Efficient Deceleration - The Forgotten Factor in Tennis-Specific Training

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Efficient Deceleration:

The Forgotten Factor inTennis-Specific TrainingMark S. Kovacs, PhD, CSCS,1 E. Paul Roetert, PhD,1 and Todd S. Ellenbecker, DPT, CSCS21Player Development, United States Tennis Association, Boca Raton, Florida; 2Physiotherapy Associates, Scottsdale,Arizona

S U M M A R Y

EFFICIENT DECELERATION IS PAR-

AMOUNT TO ALLOW FOR FAST

AND EXPLOSIVE CHANGES OF DI-

RECTION. BECAUSE MOST TENNIS

POINTS HAVE BETWEEN 3 AND 7

CHANGES OF DIRECTIONS, THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPO-

NENTS IN CHANGE OF DIRECTION

MOVEMENTS IS A MAJOR COM-

PONENT OF COMPETITIVE PLAY.

TRAINING FOR TENNIS REQUIRES

A STRONG UNDERSTANDING NOT

ONLY OF THE ACCELERATION AS-PECTS OF MOVEMENT BUT ALSO

THE NEED FOR TENNIS-SPECIFIC

DECELERATION. IN THIS ARTICLE,

WE REVIEW TENNIS MOVEMENTS

FROM BOTH AN UPPER- AND

LOWER-BODY PERSPECTIVE AND

DESCRIBE THE IMPORTANT COM-

PONENTS OF TENNIS-SPECIFIC

DECELERATION WITH PRACTICAL

EXAMPLES OF DECELERATION

TRAINING IDEAS.

INTRODUCTION

For competitive tennis players,exceptional movement is arequirement to achieve success

in junior tournaments as well as at thecollegiate or professional level. Accel-eration focused training is common instrength and conditioning programsfor tennis players; however, lessemphasis is sometimes given to theimportance that effective deceleration

training plays in both upper- and

lower-body movements of the tennis

athlete. The lower body needs toperform large decelerations to preparefor and recover after groundstrokesand volleys, as well as during thefollow-through and landing phase ofthe serve (29). The upper body,particularly the muscles of the upperback and posterior aspects of theshoulder, feature the major musclesthat help decelerate the upper limbsafter ball contact in serves, ground-strokes, and volleys (30). As such,deceleration needs to be considered

a vital component of a competitivetennis players training routine toachieve peak tennis performance. Toexplore the complex nature of de-celeration, a deterministic model hasbeen used to showcase the multi-faceted nature of deceleration and themany components that need to betrained to successfully execute thecorrect movements. A deterministicmodel is a systematic model thatis used to analyze and evaluate animportant component of a skill, whichprovides an approach that is based ona hierarchy of factors that are de-pendent on the result or outcome ofthe performance (22). Figure 1 de-scribes a deterministic model for de-celeration that can help the strengthand conditioning specialist highlightareas that need to be trained duringthe phases of a periodized trainingprogram. At the simplest level ofanalysis, deceleration is the fine in-terplay between musculoskeletal, neu-

ral, and technical components. To

develop effective deceleration capabil-

ities in tennis athletes, it is importantthat the strength and conditioningprogram includes ample time on all 3of these broad areas of training.

PLYOMETRIC MOVEMENTS

Plyometric exercises typically are in-corporated into an athletes programby the strength and conditioningspecialist to improve explosive move-ments by improving power outputs(21). Plyometric movements involve aneccentric loading immediately followedby a concentric contraction (14).Plyometric training enhances athleticperformance, typically by improvingpower outputs as measured by con-centric contractions. However, thebenefit of plyometric training also aidsin the training of adaptations in thesensorimotor system that enhances theathletes ability to brake, sometimesreferred to as the restrain mechanism(35,36). In addition, plyometric trainingaids in the correction of mechanically

disadvantageous jumping and changeof direction movements. Another addedbenefit with respect to decelerationtraining is the landing componentsafter a plyometric type movement.Because plyometric movements pro-duce greater power outputs, as theresult of the greater use of storedpotential energy, than nonplyometric

K E Y W O R D S :

acceleration; deceleration; movement;quickness; speed; tennis

VOLUME 30 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association58

Copyright .N ational Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited


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movements (33), these greater forcesrequire greater deceleration abilities.Therefore, training with the use of plyo-

metric movements not only improves

power and explosive movements butalso results in training adaptationsduring the landing or deceleration

phase of these movements. The need

to develop this improved ability tobrake and improve the restrain mech-anism will be the major focus of the

remainder of this article.

Figure 1. Deterministic model of deceleration.

Figure 2. Lower body deceleration after a tennis stroke.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 59



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LOWER-BODY DECELERATION

Although training acceleration is vitalto help an athlete become faster, thisimproved acceleration ability maynot transfer into improved tennisperformance if the athlete does nothave the ability to decelerate thefaster velocities in the appropriatetime frame and under the neededcontrol to make optimum contactwith the tennis ball. The ability to

effectively decelerate is also impor-tant while transitioning into a recov-ery movement that will allow theathlete to be in position for thenext stroke in the rally. Figure 2demonstrates the body position andimportance of appropriate strength,balance, and coordination, first toaccelerate into the forehand, andsecond to decelerate rapidly aftercontact with the ball has been made.

An athletes ability to decelerate isa trainable biomotor skill and, as such,needs to be included in a well-rounded,tennis-specific training program. Anathlete who can decelerate faster and ina shorter distance is an athlete who willnot only be faster but will also havegreat body control during the tennisstroke. This greater control during thestroke will result in a greater level ofdynamic balance (Figures 1 and 4),which translates into greater power ofthe strokes, and more solid racket andball contact, which results in moreeffective execution. A major influenceon a tennis players ability to decelerateis momentum. Momentum is theproduct of the mass of a moving athleteand his/her velocity. As an athletesvelocity increases, momentum is am-plified, requiring greater forces to de-celerate the fast moving tennis player.A larger tennis player (i.e., greatermass) has a more difficult time de-

celerating and, if the coach focuses the

Figure 4. Four major deceleration components.

Figure 3. Upper and lower body deceleration after a tennis serve.

VOLUME 30 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 200860

Efficient Deceleration



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majority of movement training onacceleration without focusing ampletime on deceleration, it will result in anathlete who has a faster initial velocitybut who may not be able to control the

body to slow down fast enough beforeand/or after making contact with theball. This will result in reduced on-court performance and may result inthe increased likelihood of injury. It hasbeen proposed in the literature that thecauses of the majority of athleticinjuries are the result of inappropriatedeceleration abilities of athletes and anoveremphasis of acceleration-focused(concentric specific movement) exer-cises both on and off-court (11,26).

UPPER-BODY DECELERATION

In the upper extremity, the body useseccentric contractions after ball impactin virtually all strokes to decelerate theupper-extremity kinetic chain. Thesecontractions are of vital importancearound the shoulder and scapular areabecause they help to maintain thecritically important stability that isneeded to both prevent injury andenhance performance. For example,during the serve (Figure 3), the upper

arm is elevated approximately 90100

degrees relative to the body (abduc-tion). In this position, large forces aregenerated by the internal rotatormuscles such as the latissimus dorsiand pectoralis major to accelerate the

arm and racquet head forward towardan explosive ball impact.

Immediately after ball impact, themuscles in the back of the shoulder,including the scapular stabilizers (infra-spinatus, teres minor, serratus anterior,trapezius and rhomboids [27]), have to

work eccentrically to decelerate thearm as it continues to internally rotate.Fleisig et al. (9) reported anteriortranslational forces during the acceler-ation and follow-through phases of the

overhead throwing motion to approx-imately 13body weight in the gleno-humeral joint. The posterior rotatorcuff muscletendon units are responsi-ble for maintaining joint stability byresisting this anterior translation/dis-tractional force to prevent injury to the

Figure 5. Deceleration and requirement of eccentric strength during a forehand stroke.

Figure 6. Lengthtension curve before and after eccentric exercise. Adapted from

Brughelli and Cronin (3).




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glenoid labrum and other structures inthe shoulder (9). This deceleration iscritical for injury prevention becausethe inability to dissipate these large

forces by the muscles in the back of theshoulder and scapular area can lead toinjury (Figure 3). Similar results areseen in tennis movements and requireappropriate training (7).

In addition to the high levels of activityidentified during the serve, the samerotator cuff and scapular muscles workto decelerate the arm on the forehandduring the follow-through phase.Training these important muscles pro-vides important muscle balance to thetennis player. Players are deficient in

these important decelerator muscles(5,16,31) and do not understand theimportance of training these musclesby incorporating deceleration typetraining programs into their normaltraining regimens.

TRAINING SPECIFICITY

It has been shown in the scientificliterature that linear acceleration andlinear maximum velocity are separatequalities from multidirectional move-

ments that require a change ofdirection and/or a deceleration ofmovement (43). Young et al. (43) foundthat straight-ahead sprinting, such asa 100-m sprint in track and field, doesnot transfer directly to the movementstypically seen on a tennis court. Thisresult is caused by the differences inmovement mechanics, muscle firingpatterns, and motor learning skillsrequired to perform straight line sprint-ing versus tennis play that require startand stop movements and numerouschanges of direction in every point. Asa result, training for tennis-specificacceleration, deceleration, and recov-ery movements (change of direction)requires movement patterns, distances,and energy system focus that resemblescompetitive tennis play. Because tennisis an untimed competition, it may lastanywhere from 30 minutes to 5 hours(17). However, from a practical stand-point, we know that high-level com-petitive tennis has some typical

patterns that occur during matches

Figure 7. 90/90 prone plyometric exercise.

Figure 8. Prone horizontal abduction plyometric exercise.

Figure 9. Reverse catch deceleration training exercise.





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that can help the strength and condi-tioning professional when designingprograms. Athletes typically encounterbetween 3 and 7 directional changes

per point, rarely move more than 30yards in one direction (16,38). Inaddition, point length averages arearound 6 seconds, with the majorityof points lasting less than 10 seconds,and a typical work-to-rest ratio duringindividual points and matches is be-tween 1:2 and 1:5 (15,16,18,19,30). Allthese factors can be used to helpdevelop tennis-specific decelerationtraining programs.

WHAT FACTORS IMPROVE A

TENNIS PLAYERS DECELERATIONABILITY?

Dynamic balance, eccentric strength,power, and reactive strength are4 major qualities that have a significantinfluence on an athletes ability todecelerate, while maintaining appro-priate body position to execute thenecessary tennis stroke and then re-cover for the next stroke (Figure 4)(41). Although other components docontribute to an athletes ability toeffectively decelerate, these 4 factors

will be investigated to aid the strengthand conditioning coach in designingeffective programs.

DYNAMIC BALANCE

Dynamic balance is paramount intennis, specifically during the deceler-ation movement phase before or afterthe player makes contact with the ball.Dynamic balance is the ability of theathlete to maintain a stable center ofgravity while the athlete is moving (1).This ability to maintain balance ina dynamic environment allows theathlete to successfully use the segmen-tal summation of muscular forces andmovements through the kinetic chain(13). This efficient energy transfer fromthe ground and up through the entirekinetic chain will result in a moreefficient and powerful tennis stroke, inaddition to faster racket head speedsand ball velocities. Additionally, dy-namic balance can refer to the abilityduring movements of opposing

muscles to work optimally together

to produce uncompensated movementpatterns (1). This is particularly impor-tant in the upper extremity whenproper muscle balance must be main-tained to improve shoulder joint sta-bility. Although experts may not agreeon the mechanisms involved in athlete-specific balance, the research suggeststhat changes in both sensory andmotor systems influence balance per-formance (1). The feedback obtainedfrom plyometric movements encom-passes a number of reflexive pathwaysthat aid muscle and neural adaptationsto accommodate unanticipated move-ments (34). These adaptations are vitalfor the prevention of injuries during

practice and competition.

ECCENTRIC STRENGTH

Eccentric strength requires training of

the muscles during the lengthening

phase of the muscle action. An exam-

ple would be during the step beforeand the loading phase of a forehand

(Figure 5). Eccentric strengthening

exercises need to be performed both

bilaterally and unilaterally. Nearly all

tennis movements require the athlete

to load one side of the body more than

the other, and it is paramount that

these uneven loading patterns are

trained eccentrically as well as con-

centrically. It is known that physically

trained humans can support approxi-

mately 30% more weight eccentrically

Figure 10. Tennis-specific reverse catch. A) Start. B) Deceleration phase.




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than concentrically (6,23,40). There-fore, eccentric focused strength train-ing needs to be incorporated into anathletes periodized program to suc-cessfully maximize his or her athleticimprovement. A second major benefitof training eccentric strength is to

aid in the prevention of injuries(2,26). A large portion of injuries totennis players is attributable to in-sufficient eccentric strength both inthe upper body during the decelerationof the racket after serves, ground-strokes, and volleys, as well as in thelower body during the deceleration ofthe body before planting the feet toestablish a stable base for effectivestroke production.

Eccentric strengthening exercises have

a positive effect on altering the length

tension relationship of muscle (3). Theoptimum length of peak tension occursat longer lengths, therefore, shifting thecurve to the right (Figure 6).

Lengthtension curves for single fibers(sarcomeres), whole muscle, and single

joints all have different shapes (3). As

the result of these different shapes, it isvital for the athlete to be trained at avariety of angles and torques to stimu-late adaptations in as many musclefibers as possible to capture the greatesteffect on altering the lengthtensionrelationship, specifically during eccen-tric dominant movements. A greatreview of the eccentric exercise litera-ture by Brughelli and Cronin (3)devised some tentative conclusionsthat should be helpful when designing

programs focused on eccentric

strengthening to optimize the lengthtension relationship. High-intensity and higher volume

eccentric exercise result in greater

shifts in optimum length Eccentric muscle actions at longer

lengths result in greater shifts inoptimum length

It may be possible to produce asustained shift in optimum lengthafter 4 weeks of eccentric exercise

Excessive muscle damage may notneed to be induced for this shift inoptimum length to occur witheccentric exercise

From the muscle physiology literature,we know that after eccentric exercise,

the athletes cytoskeletal proteins, suchas desmin and titin, are disrupted anddegradation occurs (10), possibly ashigh as 30% after a single bout ofeccentric exercise (37). This processthen results in a protective adaptationthat strengthens the cytoskeletal pro-teins and prevents them from beingdamaged in the future. This is one ofthe major theorized mechanisms as towhy eccentric strengthening is impor-tant for injury prevention, especiallyduring movements that require rapid

deceleration. Most muscle-related in-juries occur when they are activelylengthened (11). From the literature, itappears that neural control of eccentricactions is unique from control of con-centric actions (25). The central nervoussystem adjusts motor unit recruitment,activation level, distribution of thatactivation, and afferent feedback dur-ing eccentric muscle actions (8).Therefore, specificity of muscle con-traction mode (i.e., eccentric, isometricor concentric) during training isimportant.

POWER

Power for the tennis player is whatdirectly translates into greater rackethead speed and ball velocity. Mostforms of plyometric exercise move-ments are geared toward improvingmuscular power. Plyometric exercisesare vital for the development ofgreat deceleration abilities through

a number of separate, yet interrelated

Figure 11. External rotation at 90 degrees with elastic tubing. A) Start. B) Finish.





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mechanisms. Plyometric movementsinduce neuromuscular adaptations to

the stretch reflex, as well as theelasticity of muscle and Golgi tendonorgans (GTOs) (39). The stretch reflexis initiated during the eccentric loadingand results in greater motor unitrecruitment during the ensuing con-centric contraction. GTOs have a pro-tective function against excessivetensile loads in the muscle; however,plyometric training results in a degreeof desensitization of the stretch reflex,which allows the elastic component ofmuscle to undergo a greater stretch(12). The combined adaptations resultsin a more powerful concentric con-traction which, in tennis, would resultin greater power and speed in re-covering from hitting one stroke to thenext. It is thought that a large portionof muscular performance gains afterplyometric movements are attributedto neural changes rather than morpho-logical (39). This improved neuromus-cular function directly influences themajor components needed for effective

deceleration ability (Figure 1).

REACTIVE STRENGTH

Reactive strength has been defined asthe ability to quickly change during themuscle contraction sequence from theeccentric to the concentric phase in thestretchshortening cycle and is a spe-cific form of muscle power (42). Aplyometric training program that useslateral and multidirectional movementswhile limiting time on the ground will

develop reactive strength and

Figure 12. Romanian deadlift (RDL). A) Start. B) Finish.

Figure 13. Box jump. A) Start. B) Finish.




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subsequent power outputs in themuscles and movements that are seenduring tennis play. This type of trainingdirectly relates to a tennis athlete in hisor her recovery sequences betweenshots and also during the times ina point when he or she is wrong-footed and is in need of rapid changeof direction. Increased muscle activity,specifically in the form of eccentric

loading, will enhance muscle stiffness.This increase in muscle stiffness leadsto more force absorption in themusculartendon unit rather thantransmitted through the articular struc-tures (32). It has been suggested thatmuscle activation is a dynamic restraintmechanism that results in protectingthe joints such as the shoulder, hip,knee, and ankle (32).

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS FORTHE TENNIS ATHLETEDeceleration is a biomotor skill that isclosely linked to agility and multidi-rectional movement training. As such,it needs to be trained in a multifocusedtraining program with appropriate restperiods and loads that are progressedbased on the tennis players growth,maturation, and training stages. Froma training perspective, the posteriormuscles of the tennis athlete need to bea focus if the athlete is to become

a successful player who has great

deceleration ability. In the lower body,the hip extensors, including the glutesand hamstring muscles, need to betrained specifically in an eccentricmanner with progressive increases inresistance. In the upper body, a majorfocus needs to be on the posterioraspect of the shoulder region, whichwill assist in the deceleration of the armduring the tennis serve, groundstrokes,

and volleys. Because limited data arecurrently available on decelerationtraining guidelines, it is important tomonitor training closely because ec-centric loading can cause more delayedonset of muscle soreness than similarconcentric exercise (23). Because mul-tiple sets of exercises have showngreater results than single sets (20),deceleration training should be per-formed using multiple sets with variedrepetition ranges based on the age,maturation and training status of theathletes.

UPPER-BODY EXERCISES

This section contains 5 upper-extremityplyometric exercises. Each exercise canbe started with a small hand-sizedplyometric ball weighing approxi-mately 0.5 kg to start with progressionto a 1-kg ball as training progresses andcompetency and tolerance to theexercise is demonstrated by the player.

Exercise 5 (Figure 11) does not use

a weight but rather a piece of elastictubing to provide the overload for thisexercise. The plyo dropping exercisestypically use 30-second sets of exercise,

whereas the reverse catching exercisesuse multiple sets of 15 to 20 repetitionsto improve local muscular strength andendurance.

Exercise 1.Exercise 1 shows the 90/90prone plyometric exercise that placesthe shoulder and upper arm in a func-tional position inherent in the servingmotion. In this exercise, the playerrapidly drops and catches the ball asquickly as possible, with the ballmoving only a few centimeters as itleaves the grasp of the player tempo-rarily before being recaught and drop-ped from the reference position aspictured. Typically, multiple sets of 30seconds are used in training to fosterlocal muscular endurance (Figure 7).

Exercise 2. Exercise 2 is a pronehorizontal abduction plyometric exer-cise in which the athlete lies prone ona supportive surface with the shoulderabducted 90 degrees with the elbowextended. A small medicine ball is usedto repeatedly drop and catch the ball as

rapidly as possible as described forexercise 1 previously. By rotating thehand such that the thumb is pointingupward during the dropping andcatching activity (i.e., external shoulderrotation) this exercise has been foundto increase activation of the rotator cuffmuscles (Figure 8) (24,28).

Exercise 3. Exercise 3 shows a reversecatch deceleration training exercise. Inthis exercise, the arm is again posi-tioned in 90 degrees of elevation

(abduction) and 90 degrees of elbowflexion as pictured. A partner stands

just behind the player and throwsa small 0.5- to 1-kg medicine balltoward the players hand (30). Uponcatching the ball, the arm moves intointernal rotation until the forearm isnearly parallel to the ground, just as it isdecelerated during the serving motionfunctionally. The player, after deceler-ating the ball, rapidly fires the ballbackwards toward the partner, per-

forming a concentric contraction of the

Figure 14. Lateral hurdle runs with hold.





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rotator cuff and scapular muscles. Re-cent research has demonstrated signif-icant increases in eccentric strength in

the shoulder of subjects when usingthese types of exercises in a perfor-

mance enhancement training program(Figure 9) (4).

Exercise 4. Exercise 4 shows a variationof the reverse catch exercise where theathlete keeps the elbow straight duringthe catching and subsequent release of

the plyo ball to simulate the servingmotion and a PNF D2 diagonal pattern.The PNF D2 pattern is a functionaldiagonal pattern that closely simulates

the movement pattern the upper ex-tremity goes through during the throw-

ing or serving motion. D2 extension,

which is performed concentrically inthis exercise, includes the patterns ofshoulder flexion, abduction, and exter-nal rotation, whereas the eccentricaction incurred in this exercise afterthe catch of the medicine ball (D2

flexion) includes shoulder extension,internal rotation, and slight cross armadduction. This pattern is chosen for itsactivation pattern, which closely simu-lates the functional throwing or servingaction, as well as its activation of therotator cuff and scapular muscles.Emphasis is initially on the decelerationof the ball as the arm continues forwardafter catching the ball then rapidlyreversing direction to perform an ex-plosive concentric backward throwing

movement (Figure 10).

Exercise 5. Exercise 5 shows the externalrotation at 90 degrees exercise withelastic tubing. The traditional way ofdoing this exercise involves slow con-trolled internal and external rotation at90 degrees of abduction. However, to

increase the eccentric or decelerationemphasis of this exercise, a plyometrictype format can be incorporated to addvariety. Start with tension on the tubingwith the shoulder elevated 90 degrees inthe scapular plane (30 degrees forwardfrom the coronal plane) (Figure 11).The shoulder should be externallyrotated 90 degrees, which places theforearm in a vertical position. Theathlete then rapidly decelerates for-ward into internal rotation until the

forearm reaches a horizontal position.

Figure 15. A) MB deceleration catch lunge (linear). B) MB deceleration catch lunge (Lateral). C) MB deceleration catch lunge (45degrees). D) MB deceleration catch lunge (cross-over).




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Upon reaching this position, theathlete then explosively returns thehand and forearm back to the startingposition with as little pause between

the initial lengthening phase of theexercise and the concentric explosivephase as possible. This is repeated formultiple sets of 15 to 20 repetitions(Figure 11).

LOWER-BODY EXERCISES

Exercise 6. Exercise 6 shows aRomanian deadlift strength exercisethat works on the muscular develop-ment of the hamstrings, glutes, andlower back muscles as force is appliedduring eccentric muscle actions. Rep-

etition ranges and time under load forthis exercise should focus on bothmuscular strength and endurance dur-ing the training program (Figure 12).

Exercise 7. Exercise 7 shows a tradi-tional box jump with specific emphasison the landing phase. It is important tohave the athlete land in a strong squatposition, which develops eccentricstrength and rapid deceleration abili-ties. A more advanced athlete who hasdeveloped appropriate lower bodystrength can advance to performing adepth box jump. However, for youngerathletes, or athletes with limitedstrength in the lower body, a depth

jump should only be performed afterappropriate training and lower-bodystrengthening exercises (Figure 13).

Exercise 8. Lateral Hurdle Runs withHold. This is a traditional lateral-focused plyometric movement thatworks on the muscles of the lowerbody, from a stretch shortening per-spective, but also at the end of each set

of 4 hurdles the athlete needs todecelerate and come to a completestop and hold the lowered center ofmass position for 2 complete secondsbefore reaccelerating back into theexercise (Figure 14).

Exercise 9. Medicine Ball DecelerationCatch and Lunge (Linear, Lateral, 45Degrees, and Cross-Over). This exercisefocuses on the athlete catching a rela-tively heavy medicine ball during theeccentric portion of the lunge and then

releasing it during the concentric

portion of the lunge. The catchingaspect of the movement loads theeccentric portion (Figure 15).

Mark Kovacs isthe Manager of Sport Science forthe United StatesTennis Association.

Paul Roetert is

the Managing Di-rector of PlayerDevelopment forthe United StatesTennis Association.

ToddS. Ellenbecker

is the NationalDirector of Clinical

ResearchPhysio-therapy Associatesand is the Directorof Sports Medicine

for the ATP Tour.

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Efficient Deceleration - The Forgotten Factor in Tennis-Specific Training

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