how
strongly you agree or disagree with the statements using the scale: Strongly Agree (5),
Agree (4), Undecided (3), Disagree (2), Strongly Disagree (1), such that 5 is the
highest score and 1 the lowest score.
No Statement 5 4 3 2 1
i I always come to school very early
I make schemes of work
ii I submit schemes of work at the beginning of each
school Term
iii I make lesson planning
iv Always I come to class with lesson plans
v Regularly I give to pupils exercises to do in class
vi I regularly mark exercises of pupils and give them
feedback
vii At school I actively participate in co-curricula activities
viii I regularly supervise school at activities whenever I am
on duty
ix I am actively involved in managing pupils’ discipline at
school
x I regularly attend staff meetings
237
5 4 3 2 1
xi I always seek permission from the head teacher
whenever I am absent from school
xii I regularly update class register
xiii The responsibilities I perform in the school give me a
sense of control over others
28. Propose what should be done to improve teachers' motivation in your school:
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
29. In your own opinion, what should be done to improve teachers' performance at
school?
i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thank you
238
Appendix B: Interview Guide for Head Teachers
1. Which opportunities are available for teachers' professional growth in your
school?
2. How are teachers remunerated in your school (Salary, Transport allowance, Duty
allowance, Extra teaching allowance)?
3. a) How often do you carry out instructional supervision in your schools?
b) How often do district inspectors of schools carry out instructional supervision
at your school?
4. Briefly describe working conditions in your school (Staff housing, staffroom,
meals, teaching and learning materials, classroom)
5. Briefly describe teachers' job performance in your school in terms of: Teacher
attendance, time of teacher's arrival at school, schemes of work, lesson plans,
assessment of pupils, participation in co-curricula activities, control of pupils'
discipline, participation in staff meetings, absenteeism, updating class register,
updating records of work?
6. a) How can teachers' motivation at your schools can be improved?
b) How can teachers' performance be improved?
239
Appendix C: Interview Guide for District Education Officer
1. Which opportunities are available for teachers' professional growth in primary
schools?
2. How are teachers remunerated school (Salary, Transport allowance, Duty
allowance, Extra teaching allowance)?
3. a) How often do you carry out supervision in primary schools?
b) How often do district inspectors of schools carry out supervision in schools?
4. Briefly describe the state of working conditions in primary schools (Staff housing,
staffroom, meals, teaching and learning materials, classroom)
5. Briefly describe teachers' job performance in schools in terms of: Teacher
attendance, time of teacher's arrival at school, schemes of work, lesson plans,
assessment of pupils, participation in co-curricula activities, control of pupils'
discipline, participation in staff meetings, absenteeism, updating class register,
updating records of work?
6. a) How can teachers' motivation in primary schools can be improved?
b) How can teachers' performance be improved?
240
Appendix D: Interview Guide for District Inspectors of Schools
1. Which opportunities are available for teachers' professional growth in primary
schools?
2. How are teachers remunerated in schools (Salary, Transport allowance, Duty
allowance, Extra teaching allowance)?
3. a) How often do you carry out supervision in primary schools?
4. Briefly describe the state of working conditions in primary schools (Staff housing,
staffroom, meals, teaching and learning materials, classroom)
5. Briefly describe teachers' job performance in primary schools in terms of: Teacher
attendance, time of teacher's arrival at school, schemes of work, lesson plans,
assessment of pupils, participation in co-curricula activities, control of pupils'
discipline, participation in staff meetings, absenteeism, updating class register,
updating records of work?
6. a) How can teachers' motivation in primary schools can be improved?
b) How can teachers' performance be improved?
241
Appendix E: Focus Group Discussion Guide for Designated Class Teachers
1. Which opportunities are available for teachers' professional growth in your
school? (Workshops, In-service Training, Fresher courses, Seminars)
2. a) How are teachers remunerated in your school? (Salary, Transport allowance,
Duty allowance, Extra teaching allowance)
b) How does each mode of remuneration above affect teachers' job performance?
c) What should be done on remuneration of teachers in order to enable teachers
perform well?
3. a) How often does the head teacher carry out supervision in your schools?
b) Which aspects or content are looked at during head teacher's instructional
supervision?
c) What advice do you get whenever the head teacher carries out instructional
supervision?
d) How does head teacher's instructional supervision help you to perform in your
teaching duties?
4. a) How often do district inspectors of schools carry out supervision at your
school?
b) What aspects do the district inspectors of schools look at when they visit your
school?
c) How does supervision affect teachers' performance at your schools?
5. Briefly discuss how working conditions are for teachers in your school (Staff
quarters, Staffroom, Meals, Teaching and learning materials, Classroom)
6. a) How does each of the working conditions above affect teachers in their
teaching duties?
242
b) In your opinion, what can be done to improve working conditions in your
school to enable teachers perform their duties better?
243
Appendix F: Informed Consent Form
Title of the Study: Influence of Teachers' Motivation on Job Performance in Public
Primary Schools in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District, Uganda
Researcher’s Name: Emmanuel Kakaaga Byaruhanga (Reg. 1022043)
The purpose of this study is purely academic and I am only interested in your opinion
in regard to the topic above. You will be asked to answer a number of questions and
your answers will be recorded only for further use by the researcher. I do not
anticipate any inconveniences or risks resulting from this study. If there are any
questions posed to you during the study that cause discomfort or embarrassment or
you feel are infringing on your privacy, you are free to refuse answering them.
Your participation is voluntary. Refusal to participate or withdrawal of your
consent or discontinued participation in the study will not result in any penalty or loss
of benefits. The results of this study will be presented anonymously, without your
identity being disclosed.
The data will be used only for academic purposes and nothing more.
Participant's Consent:
I understand the nature of this study and agree to participate.
__________________________________ _______________________________
Participant's Signature Date
244
Appendix G: Cronbach’s Alpha showing Reliability Statistics
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
Cronbach's
Alpha Based
on
Standardized
Items N of Items
.897 .917 105
245
Appendix H: Photographs
Figure 5. Front-view Photo of a Staff house at a primary school in Kitagwenda
County, Kamwenge District, Uganda, April, 2017.
Figure 6. Back-view Photo of the Staff House shown in Figure 5, at a Primary School
in Kitagwenda County, Kamwenge District, Uganda, April, 2017.
246
Figure 7. Bath-room for teachers who reside in the Staff House in Figure 5.
Figure 8. A rare Staff Quarters House at another primary school in Kitagwenda
County, Kamwenge District, Uganda, April, 2017.
247
Figure 9. Classroom Semi-Permanent Structure, April, 2017
Figure 10. Classroom semi-permanent structure without doors or windows, 2017
248
Figure 11. Permanent classroom structure but without doors and windows, 2017
249
Appendix I: Map of Uganda showing District Boundaries
Source: http://www.reliefweb.int
250
Appendix J: Introductory Letter to the Ministry of Education and Sports
251
Appendix K: Research Permit from DEO
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