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1
CHAPTER I
1.1. General Introduction
Citrus fruit is a modified berry or a specialized berry (hesperidium)
resulting from single ovary (Ladaniya, 2008). The peel of Citrus is a potential
source of antioxidant. The plant of Citrus microcarpa is in the genus Citrus of
family Rutaceae. The genus Citrus is believed to have originated from Southeast
Asia. Nowadays, it comprises hundreds of varieties and hybrids as a result of
natural or artificial crossbreeding. Calamansi is considered as a natural hybrid of
mandarin and oval kumquat (Citrus reticulate x Citrus japonica). Citrus
microcarpa or Citrofortunella microcarpa, also known as calamondin, limau
kasturi, kesturi and kalamondin, has spread throughout Southeast Asia, India,
Hawaii, West Indies, Central and North America (Cheong et al., 2012).
Previous studies have showed that, in general, fruit peels contain higher
concentrations of antioxidant compounds than the flesh of the fruit. Therefore, it
is possible to utilize fruit peels as antioxidant food additive to produce value-
added food products for human consumption and they may play a role in the
prevention for risk of chronic diseases e.g., diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular
diseases and cancer (Samonte et al., 2013).
2
1.2. Problem Statement
The peel of Citrus microcarpa is a potential source of natural antioxidants.
However, the peels of the fruit are normally disposed as waste or at most used as
fertilizer and feeds. During processing, fruit peels in most cases are discarded
and treated as wastes due to their lack of commercial application. Wasted fruit
peels are consequently increase pollution problem. Although the peels are
commonly discarded after getting its juice, they may contain a high amount of
ascorbic acid that has been found to exceed that in the extracted juice (Manaf et
al., 2008). Accordingly, the study was carried out to determine the
physicochemical properties of the peel so as to gauge potential applications of
the peels.
1.3. Significant Of Study
The significant of this study is to investigate the extend of the usage of the
peels, for further processing. High temperature drying may deteriorate the natural
compound exists in the calamansi peel, especially ascorbic acid which is known
to be heat sensitive. Thus, a maximum temperature of 50oC for the hot air cabinet
drying is used, to preserve the antioxidant and other beneficial properties.
3
1.4. Objective Of Study
The objectives of this study are:
1. To examine the effects of different drying temperatures
within the study range on the moisture content, water
activity, pH, color and rehydration properties of Citrus
microcarpa peels.
2. To investigate the effects of different drying
temperatures on the antioxidant properties and total
phenolic content of the peels.
4
CHAPTER II
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Characteristics Of Citrus
These citrus fruits are well-known for their refreshing fragrance, thirst
quenching ability, and providing adequate vitamin C as per recommended dietary
allowance (RDA). Besides that, the fruits contain several phytochemicals, which
play the role of neutraceuticals, such as carotenoids, limonoids, flavones, and
vitamin B-complex and related nutrients (thiamine and riboflavin) (Ladaniya,
2008).
The rind or peel is leathery- more so when it loses some moisture. It is
fragile and breaks on folding when turgid. Fruits usually have 8-16 segments.
Seeds vary in number from zero in a few cultivars in many, leading to quite
seedy fruit. Tahiti lime (C.latifolia) and navel oranges can be called truly
seedless and have almost no seeds, while grapefruit and pummel have 40-50
seeds. Seed size and shape also varies greatly among species (Ladaniya, 2008).
The pericarp (rind or peel) is divided into exocarp or flavedo, and
mesocarp or albedo. The flavedo consists of the outermost tissue layers, which
have cuticle-covered epidermis and parenchyma cells. The flavedo is the outer;
colored part and the albedo is the inner; colorless (white) or sometimes tinted
part (as in red grapefruit or blood oranges) (Fig 1) (Ladaniya, 2008).
5
Figure 1: Transverse Section of Citrus Fruit; source (Ladaniya, 2008)
The major pigments that give color to citrus fruits are chlorophylls
(green), carotenoids (yellow, orange, and deep orange), anthocyanins (blood red)
and lycopenes (pink or red). During growth and maturation, especially in the
immature stage, chlorophylls predominate in the peels of all citrus fruits. Due to
the presence of chlorophyll, immature fruits are capable of photosynthesis but
cannot make a significant contribution to the own nutrition (Ladaniya, 2008).
6
2.2. Citrofortunella Microcarpa
Also known as Citrus microcarpa or calamansi; is a mandarin-like fruit
with an oblate shape, but quite small (3-3.25cm in diameter) weighing 20-30 g,
peel that is smooth and very thin (1-2 mm). Its fruit is seeded with yellowish
orange colored flesh, which is acidic in taste, but the peel is sweet and edible. It
is commonly used for culinary purposes and for marmalade making (Ladaniya,
2008). This fruit is indigenous to the Philippines that are usually used in
beverages, or in sauces to enhance the flavor of food. It is sold cheap in the
market and can be found in residential backyards as ornaments.
The calamansi tree is evergreen and small, attaining a height of 2-7.5 m at
maturity. A three-year-old-tree can produce an average of 75 kg fruit and a ten-
year-old-tree can produce 50 kg of fruit. The fruits can be harvested either by
hand or by shear-clipping. They are able to be kept in good condition for two to
three weeks at 8-10oC and 90% relative humidity. The leaves are broadly egg-
shaped and dark green colored on top and pale green below. The small, white
fragment flowers are grouped in clusters. The fruit is round, with greenish yellow
to orange skin that is easy to peel. There are 6-10 segments in a fruit with an
orange colored, very acidic juice with approximately 4-11 seeds in each fruit
(Philipine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Reseach and
Development, 2010).
The juice, as a drink, makes one of the best thirst-quenchers. The acid
content of lime is known to slow down the oxidation of fresh-cut fruits and
vegetables, thus preventing discoloration and acting as preservatives. Calamansi
7
has been proven to help alleviate depression and anxiety. It is also among the few
aromatics that not just masks bad smell, but completely neutralizes them, making
the essential oil a great additive to cleansing products.
2.2.1. Medicinal Properties
Health-promoting properties of citrus fruits have been ascribed to
their inherit phenolic compounds, including coumarins, flavonoids,
lignins, phenolic acids and tannins (Cheong et al., 2012).
Calamansi has several alternative medicinal uses, Like lightens
freckles, good as mouth wash, Cure coughs and expel phlegm, Helpful in
dealing with hangover, prevent and cure Osteoarthritis, Maintains kidney
health, great tonic for the liver, prevent Diabetes, lightens urine color,
lowers body cholesterol and as a perfume. Calamansi is also used in
medical purposes. In some medical products, Calamansi is used as a
Vitamin C supplement, because Calamansi is rich in Vitamin C. It is also
known to cure cough and colds because of its Vitamin C content.
Calamansi leaves can be an herbal tea that can also be used to cure
coughs.
8
2.2.2. Bioactive Compound
The flavonoids from citrus juices, particularly those from oranges
and grapefruit are effective in improving blood circulation and possess
anti-allergic, anti-carcinogenic, and anti-viral properties. Fresh citrus fruit
consumption is important because the nutrients and health-promoting
factors (especially antioxidants) from these sources are immediately
available to the body and the loss of nutrients is negligible compared to
processed juices (Ladaniya, 2008).
Phenolics are compounds possessing one or more aromatic rings
with one or more hydroxyl groups. They are broadly distributed in the
plant kingdom and are the most abundant secondary metabolites of plants,
with more than 8,000 phenolic structures currently known, ranging from
simple molecules such as phenolic acids to highly polymerized substances
such as tannins. Plant phenolics are generally involved in defense against
ultraviolet radiation or aggression by pathogens, parasites and predators,
as well as contributing to plants colors (Dai et al., 2010).
9
2.2.3. Antioxidant Activity
Antioxidants are defined as compounds that can delay, inhibit, or
prevent the oxidation of oxidizable materials by scavenging free radicals
and diminishing oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is an imbalanced state
where excessive quantities of reactive oxygen and/or nitrogen species
(ROS/RNS, e.g., superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical,
peroxynitrite) overcome endogenous antioxidant capacity, leading to
oxidation of a varieties of biomacromolecules, such as enzymes, proteins,
DNA and lipids. Oxidative stress is important in the development of
chronic degenerative diseases including coronary heart disease, cancer and
aging (Dai et al., 2010).
10
CHAPTER III
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1. Chemicals and reagents
Analytical grade chemicals and reagents used were including 2,2-
diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radicals, Folin-Ciocalteau reagent, gallic
acid, 7.5% sodium carbonate and pure methanol.
3.2. Sample preparation
The calamansi used were obtained from Pasar Borong Selangor. The fruits
were cleaned with cold running water and stems are removed completely. Then,
the fruits were cut and juice were extracted. The analyses were carried out for
both fresh and dried samples to compare the specific changes caused by different
drying temperatures. All experiments and analyses were conducted in triplicate.
Drying experiments were carried out by using freeze dryer (Labconco,
Benchtop Freeze Dry System) and cabinet dryer. The temperatures used for
cabinet dryer were 30oC, 40
oC and 50
oC on perforated stainless steel with airflow
of 2.62-2.82 m/s. Final weight of samples were obtained, or the drying process
ended when there until three consecutive weights were constant, indicating
equilibrium condition. Freeze dryer was carried out by pre-freezing the samples
for 24 hours. The samples were then placed in freeze drier for 3 days at -34oC. All
samples were blended into powder and stored in airtight containers for further
analyses. Extracts of the fruit were prepared using method proposed by Sagrin et
11
al. (2013), with some modifications. Five grams of dried and fresh samples were
added to 100ml of methanol. Mixtures were kept at room temperature for three
days and then filtered with Whatman filter paper (No.1). All filtrates were
collected and evaporated using a rotary evaporator at 50oC. The methanolic
extract was stored at 4oC for subsequent analysis.
3.3.Analyses
3.3.1. Moisture content determination
Moisture content was determined using Association of Official
Analytical Chemists (AOAC) methods. An oven was heated at 105oC.
Five grams of each samples was weighed into a crucible of known weight
and placed in the oven for 16 hours. The crucibles were then cooled in
desiccators. After cooling, the crucibles were weighed together with the
samples. Moisture content was calculated based on the percentage of wet
weight and expressed in percentage of moisture loss.
3.3.2. Water activity determination
The dried powder and fresh peels filled the sample cup halfway,
and constant readings of water activity were taken using a water activity
instrument (Aqua Lab, Series 3 & 3TE).
12
3.3.3. pH determination
The pH values of the samples were determined using a pH meter
(Jenway, 3505). Five grams of each sample was placed into a 100 mL
beaker, to which 50mL of distilled water was added. The mixture was
filtered with Whatman filter paper (No.1) and cotton wool.
3.3.4. Color determination
Color analysis was carried out using a colorimeter (Minolta,
CR300). The rates of lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*)
were measured. The samples were scanned and average values were taken.
3.3.5. Rehydration index determination
The rehydration index, R of the dried samples was measured as
reported by Claussen et al. (2007), with slight modifications.
Approximately one gram of sample was placed into 50ml of water at
20oC. The rehydration times were 30, 90 and 180 seconds. Then, the wet
products were placed into a Buchner tract for 2.5 minutes together with a
filter and suction. The weights of the rehydrated products were recorded,
and the index was calculated as follows:
13
whereby Mf is the weight of the wet product, Mp is the weight of dried
sample, and T is the percentage of dry weight in the dried sample. R
values were used to express the results.
3.3.6. Total phenolic content determination (Folin-Ciocalteau method)
Total phenolic content (TPC) was determined by the Folin-
Ciocalteau method, which was adapted from Lim et al. (2007). Three
hundred microlitre of each sample, 1.5 mL of Folin-Ciocalteau reagent
(diluted 10 times with deionized water), and 1.2 mL of sodium carbonate
(7.5% w/v) were mixed in test tubes. The tubes were vortexed and allowed
to stand in the dark at room temperature for 30 minutes. Absorbance was
measured at 765 nm using visible light spectrophotometer (Genesys 20,
4001/4). TPC was expressed in milligram gallic acid equivalents (GAE)
per gram extract, by using the following formula;
Whereby C is the total content of phenolic compounds in mg/g, in GAE
(gallic acid equivalent), c is the concentration of gallic acid established
from the calibration curve in mg/mL, V is the volume of extract in mL and
M is the weight of pure methanolic extract in g.
The results were expressed as the percentage of loss of TPC as
compared to the fresh or initial sample.
14
3.4. Statistical analyses
The results were expressed as the means of replicates standard
deviations. Significant differences at the 95% confidence level were calculated
based on Tukeys method using Minitab 16.
15
CHAPTER IV
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Moisture content
Table 1: Effects of drying temperatures on the moisture.
Drying temperature Moisture content Moisture reduction (%)
Fresh 79.183 0.635c -
Freeze dried 7.227 0.145a 90.873 0.247
a
30oC 10.113 0.136
b 87.227 0.075
b
40oC 7.890 0.212
c 90.213 0.493
a
50oC 7.117 0.106
c 90.833 0.408
a
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level
(P < 0.05).
16
Figure 2: Effect of drying temperature on the moisture.
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level
(P < 0.05).
The initial moisture content of the calamansi peel is 79.18 0.64%. The
drying process conducted caused the significant loss of moisture in the peel.
Figure 2 shows the reductions in moisture content when compared to the fresh or
initial moisture content of the samples. The reductions were observed after a few
days of drying, or until there were no changes in the weights of the samples
being dried. The temperatures used for drying were freeze drying (-34oC),
cabinet drying (30oC, 40
oC and 50
oC). The values observed were 90.87 0.25%,
87.23 0.08%, 90.21 0.49% and 90.83 0.41% for freeze dried, 30oC, 40
oC
a 90.87 b
87.23
a 90.21
a 90.84
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
FD 30 40 50
Mo
istu
re r
edu
ctio
n (
%)
Temperature (C)
17
and 50oC samples respectively. For cabinet dried samples, the highest moisture
reduction was observed in the highest drying temperature, which was 50oC. This
is due to the higher temperature increases the drying rate and this occur as more
heat was applied to the samples and causes more moisture to evaporate from the
samples. These findings were also observed in Gupta et al., 2011 which uses
different drying temperatures in drying seaweeds.
As for freeze dried sample, the process involves the removal of moisture
from a pre-freezed sample by sublimation. Sublimation is a process when a
frozen liquid changes directly to the gaseous state without undergo liquid phase
and it allows the preparation of stable product and aesthetic in appearance. In
freeze drying, there are three major components in the system that ensures
effective drying; temperature and pressure, collector, and energy. When the
sample is frozen, the water was separated as it changes to ice. The rate of
sublimation of ice in the frozen sample depends on the difference in vapor
pressure of the sample compared to the vapor pressure in the ice collector; as
molecules migrate from the higher pressure sample to a lower pressure area. It is
also crucial that the temperature that maintains the frozen integrity and the
temperature that maximizes the vapor pressure of sample were balanced to
ensure an optimum drying. This is because, temperature and pressure are closely
related, and increasing the sample temperature will increase its vapor pressure, as
the vapor pressure of the sample is the one that forces the sublimation of water
vapor molecules from the frozen product matrix to the collector. Conditions in
the freeze drier were created to ensure free flow of water molecules from the
18
sample. A vacuum pump was used to lower the pressure of the environment
around the sample and a cold trap for collecting the moisture that leave the
frozen sample. The cold trap or collector condensed out all condensable gases
and vacuum pump removed all the non-condensable gases. Then, energy in the
form of heat was applied to the frozen sample to encourage the removal of water
in the form of vapor.
4.2. Water activity and pH
Table 2: Effects of drying temperatures on the water activity and pH.
Drying temperature Water activity (aw) pH
Fresh 0.963 0.0076a 3.433 0.0115
b
Freeze dried 0.451 0.0027d 3.447 0.0252
b
30oC 0.576 0.0021
b 3.567 0.0058
a
40oC 0.527 0.0289
c 3.443 0.0115
b
50oC 0.521 0.0015
c 3.380 0.0000
c
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level
(P < 0.05).
From the results in Table 1, the initial water activity of calamansi peel was
0.963 0.0076. The highest reduction was in freeze dried sample, followed by
samples dried at 50oC, 40
oC and 30
oC with the values of 0.451 0.0027, 0.521
19
0.0015, 0.527 0.0289 and 0.576 0.0021 respectively. According to
Aberoumand, 2010, microorganisms have different minimum levels of water
activity for growth. Bacteria are generally most sensitive and nearly all are
inhibited at a water activity of less than 0.90-0.91, while molds and yeasts need
minimum of 0.70-0.80 and 0.87-0.94 for growth, respectively, thus, a water
activity of 0.60 or lower will prevent growth of all microorganisms.
The results showed that all of the samples possessed pH of a close range
of values. All of the values showed increment, except for the one dried at 50oC,
which showed a decrement. The values were 3.447 0.0252, 3.567 0.0058,
3.443 0.0115 and 3.380 0.0000 for freeze dried, 30oC, 40
oC and 50
oC
samples respectively. Guehi et al., 2010 mentioned that this pH reduction might
be due to the slow and gentle drying (cabinet drying) process that enable the
evaporation of more acid, and mainly because of the presence of citric acid.
20
4.3. Color analysis
Table 3: Effects of drying temperatures on the color of samples.
Lightness (L*) Redness (a*) Yellowness (b*)
Fresh 34.340 0.943d -4.833 0.068
c 22.720 0.737
c
Freeze dried 57.533 1.605a
-5.817 0.124d
22.533 0.840c
30oC 43.690 1.450
c -2.453 0.156
b 24.010 0.217
bc
40oC 48.630 0.560
b
-2.183 0.083ab
25.530 1.070b
50oC 48.040 0.792
b -1.997 0.127
a 29.940 1.128
a
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level
(P < 0.05).
21
Figure 3: Fresh peel color and effect of drying temperature on the color.
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level
(P < 0.05).
The fresh sample had values of 34.340 0.943, -4.833 0.068 and 22.720
0.737 for L*, a* and b* values respectively. From Figure 3, all of the drying
processes showed increase in lightness of the samples color, with the highest
increment in the freeze dried sample, followed by the 30oC, 50
oC and 40
oC with
values of 57.533 1.605, 48.630 0.560, 48.040 0.792 and 43.690 1.450
respectively. These increases in lightness were most probably due to degradation
of chlorophyll due to exposure to high temperatures during drying (Sagrin et al.,
d 34.34
a 57.53
b 48.63
c 43.69
b 48.04
c -4.83
d -5.82
b -2.45
ab -2.18
a -2.00
c 22.72
c 22.53
bc 24.01
b 25.53
a 29.94
-10.00
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
Val
ue
of
L*, a
*, b
*
Temperature (C)
L
a
b
Fresh FD 30 40 50
22
2013). Toontom et al., 2012 reported that freeze drying method significantly
improve the lightness of chili compared to other drying method.
The same observation was obtained for the values of redness (a*) of the
samples, which were increased in each dried sample. It means that all of the dried
samples had reduced its greenness gradually due to drying, with the highest
increment showed in 50oC samples, followed by 40
oC and 30
oC with the values
of -1.997 0.127, -2.183 0.083 and -2.453 0.156 respectively. However, for
freeze dried sample, it showed a decrement in redness value; increment in
greenness. According to Krokida et al., 2001, due to its drying process of
removing water by sublimation of ice at a low temperature, it prevented
enzymatic browning reactions during drying and retained its green color,
resulting in a relative stability of the color parameter. Toontom et al., 2012 also
reported that the minimal color deterioration during freeze drying method is an
indication of the appropriateness of this method to preserve nutraceutical foods.
As for the yellowness (b*), all of the drying temperatures gave out results
of increased values. The drying temperature of 50oC showed highest increment,
followed by 40oC, 30
oC and freeze dried samples, with 29.940 1.128, 25.530
1.070, 24.010 0.217 and 22.533 0.840 respectively. The fresh sample showed
a value of 22.720 0.737. As compared to freeze dried sample, there was no
significant difference in the values (P < 0.05). From the values also can be said
that the freeze drying method protect the samples from undergone enzymatic
browning, which can be observed its increment with the increase of drying
temperatures in the cabinet dried samples. Freeze drying method inhibits color
23
deterioration during drying, resulting in products with superior color compared to
those dried by other methods (Krokida et al., 2001).
4.4. Rehydration index
Table 4: Effects of drying temperatures on the water rehydration of dried samples.
Time (s) 30 90 180
Freeze dried 0.017ab
0.016b
0.026ab
30oC 0.014
bc 0.015
b 0.020
b
40oC 0.013
c 0.016
b 0.025
ab
50oC 0.018
a 0.021
a 0.031
a
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level
(P < 0.05).
24
Figure 4: Effect of drying temperature on the water rehydration of dried
samples.
The rehydration indices gave increased values with the increase in drying
temperatures. It may be due to the fact that the rate of moisture removal at a
higher drying temperature is very fast and causes more shrinkage of the dried
samples (Jokic et al., 2009) which is shown in the sample dried at 50oC; with the
highest rehydration index. Rehydration has an increasing trend with increasing
temperature since it had an increasing effect on the shrinkage of samples which
makes the cellular structure of the sample more porous (Abasi et al., 2009) and
enabled more water adsorption. The sample that undergone drying at 30oC
30 90 180
FD 0.017 0.016 0.026
30 0.014 0.015 0.020
40 0.013 0.016 0.025
50 0.018 0.021 0.031
ab b
ab
bc b
b
c
b
ab a a
a
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
Re
hyd
rati
on
Ind
ex
Time (s)
FD
30
40
50
25
showed the lowest rehydration index, possibly due to reduced shrinkage, and in
line with the observation that the sample retain a high moisture content, thus
weaken the driving force of the water molecules into the sample (Sagrin et al.,
2013).
4.5. Total phenolic content (Folin-Ciocalteau assay)
Table 5: Effects of drying temperatures on the total phenolic content.
Total Phenolic
Content (nm)
GAE (mg/g extract) TPC Reduction (%)
Fresh 0.953 0.019a 3.561 -
Freeze dried 0.709 0.016b
2.385 33.032
30oC 0.948 0.036
a 3.538 0.633
40oC 0.738 0.009
b 2.525 29.101
50oC 0.923 0.005
a 3.418 4.022
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level
(P < 0.05).
26
Figure 5: Effect of drying temperature on the loss of TPC.
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level (P <
0.05).
The data obtained were expressed in the percentage of total phenolic
compound loss in the peel, in relative to the fresh sample. All of the changes
obtained were significantly different after drying process. The highest percentage
of loss was found in the freeze dried sample, followed by cabinet dried at 40oC,
50oC and 30
oC with the values of 33.032%, 29.101%, 4.022% and 0.633%
respectively. The highest percentage of loss observed in freeze dried sample was
due to the binding of phenolic compounds to other peel components, such as
proteins, or because of an altered chemical structure caused by drying (Sagrin et
3.561
2.385
3.538
2.525
3.418 a 33.032
d 0.633
b 29.101
c 4.022
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Fresh FD 30 40 50
Per
cen
tage
of
TPC
Red
uct
ion
(%
)
TPC
(G
AE,
mg/
g ex
trac
t)
Temperature (C)
TPC
27
al., 2013). Apart from that, in line with the highest percentage of moisture loss in
freeze dried sample, highest percentage of TPC reduction was found in the
sample, most probably due to loss of water-soluble phenolic compounds in the
peel during drying.
However, the percentage of loss of TPC at drying temperature of 50oC is
lower as compared to the one dried at 40oC. As reported by Gupta et al., 2011,
this increase could be related to the developmental changes and wound-like
response due to drying and that plants respond to wounding with increase in
phenolic compounds involved in the repair of wound damage.
28
CHAPTER V
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
By analyzing all the results from this study, drying temperatures significantly
affects the physicochemical properties of dried peels as compared to the fresh peel. From
the values obtained, calamansi peels can be a source of phenolic compounds. Thus, the
results provide a rationale for broadening the usage of calamansi peels from this research.
However, this results include the non-edible part of the peels; the inner white part of the
peels. Therefore, further studies should be conducted to investigate the properties of only
the edible part of the calamansi peels.
29
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Cheong, M.W., Chong, Z.S., Liu, S.Q., Zhou, W., Curran, P., Yu, B., 2012.
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Food Science and Technology, 1-7.
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drying procedure on colour and rehydration characteristic of wild asparagus. Czech
Journal Food Science, 27: 171-177.
30
Krokida, M.K., Maroulis, Z.B., Saravacos, G.D., 2001. The effect of the method of
drying on the colour of dehydrated products. International Journal of Food Science
and Technology 36, 53-59.
Ladaniya, M., 2008. Citrus fruit, biology, technology and evaluation. London: Academic
Press.
Lim, Y.Y., Lim, T.T., Tee, J.J., 2007. Antioxidant properties of several tropical fruits: A
comparative study. Food Chemistry 103, 1003-1008.
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of musk lime (Citrus microcarpa) seed oil. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture 88, 676-683.
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and
Development (PCARRD), 2010.
Sagrin, M.S., Chong, G.H., 2013. Effect of drying temperature on the chemical and
physical properties of Musa acuminata Colla (AAA Group) leaves. Industrial Crops
and Products 45, 430-434.
Samonte, P.A.L., Trinidad, T.P., 2013. Dietary fiber, phytonutrients and antioxidant
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Estimation of total phenolic content in Aegle marmelos seeds. International Journal of
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Toontom, N., Meenune, M., Posri, W., Lertsiri, S., 2012. Effect of drying method on
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32
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Calamansi
Calamansi Fruit. From Great food from the Phillipines: Calamansi,
(http://www.gardeningismyhobby.com/2013/02/28/calamansi-tree-oozing-with-
fruits/)
Calamansi Tree. From Calamansi Tree Oozing with Fruits,
(http://kikaymorena.blogspot.com/2011/02/calamansi-is-my-everything.html)
33
Appendix 2: One-way ANOVA for moisture content
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 4 12148.85 3037.21 30430.95 0.000
Error 10 1.00 0.10
Total 14 12149.84
S = 0.3159 R-Sq = 99.99% R-Sq(adj) = 99.99%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev -------+---------+---------+---------+--
Fr 3 79.183 0.635 (*
Fd 3 7.227 0.145 (*
30 3 10.113 0.136 *
40 3 7.890 0.212 *
50 3 7.117 0.106 (*
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
20 40 60 80
Pooled StDev = 0.316
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
Fr 3 79.183 A
30 3 10.113 B
40 3 7.890 C
Fd 3 7.227 C
50 3 7.117 C
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.18%
Fr subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ------+---------+---------+---------+---
Fd -72.805 -71.957 -71.109 *
30 -69.918 -69.070 -68.222 *)
40 -72.141 -71.293 -70.445 *)
50 -72.915 -72.067 -71.219 *
------+---------+---------+---------+---
-60 -40 -20 0
Fd subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ------+---------+---------+---------+---
30 2.039 2.887 3.735 *)
40 -0.185 0.663 1.511 *)
50 -0.958 -0.110 0.738 *
------+---------+---------+---------+---
34
-60 -40 -20 0
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ------+---------+---------+---------+---
40 -3.071 -2.223 -1.375 (*
50 -3.845 -2.997 -2.149 (*
------+---------+---------+---------+---
-60 -40 -20 0
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ------+---------+---------+---------+---
50 -1.621 -0.773 0.075 (*
------+---------+---------+---------+---
-60 -40 -20 0
MOISTURE REDUCTION
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 3 27.036 9.012 75.69 0.000
Error 8 0.952 0.119
Total 11 27.988
S = 0.3450 R-Sq = 96.60% R-Sq(adj) = 95.32%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev -------+---------+---------+---------+--
FD 3 90.873 0.247 (---*---)
30 3 87.227 0.075 (---*---)
40 3 90.213 0.493 (---*---)
50 3 90.833 0.408 (---*---)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
87.6 88.8 90.0 91.2
Pooled StDev = 0.345
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
FD 3 90.8733 A
50 3 90.8333 A
40 3 90.2133 A
30 3 87.2267 B
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 98.74%
FD subtracted from:
35
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
30 -4.5491 -3.6467 -2.7442 (--*---)
40 -1.5624 -0.6600 0.2424 (--*---)
50 -0.9424 -0.0400 0.8624 (---*--)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
40 2.0842 2.9867 3.8891 (---*---)
50 2.7042 3.6067 4.5091 (--*---)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
50 -0.2824 0.6200 1.5224 (--*---)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
36
Appendix 3: One-way ANOVA for water activity and pH values
Water activity
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 4 0.497795 0.124449 687.31 0.000
Error 10 0.001811 0.000181
Total 14 0.499606
S = 0.01346 R-Sq = 99.64% R-Sq(adj) = 99.49%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev -+---------+---------+---------+--------
Fr 3 0.96333 0.00757 (*)
Fd 3 0.45100 0.00265 (*)
30 3 0.57633 0.00208 (*-)
40 3 0.52733 0.02888 (*)
50 3 0.52133 0.00153 (*)
-+---------+---------+---------+--------
0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90
Pooled StDev = 0.01346
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
Fr 3 0.96333 A
30 3 0.57633 B
40 3 0.52733 C
50 3 0.52133 C
Fd 3 0.45100 D
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.18%
Fr subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
Fd -0.54846 -0.51233 -0.47621 (*-)
30 -0.42313 -0.38700 -0.35087 (-*)
40 -0.47213 -0.43600 -0.39987 (-*-)
50 -0.47813 -0.44200 -0.40587 (-*-)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-0.40 -0.20 -0.00 0.20
Fd subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
37
30 0.08921 0.12533 0.16146 (-*-)
40 0.04021 0.07633 0.11246 (-*-)
50 0.03421 0.07033 0.10646 (-*)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-0.40 -0.20 -0.00 0.20
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
40 -0.08513 -0.04900 -0.01287 (-*)
50 -0.09113 -0.05500 -0.01887 (-*-)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-0.40 -0.20 -0.00 0.20
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
50 -0.04213 -0.00600 0.03013 (-*-)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-0.40 -0.20 -0.00 0.20
pH values
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 4 0.056293 0.014073 75.39 0.000
Error 10 0.001867 0.000187
Total 14 0.058160
S = 0.01366 R-Sq = 96.79% R-Sq(adj) = 95.51%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev +---------+---------+---------+---------
Fr 3 3.4333 0.0115 (--*--)
Fd 3 3.4467 0.0252 (-*--)
30 3 3.5667 0.0058 (-*--)
40 3 3.4433 0.0115 (--*--)
50 3 3.3800 0.0000 (--*--)
+---------+---------+---------+---------
3.360 3.420 3.480 3.540
Pooled StDev = 0.0137
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
30 3 3.56667 A
Fd 3 3.44667 B
40 3 3.44333 B
Fr 3 3.43333 B
50 3 3.38000 C
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
38
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.18%
Fr subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
Fd -0.02335 0.01333 0.05001 (--*--)
30 0.09665 0.13333 0.17001 (--*--)
40 -0.02668 0.01000 0.04668 (--*--)
50 -0.09001 -0.05333 -0.01665 (---*--)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.12 0.00 0.12 0.24
Fd subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
30 0.08332 0.12000 0.15668 (--*--)
40 -0.04001 -0.00333 0.03335 (--*--)
50 -0.10335 -0.06667 -0.02999 (--*---)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.12 0.00 0.12 0.24
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
40 -0.16001 -0.12333 -0.08665 (--*--)
50 -0.22335 -0.18667 -0.14999 (--*---)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.12 0.00 0.12 0.24
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
50 -0.10001 -0.06333 -0.02665 (--*--)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.12 0.00 0.12 0.24
39
Appendix 4: One-way ANOVA for color analysis
(L*)
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 4 853.17 213.29 163.87 0.000
Error 10 13.02 1.30
Total 14 866.19
S = 1.141 R-Sq = 98.50% R-Sq(adj) = 97.90%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev ---+---------+---------+---------+------
Fr 3 34.340 0.943 (-*-)
FD 3 57.533 1.605 (-*-)
30 3 43.690 1.450 (-*--)
40 3 48.630 0.560 (-*--)
50 3 48.040 0.792 (-*-)
---+---------+---------+---------+------
35.0 42.0 49.0 56.0
Pooled StDev = 1.141
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
FD 3 57.533 A
40 3 48.630 B
50 3 48.040 B
30 3 43.690 C
Fr 3 34.340 D
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.18%
Fr subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ----+---------+---------+---------+-----
FD 20.130 23.193 26.256 (-*--)
30 6.287 9.350 12.413 (--*-)
40 11.227 14.290 17.353 (--*-)
50 10.637 13.700 16.763 (-*--)
----+---------+---------+---------+-----
-12 0 12 24
FD subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ----+---------+---------+---------+-----
40
30 -16.906 -13.843 -10.780 (-*--)
40 -11.966 -8.903 -5.840 (--*-)
50 -12.556 -9.493 -6.430 (-*--)
----+---------+---------+---------+-----
-12 0 12 24
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ----+---------+---------+---------+-----
40 1.877 4.940 8.003 (-*--)
50 1.287 4.350 7.413 (--*-)
----+---------+---------+---------+-----
-12 0 12 24
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ----+---------+---------+---------+-----
50 -3.653 -0.590 2.473 (--*-)
----+---------+---------+---------+-----
-12 0 12 24
(a*)
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 4 36.6734 9.1684 679.47 0.000
Error 10 0.1349 0.0135
Total 14 36.8083
S = 0.1162 R-Sq = 99.63% R-Sq(adj) = 99.49%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev +---------+---------+---------+---------
Fr 3 -4.8333 0.0681 (-*)
Fd 3 -5.8167 0.1242 (-*)
30 3 -2.4533 0.1557 (-*)
40 3 -2.1833 0.0833 (*)
50 3 -1.9967 0.1274 (*-)
+---------+---------+---------+---------
-6.0 -4.8 -3.6 -2.4
Pooled StDev = 0.1162
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
50 3 -1.9967 A
40 3 -2.1833 A B
30 3 -2.4533 B
Fr 3 -4.8333 C
Fd 3 -5.8167 D
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
41
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.18%
Fr subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
Fd -1.2952 -0.9833 -0.6715 (*)
30 2.0681 2.3800 2.6919 (-*)
40 2.3381 2.6500 2.9619 (-*)
50 2.5248 2.8367 3.1485 (*-)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
Fd subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
30 3.0515 3.3633 3.6752 (*-)
40 3.3215 3.6333 3.9452 (-*)
50 3.5081 3.8200 4.1319 (*-)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
40 -0.0419 0.2700 0.5819 (*)
50 0.1448 0.4567 0.7685 (*)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
50 -0.1252 0.1867 0.4985 (-*)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
(b*) Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 4 110.800 27.700 37.29 0.000
Error 10 7.427 0.743
Total 14 118.227
S = 0.8618 R-Sq = 93.72% R-Sq(adj) = 91.20%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev ----+---------+---------+---------+-----
Fr 3 22.720 0.737 (----*---)
Fd 3 22.533 0.840 (---*----)
30 3 24.010 0.217 (---*---)
40 3 25.530 1.070 (---*----)
50 3 29.940 1.128 (----*---)
42
----+---------+---------+---------+-----
22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0
Pooled StDev = 0.862
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
50 3 29.940 A
40 3 25.530 B
30 3 24.010 B C
Fr 3 22.720 C
Fd 3 22.533 C
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.18%
Fr subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
Fd -2.500 -0.187 2.127 (----*---)
30 -1.024 1.290 3.604 (----*---)
40 0.496 2.810 5.124 (----*---)
50 4.906 7.220 9.534 (---*----)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
Fd subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
30 -0.837 1.477 3.790 (----*----)
40 0.683 2.997 5.310 (----*----)
50 5.093 7.407 9.720 (----*---)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
40 -0.794 1.520 3.834 (----*----)
50 3.616 5.930 8.244 (----*---)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
50 2.096 4.410 6.724 (----*---)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
43
Appendix 5: One-way ANOVA for rehydration index
(30 seconds)
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 3 0.0000422 0.0000141 14.22 0.001
Error 8 0.0000079 0.0000010
Total 11 0.0000501
S = 0.0009946 R-Sq = 84.21% R-Sq(adj) = 78.29%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev -+---------+---------+---------+--------
FD 3 0.016067 0.001447 (-----*------)
30 3 0.013967 0.001328 (------*-----)
40 3 0.013200 0.000100 (------*------)
50 3 0.018000 0.000300 (------*------)
-+---------+---------+---------+--------
0.0120 0.0140 0.0160 0.0180
Pooled StDev = 0.000995
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
50 3 0.0180000 A
FD 3 0.0160667 A B
30 3 0.0139667 B C
40 3 0.0132000 C
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 98.74%
FD subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper
30 -0.0047012 -0.0021000 0.0005012
40 -0.0054679 -0.0028667 -0.0002655
50 -0.0006679 0.0019333 0.0045345
---------+---------+---------+---------+
30 (------*-----)
40 (------*-----)
50 (------*-----)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.0040 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080
44
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper
40 -0.0033679 -0.0007667 0.0018345
50 0.0014321 0.0040333 0.0066345
---------+---------+---------+---------+
40 (-----*------)
50 (-----*------)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.0040 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper
50 0.0021988 0.0048000 0.0074012
---------+---------+---------+---------+
50 (------*------)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.0040 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080
(90 seconds)
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 3 0.0000658 0.0000219 14.20 0.001
Error 8 0.0000123 0.0000015
Total 11 0.0000781
S = 0.001242 R-Sq = 84.19% R-Sq(adj) = 78.27%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev --------+---------+---------+---------+-
FD 3 0.016333 0.000569 (-----*------)
30 3 0.014633 0.000569 (------*-----)
40 3 0.015667 0.000896 (------*-----)
50 3 0.020767 0.002173 (------*------)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
0.0150 0.0175 0.0200 0.0225
Pooled StDev = 0.001242
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
50 3 0.020767 A
FD 3 0.016333 B
40 3 0.015667 B
30 3 0.014633 B
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
45
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 98.74%
FD subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
30 -0.004949 -0.001700 0.001549 (------*-----)
40 -0.003916 -0.000667 0.002582 (------*-----)
50 0.001184 0.004433 0.007682 (------*-----)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.0050 0.0000 0.0050 0.0100
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
40 -0.002216 0.001033 0.004282 (-----*------)
50 0.002884 0.006133 0.009382 (-----*------)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.0050 0.0000 0.0050 0.0100
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper ---------+---------+---------+---------+
50 0.001851 0.005100 0.008349 (-----*------)
---------+---------+---------+---------+
-0.0050 0.0000 0.0050 0.0100
(180 seconds)
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 3 0.0002093 0.0000698 6.15 0.018
Error 8 0.0000908 0.0000114
Total 11 0.0003002
S = 0.003370 R-Sq = 69.74% R-Sq(adj) = 58.39%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev -----+---------+---------+---------+----
FD 3 0.026167 0.002503 (-------*------)
30 3 0.019567 0.001498 (-------*------)
40 3 0.024533 0.001450 (-------*------)
50 3 0.031267 0.005900 (------*-------)
-----+---------+---------+---------+----
0.0180 0.0240 0.0300 0.0360
Pooled StDev = 0.003370
46
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
50 3 0.031267 A
FD 3 0.026167 A B
40 3 0.024533 A B
30 3 0.019567 B
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 98.74%
FD subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
30 -0.015413 -0.006600 0.002213 (------*-------)
40 -0.010447 -0.001633 0.007180 (-------*------)
50 -0.003713 0.005100 0.013913 (------*-------)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-0.012 0.000 0.012 0.024
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
40 -0.003847 0.004967 0.013780 (------*------)
50 0.002887 0.011700 0.020513 (-------*------)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-0.012 0.000 0.012 0.024
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper -------+---------+---------+---------+--
50 -0.002080 0.006733 0.015547 (-------*------)
-------+---------+---------+---------+--
-0.012 0.000 0.012 0.024
47
Appendix 6: One-way ANOVA for total phenolic content (TPC)
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 4 0.173439 0.043360 107.90 0.000
Error 10 0.004019 0.000402
Total 14 0.177458
S = 0.02005 R-Sq = 97.74% R-Sq(adj) = 96.83%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev -----+---------+---------+---------+----
Fr 3 0.95267 0.01893 (--*--)
FD 3 0.70900 0.01559 (---*--)
30 3 0.94800 0.03600 (---*--)
40 3 0.73800 0.00917 (--*--)
50 3 0.92300 0.00529 (--*---)
-----+---------+---------+---------+----
0.720 0.800 0.880 0.960
Pooled StDev = 0.02005
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
Fr 3 0.95267 A
30 3 0.94800 A
50 3 0.92300 A
40 3 0.73800 B
FD 3 0.70900 B
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.18%
Fr subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper +---------+---------+---------+---------
FD -0.29749 -0.24367 -0.18985 (---*--)
30 -0.05849 -0.00467 0.04915 (---*--)
40 -0.26849 -0.21467 -0.16085 (---*--)
50 -0.08349 -0.02967 0.02415 (---*---)
+---------+---------+---------+---------
-0.30 -0.15 0.00 0.15
FD subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper +---------+---------+---------+---------
30 0.18518 0.23900 0.29282 (---*---)
40 -0.02482 0.02900 0.08282 (---*---)
50 0.16018 0.21400 0.26782 (--*---)
+---------+---------+---------+---------
48
-0.30 -0.15 0.00 0.15
30 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper +---------+---------+---------+---------
40 -0.26382 -0.21000 -0.15618 (---*---)
50 -0.07882 -0.02500 0.02882 (--*---)
+---------+---------+---------+---------
-0.30 -0.15 0.00 0.15
40 subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper +---------+---------+---------+---------
50 0.13118 0.18500 0.23882 (--*---)
+---------+---------+---------+---------
-0.30 -0.15 0.00 0.15
Gallic acid (TPC)
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 5 0.862754 0.172551 599.14 0.000
Error 12 0.003456 0.000288
Total 17 0.866210
S = 0.01697 R-Sq = 99.60% R-Sq(adj) = 99.43%
Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on
Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev ----+---------+---------+---------+-----
Blank 3 0.14000 0.02623 (*)
3.125 ppm 3 0.26567 0.00603 (*)
6.25 ppm 3 0.33933 0.02026 (*)
12.5 ppm 3 0.43700 0.00624 (*)
25 ppm 3 0.47800 0.01970 (*)
50 pm 3 0.83867 0.01290 (*)
----+---------+---------+---------+-----
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
Pooled StDev = 0.01697
Grouping Information Using Tukey Method
N Mean Grouping
50 pm 3 0.83867 A
25 ppm 3 0.47800 B
12.5 ppm 3 0.43700 B
6.25 ppm 3 0.33933 C
3.125 ppm 3 0.26567 D
Blank 3 0.14000 E
49
Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.
Tukey 95% Simultaneous Confidence Intervals
All Pairwise Comparisons
Individual confidence level = 99.43%
Blank subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
3.125 ppm 0.07913 0.12567 0.17221 (-*)
6.25 ppm 0.15279 0.19933 0.24587 (-*)
12.5 ppm 0.25046 0.29700 0.34354 (*-)
25 ppm 0.29146 0.33800 0.38454 (-*)
50 pm 0.65213 0.69867 0.74521 (*)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-0.35 0.00 0.35 0.70
3.125 ppm subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
6.25 ppm 0.02713 0.07367 0.12021 (*)
12.5 ppm 0.12479 0.17133 0.21787 (*)
25 ppm 0.16579 0.21233 0.25887 (*)
50 pm 0.52646 0.57300 0.61954 (*-)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-0.35 0.00 0.35 0.70
6.25 ppm subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
12.5 ppm 0.05113 0.09767 0.14421 (-*)
25 ppm 0.09213 0.13867 0.18521 (*)
50 pm 0.45279 0.49933 0.54587 (*-)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-0.35 0.00 0.35 0.70
12.5 ppm subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
25 ppm -0.00554 0.04100 0.08754 (*-)
50 pm 0.35513 0.40167 0.44821 (*-)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-0.35 0.00 0.35 0.70
25 ppm subtracted from:
Lower Center Upper --------+---------+---------+---------+-
50 pm 0.31413 0.36067 0.40721 (*-)
--------+---------+---------+---------+-
-0.35 0.00 0.35 0.70
50
Gallic acid standard curve (TPC)
y = 12.438x + 0.2157 R = 0.9491
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
0.0000 0.0100 0.0200 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.0600
Ab
sorb
ance
(n
m)
Concentration (mg/mL)
51
VITAE
Nur Afiqah binti Ab Aziz was born in Ipoh, Perak on 29th
July 1991. She is the
second child from five siblings; a brother and three sisters. Both of her parents were
alumni of University Putra Malaysia and currently work as teachers in Kelantan.
She received her early education in Peter and Jane Preschool. Later, she received
her education in Sekolah Kebangsaan Banggol Guchil, Kuala Krai, but then moved to
Sekolah Kebangsaan Seri Ketereh when she and her family moved to Ketereh. In her
early year of secondary school, she went to Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Ketereh; for
almost three years. Later, she went to Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Melor for her
Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR) in 2006 and Sijil Peperiksaan Malaysia (SPM) in
2008.
She obtained a result of 4As and 5Bs in her SPM and later pursue her study in
Kolej Matrikulasi Perak (KMPk) in Physical Science in 2009. During matriculation, she
showed a good performance, thus making her eligible to enroll into University Putra
Malaysia (UPM), one of the prestigious universities in Malaysia under a programme of
Faculty of Food Science and Technology for Bacelor of Food Science and Technology.
During her 4 years of study, she had learnt a lot of new things, gain new knowledge,
experience and friends, and improves herself for the better.