EJSR_52_2_13 hyphenated compounds

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European Journal of Scientific ResearchISSN 1450-216X Vol.52 No.2 (2011), pp.252-264© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2011http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm

Hyphenated Compounds in Pakistani English

Rashid Mahmood Assistant Professor, Department of English

GC University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Asim Mahmood Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics

GC University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Tariq Saeed Assistant Professor, Department of English

Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, PakistanE-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The present research advocates the need to study non-native varieties of English intheir own right, as there are differences even at the micro level e.g. hyphenation. PakistaniEnglish exhibits differences from the standard Englishes at all the levels of linguisticanalyses especially lexis, grammar and phonology (Baumgardner, 1993, Saeed 2004,Mehboob, 2004). The present research focuses on the fifteen most frequent hyphenatedcompounds occurring in the 2.1 million words corpus of written Pakistani English. These

compounds have been studied in the three forms i.e. Hyphenated, Open and Solid. The datahave been explicated from three perspectives viz. internal variation, their comparison withBNC and dictionary entries. The study takes into account the percentage of the hyphenatedcompounds with respect to three forms within each corpus and then they are compared.Three dictionaries and software WordNet 2.1 have been used to verify which form of thesecompounds has been suggested for the learners to use. Interesting results have been found,as in many cases there are discrepancies regarding the use of the hyphenated compoundsamong the resources. Even the occurrences of them in BNC show the otherwise trendsfrom the resources e.g. ‘co-operation’ occurred 13% times in PE while 74% times in BNCas hyphenated, on the other hand 87% in PE and 25% in BNC it occurred as solid.Longman Dictionary of English Language presents it as solid, BBC English Dictionary as

hyphenated, Collins Cobuild English Dictionary as both hyphenated and solid, andWordNet 2.1 as solid. Native speakers can rely on their intuition in such matters, butteachers, learners and other users of non-native varieties of English have to verify (inabsence of local norms of the non-native variety) whether this particular aspect conforms tothe standard norms or not. Research based on large corpora of the non- native varieties cansolve such problems, which may not be very important in English speaking countries buthave pedagogical relevance in the Outer Circle countries.

Keywords: Non-Native varieties of English, Pakistani English, Open, Solid andHyphenated Compounds



Hyphenated Compounds in Pakistani English 253

1. BackgroundA study of hyphenated compound nouns has been carried out to show the special trends of thesecompounds in Pakistani English. The present research advocates the need to study non-native varietiesof English in their own right, as there are differences even at the micro level e.g. hyphenation.Pakistani English exhibits differences from the standard Englishes at all the levels of linguisticanalyses. The authors of this research have compiled a 2.1 million words corpus of Written PakistaniEnglish (PWE). Data has been taken from 29 text categories including News, Columns, Articles,Textbooks, Short stories, Novels etc. The present research focuses on the fifteen most frequenthyphenated compounds occurring in PWE. These compounds have been studied in the three forms i.e.Hyphenated, Open and Solid. The data have been explicated from three perspectives viz. internalvariation, their comparison with BNC, and dictionary entries.

The study takes into account the percentage of the hyphenated compounds with respect to threeforms within each corpus and then they are compared. Three dictionaries and the software WordNet2.1 have been used to verify which form of these compounds has been suggested for the learners touse. Interesting results have been found, as in many cases there are discrepancies regarding therecommendations of the use of these hyphenated compounds among the sources used. Even theoccurrences of them in BNC show the otherwise trends from the resources. Even native speakerssometimes face problems in the use of compound words i.e. whether to hyphenate them or write themin ‘Open’ form. Webster’s Compact Writers Guide (1987) writes:

…. Writes faced with having to use compounds … cannot rely wholly on dictionaries toguide them in their styling of compounds. They need, in addition, to develop anapproach for dealing with compounds that are not in the dictionary. (p.158)Native speakers can rely on their intuition in such matters, but teachers, learners and other users

of non-native variety of English have to verify (in absence of local norms of the non-native variety)whether this particular compound conforms to the standard norms or not. Research based on largecorpora of the non-native varieties can solve such problems, which may not be very important inEnglish speaking countries, but these have pedagogical relevance in the Outer Circle countries(Kachru, 1992). This component of the present research is an attempt to identify the differencesbetween British English and Pakistani English in the use of hyphenated compounds.

2. MethodologyThe compound nouns researched in this study can be written in one of the three ways i.e. Hyphenated(as city-state), Open (as football game), and Solid (as teapot). Open or Solid compounds could bepicked up to see how many of them occurred in the other two ways, but we chose the first category i.e.hyphenated compound because it was more relevant to start with the highly frequent hyphenatedcompounds and it was rather easy to extract them. All the hyphenated compounds have been extractedfrom the corpus of Pakistani Written English (PWE). Then, they have been arranged in descendingorder according to their frequency of occurrence. This frequency relates only to their use as‘Hyphenated’. Then, their frequency of occurrence as ‘Open’ and ‘Solid’ has been sought from the

corpus (PWE). PWE, 2.1 million words corpus, has been compared with BNC, 100 million wordscorpus. Due to this huge difference between the corpora, it was not feasible to rely on the frequency of occurrence of the compounds. Hence, the percentage has been calculated. The sum of the occurrence of the compound in all three ways has been calculated to find the percentage of occurrence of eachcompound in the three forms. Lists, showing the percentage of occurrence of each compound in thethree ways, have been prepared. Now, the same procedure was to be done on the data extracted fromBNC. We visited the website (Mark Davies BNC) and calculated the frequencies of each hyphenatedcompound. BNC has been used as a reference corpus to compare the selected compounds. Thefrequency of these compounds in BNC has been calculated in all three forms. Adopting the sameprocedure, their percentage has been calculated. Constrained by the differences between the corpora



254 Rashid Mahmood, Asim Mahmood and Tariq Saeed

and the very nature of the research, we studied only 50 hyphenated compounds (Appendix-1) and thedetailed description of only 15 compounds has been given in the documentation of this research. In theTables 1 and 2 , ‘H’ stands for ‘Hyphenated’, ‘O’ for ‘Open’ and ‘S’ for ‘Solid’ compounds.

Table 1: Frequency of Occurrence of the Compounds in PWE and BNC in Three Forms

Hyphenated Comp. H' in PWE H' in BNC O' in PWE O' in BNC S' in PWE S' in BNCso-called 111 2644 31 21 1 8socio-economic 101 601 7 3 11 160sub-continent 75 102 1 2 158 97long-term 58 4087 44 1749 1 128Health-care 35 97 19 1615 22 253year-old 40 261 34 2008 0 0co-operation 38 3517 0 0 245 1235decision-making 31 1414 36 714 0 10sub-section 28 166 2 2 1 682well-being 38 713 25 33 2 147world-view 31 97 3 101 2 20large-scale 24 1110 25 500 1 8socio-cultural 25 58 0 0 5 31man-made 19 375 2 74 0 36ex-officio 19 23 6 1 0 0

Table 2: Percentage of Occurrence of the Compounds in PWE and BNC in Three Forms

Hyphenated Comp.% 'H' in

PWE% 'H' in

BNC%'O' in

PWE%'O' in

BNC%'S' in

PWE%'S' in

BNC

so-called 77.62 98.92 21.68 0.79 0.7 0.3socio-economic 84.87 78.66 5.88 0.39 9.24 20.94Sub-continent 32.05 50.75 0.43 1 67.52 48.26long-term 56.31 68.53 42.72 29.33 0.97 2.15health-care 46.05 4.94 25 82.19 28.95 12.88year-old 54.05 11.5 45.95 88.5 0 0

co-operation 13.43 74.01 0 0 86.57 25.99decision-making 46.27 66.14 53.73 33.4 0 0.47Sub-section 90.32 19.53 6.45 0.24 3.23 80.24well-being 58.46 79.84 38.46 3.7 3.08 16.46world-view 86.11 44.5 8.33 46.33 5.56 9.17large-scale 48 68.6 50 30.9 2 0.49socio-cultural 83.33 65.17 0 0 16.67 34.83man-made 90.48 77.32 9.52 15.26 0 7.42ex-officio 76 95.83 24 4.17 0 0

The detailed description of the 15 items includes the mutual comparison of the one form of thecompound in PWE and its counterpart in BNC. The two corpora have been studied from the point of view of the underuse or overuse of the compound being studied in any form in the corpora.

The present study also takes into account the recommendations of the following fourdictionaries regarding the use of these compounds in all three forms of the compounds:

1. Longman Dictionary of English (LDE)2. Collins COBulild Dictionary of English (CCBD)3. BBC Dictionary of English (BBCD)4. WordNet (an electronic resource)

Wherever recommendations of these sources are mutually inconsistent, they have been pointedout. The trends of the different forms of compounds in each corpus have been identified and theirconformity with the sources consulted has also been mentioned.




Table 3: Dictionary Recommendation of Usage for Fifteen Nouns

Hyphenated Compounds LDE BBCD CCBD WordNet1 so-called H H H,O H2 socio-economic S H H,S S3 sub-continent _ _ S,H S4 long-term H H H H5 health-care _ H,S,O _ H,O

6 year-old _ O O _7 co-operation S H H,S S8 decision-making _ _ H O9 sub-section S S S,H S

10 well-being H H H,S H,S11 world-view O _ S,H O12 large-scale H H H,S H13 socio-cultural S H S,H S14 man-made _ H H H15 ex-officio O O O O

Apart from the discussion on individual items, these compounds have been studied collectivelyto identify the patterns of use of these compounds. The comparison of the total frequency of first 50compounds in PWE with BNC in the three forms to see whether there is any trend to use ‘hyphenated’,‘Open’ or ‘Solid’ compounds more frequently in one corpus than the other.

3. The Detailed Description of the Individual Hyphenated Compounds1. So-called

Percentage of Occurrence in All Three Forms in PWE and BNC

Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCSo-called H O S H O S

77.62 21.68 0.7 98.92 0.79 5.0

‘So-called’ is the most frequent hyphenated compound in PWE while it is 3 rd most frequent inBNC. There is a clear difference between the occurrences of this compound in ‘Open’ form i.e. below1% in BNC and almost 22% in PWE. In BNC, its occurrence as a hyphenated compound is 99 %.

Recommendation of Use in dictionaries

Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetSo-called H H H,O H

All the dictionaries and WordNet favour its use as hyphenated and its occurrence in BNCconforms to its use as given by the sources ( Dictionaries & WordNet). The low frequency of ‘so-called’ as hyphenated compound in PWE is due to 22% usage as an ‘Open’ compound, which has beenallowed by CCBD only.

2. Socio-economic


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCSocio-economic H O S H O S

84.87 5.88 9.24 78.66 0.39 20.94




This compound exhibits differences in ‘Open’ and ‘Solid’ forms. PWE shows tendency to usethis compound more in ‘Open’ form than BNC, but the main difference lies in its use as a ‘Solid’compound. Its share of occurrence in this form in BNC is 21% while in PWE its use is below 10%.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetSocio-economic S H H,S S

There is a discrepancy in the recommendation for the use of this compound as LDE andWordNet use this compound as ‘Solid’ while BBCD uses it as ‘Hyphenated’. PWE shows almost 6%use of it as ‘Open’ which has not been favoured by any dictionary.

3. Sub-continent


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCSub-continent H O S H O S

32.5 0.43 67.52 50.75 1.0 48.26

In BNC the trend to use ‘Sub-continent’ as ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Solid’ compound is almost equalin percentage. But in PWE the same compound has been used in ‘Solid’ form with more than doublepercentage than its use as ‘Hyphenated’.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetSub-continent - - H,S S

LDE and BBC did not provide any guideline for the use of this compound. CCBD uses it bothways i.e. as ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Solid’. WordNet uses it as ‘Solid’ only.

4. Long-term


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCLong-term H O S H O S

56.31 42.72 0.97 68.53 29.33 2.15

‘Long-term’ is the most frequent hyphenated compound in BNC while in PWE its position isfourth according to the frequency .

Its use as a hyphenated compound in BNC is more than double when compared with its

occurrence as an open compound. In PWE the difference of use between both types is only 14 %.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetLong-term H H H H

All the dictionaries consulted and the electronic resource WordNet use it in its ‘Hyphenated’form. BNC has high frequency of its use as ‘hyphenated’, which has been favoured by all the sources.In PWE, the case is rather different as this compound occurred as ‘Hyphenated’ slightly more than itoccurred as ‘Open’. Hence, PWE shows a different trend in this case.




5. Health- care


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCHealth-care H O S H O S

46.05 25.00 28.95 4.94 82.19 12.88

There is a notable difference in the use of this compound in all the three forms. It occurred as‘Hyphenated’ in PWE almost half of its overall use, but in BNC it is slightly under 5%. Another stark difference is its use in ‘Open’ form as 25% in PWE is to be compared with 82% in BNC, whichamounts to more than three times greater than PWE. It occurred as ‘Solid’ in PWE with doublepercentage.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetHealth-care - H,S,O - H,O

LDE and CCBD do not give any recommendation for the use of this compound. BBCD favours

it in all the three forms, and PWE also shows the same trend. WordNet uses ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Open’forms, but in BNC the use of this compound is less than 5%. BNC seems to have established its use asan ‘Open’ compound.

6. year-old


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCYear-old H O S H O S

54.05 45.95 0.00 11.50 88.50 0.00

Once again it is clear that BNC has established the use of this compound as ‘Open’ as 88.50%is almost the double of 46% in PWE. Interestingly, PWE uses it more frequently as ‘hyphenated’ than‘open’. The ‘Hyphenated’ use of this compound in PWE is near three times greater than its use inBNC. In both the varieties, this compound never occurred as ‘Solid’.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetYear-old - O O -

BBCD and CCBD recommend its use as ‘Open’ only. BNC exhibits the recommended use i.e.‘Open’ but PWE uses it in both ways ‘Open’ and ‘Hyphenated’ almost equally, which has not beenused by any of these resources.

7. Decision-making


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCDecision-making H O S H O S

46.27 53.73 0.00 66.14 33.40 0.47

In BNC, this compound occurred with exactly double percentage as ‘Hyphenated’ than ‘Open’.On the other hand, in PWE the occurrence of this compound as ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Open’ is almostequal.





Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetDecision-making - - H O

The occurrence of this compound in BNC is closer to the recommendation of CCBD while adifferent trend from WordNet. In the case of PWE, the observation is exactly opposite to this.

8. Co-operation


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCCo-operation H O S H O S

13.43 0.00 86.57 74.01 0.00 25.99

Both the corpora exhibit very different tendencies in the use of ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Solid’compounds. The occurrence of this compound in BNC as hyphenated is more than five times greaterthan its use as hyphenated in PWE. On the other hand, in PWE its use as ‘Solid’ is more than threetimes greater than that of BNC. There is no occurrence of this item as ‘Open’ in both the corpora.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetCo-operation S H S,H S

There are clearly different trends in both the corpora regarding the use of this compound. Thiscompound follows the recommendations of BBCD and CCBD in BNC. Its occurrence in PWE is inline with the use of this compound in LDE, WordNet and CCBD. The dictionaries are not consistent onthe information regarding the use of this compound in the three forms.

9. Sub-section


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCSub-section H O S H O S

90.32 6.45 3.23 19.53 0.23 80.24

This compound occurred as ‘Hyphenated’ almost five times greater than its use in the sameform in BNC. The difference in percentage becomes even wider when it comes to the occurrence of this compound as ‘Solid’ because 3% is 27 times lesser than 80% of its use as a solid compound.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetSub-section S S S,H S

In all the dictionary sources used, ‘sub-section’ appears as ‘Solid’ except CCBD where it hasbeen used as ‘Solid’ and ‘Hyphenated’ both. This compound has established different preferences inboth the corpora representing two different varieties of English. BNC is following the recommendedusage by the dictionaries while PWE has set its own trend regarding its use as ‘hyphenated’. In PWE,the recommended use of this compound by the dictionaries has been followed least of the three.




10. Well-being


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCWell-being H O S H O S

58.46 38.46 3.08 78.84 3.70 16.46

‘Well-being’ manifests differences mainly in ‘Open’ and ‘Solid’ forms. It has been used with12 times greater percentage in PWE than its occurrence in BNC as an open compound. In its solid formBNC used it almost five times greater than its occurrence in PWE in the same form.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetWell-being H H S,H S,H

In PWE, the occurrence of this compound is 38% as ‘Open’ while dictionary sources consulteddid not use this compound in this form. Once again, BNC is closer to the recommendations of thesources than PWE.

11. World-view


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCWorld-view H O S H O S

86.11 8.33 5.56 44.50 46.33 9.17

The percentage of this compound as ‘Hyphenated’ in PWE is almost double than its occurrencein BNC. The occurrence of this compound as ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘open’ is equal in BNC. But in PWE,there is a clear preference for its use as ‘Hyphenated’. Its percentage as ‘Open’ in BNC is five timesgreater in BNC than in PWE.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetWorld-view O - S,H O

The dictionaries are inconsistent in their recommendations regarding the use of this compound.Two dictionaries, LDE and WordNet, favour its use as ‘Open’ but CCBD used it as ‘Solid’ and‘hyphenated’. In both the corpora, the use of recommended ‘Open’ form has been less than 50%.

12. Large-scalePercentage of Occurrence in All Three Forms in PWE and BNC

Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCLarge-scale H O S H O S

48 50 2 68.6 30.9 0.49

PWE has almost equal occurrence of this item in both ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Open’ forms. InBNC, the percentage of this compound is double as ‘Hyphenated’ than ‘Open’.





Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetLarge-scale H H H H

All the dictionaries recommend its use as hyphenated. There is a clear tendency to use it in boththe ways i.e. ‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Open’ in PWE. BNC also shows this tendency though in lesser degree

than PWE.13. Socio-cultural


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCSocio-cultural H O S H O S

83.33 0.00 16.67 65.17 0.00 34.83

PWE is fairly consistent in the use of this compound as ‘hyphenated’ with 83% of usage. Theother use of this compound i.e. in solid form is more than five times lesser in percentage than its use as‘Hyphenated’. On the other hand in BNC, the percentage of occurrence of this compound as‘Hyphenated’ is only double than its use in solid form. There is no instance of its use as “Open’ in boththe corpora.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetSocio-cultural S H H,S S

There is inconsistency in the use of this compound by these dictionaries, as LDE and WordNetused this compound as ‘Solid’, but BBCD as ‘Hyphenated’ and CCBD used it in both the forms i.e.‘Hyphenated’ and ‘Solid’. In this case, PWE is near BBCD and BNC is near CCBD.

14. Man-made


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCMan-made H O S H O S

90.48 9.52 0.00 77.32 16.26 7.42

In PWE, this compound occurred as ‘Hyphenated’ with a decisive frequency that is 90%. Thesame compound occurred as ‘Open’ less than 10% and just one occurrence as ‘Solid’ in PWE. In BNC,although this item occurred as ‘hyphenated’ with high percentage of 77%, but there is roughly doublepercentage of this compound as ‘Open’ in BNC.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetMan-made - H H H

PWE is near the recommendation of the dictionaries regarding the use of this compound. InBNC, however, this compound occurred in the forms other than ‘Hyphenated’ more frequently than inPWE. There is no difference in the recommendations, regarding the use of this compound as‘Hyphenated’, given by all the dictionaries consulted.




15. Ex-officio


Hyphenated Compound Percentage in PWE Percentage in BNCEx-officio H O S H O S

76.00 24.00 0.00 95.83 4.17 0.00

‘Ex-officio’ seems to have established as a hyphenated compound in both the corpora. But inBNC, it is more dominantly ‘Hyphenated’ than in PWE. In PWE, one-fourth of its use is as ‘Open’which is six times greater than its use as ‘Open’ in BNC.


Hyphenated Compound LDE BBCD CCBD WordNetEx-officio O O O O

All the sources consulted used this compound as ‘Open’, which is not the norm in both thecorpora. BNC shows even more deviant trend than PWE regarding the recommended use of thiscompound by the dictionaries. PWE conforms to this use but only with 24 % of its use as ‘Open’.

4. The Accumulative Study of 50 Compounds in PWE and BNCThis aspect of the present study is an attempt to identify the preference in the use of any form of thefirst 50 compounds selected from both the corpora.

Table 4: Accumulative Study of 50 Compounds in PWE and BNC

Hyphenated Comp. % 'H' inPWE

% 'H' inBNC

%'O' inPWE

%'O' inBNC

%'S' inPWE

%'S' inBNC

so-called 77.62 98.92 21.68 0.79 0.70 0.30socio-economic 84.87 78.66 5.88 0.39 9.24 20.94

sub-continent 34.09 50.75 0.38 1.00 65.53 48.26long-term 56.31 68.53 42.72 29.33 0.97 2.15health-care 46.05 4.94 25.00 82.19 28.95 12.88year-old 54.05 11.50 45.95 88.50 0.00 0.00co-operation 13.43 74.01 0.00 0.00 86.57 25.99anti-dumping 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00decision-making 46.27 66.14 53.73 33.40 0.00 0.47self-determination 96.77 97.29 3.23 2.44 0.00 0.27set-up 10.95 6.17 79.56 91.83 9.49 2.00sub-section 90.32 19.53 6.45 0.24 3.23 80.24well-being 58.46 79.84 38.46 3.70 3.08 16.46world-view 86.11 44.50 8.33 46.33 5.56 9.17well-known 38.27 46.41 60.49 53.37 1.23 0.22

vis-à-vis 93.10 98.55 6.90 1.45 0.00 0.00above-mentioned 37.88 52.33 1.52 40.70 60.61 6.98self-reliance 89.29 88.17 10.71 11.83 0.00 0.00large-scale 48.00 68.60 50.00 30.90 2.00 0.49short-term 62.16 67.54 37.84 32.30 0.00 0.15socio-cultural 83.33 65.17 0.00 0.00 16.67 34.83man-made 90.48 77.32 9.52 15.26 0.00 7.42cross-border 80.00 91.30 20.00 7.39 0.00 1.30decision-makers 71.43 71.54 28.57 28.46 0.00 0.00socio-political 100.00 91.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.49non-proliferation 90.48 99.26 4.76 0.74 4.76 0.00non-availability 85.71 96.97 9.52 3.03 4.76 0.00ex-officio 76.00 95.83 24.00 4.17 0.00 0.00




Table 4: Accumulative Study of 50 Compounds in PWE and BNC - continued

broad-based 90.00 87.74 10.00 12.26 0.00 0.00multi-dimensional 61.54 56.38 11.54 2.13 26.92 41.49in-laws 92.00 87.83 0.00 11.30 8.00 0.87sub-project 94.44 50.00 5.56 0.00 0.00 50.00follow-up 44.83 0.00 55.17 0.00 0.00 0.00two-third 63.64 0.00 36.36 0.00 0.00 0.00

one-third 68.18 0.00 31.82 0.00 0.00 0.00have-nots 91.67 94.44 8.33 0.00 0.00 5.56re-election 100.00 95.52 0.00 0.30 0.00 4.18nation-state 100.00 41.62 0.00 58.38 0.00 0.00load-shedding 58.33 100.00 37.50 0.00 4.17 0.00policy-making 100.00 73.14 0.00 24.67 0.00 2.19build-up 33.33 25.51 61.11 72.54 5.56 1.95non-governmental 76.19 99.36 4.76 0.00 19.05 0.64office-bearers 48.15 100.00 51.85 0.00 0.00 0.00pre-Islamic 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00full-scale 90.91 80.51 9.09 19.06 0.00 0.43far-flung 61.90 79.41 38.10 18.63 0.00 1.96US-led 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00non-professional 100.00 90.20 0.00 1.96 0.00 7.84member-states 100.00 1.14 0.00 98.86 0.00 0.00post-graduate 38.24 11.96 11.76 3.13 50.00 84.92

Total 3614.80 3086.04 968.17 932.93 417.04 481.03Mean of Percentage 72.28 68.57 19.36 20.71 8.43 10.68




In table 4 , the percentage of occurrence of these compounds has been calculated to see if thereis any marked preference of usage of one form in one corpus than the other. Mean of the percentagehas been calculated for the ease of comparison. The mean has been calculated by dividing the total of percentage to 50 in PWE as there are 50 compounds from PWE, but in BNC the mean has beencalculated by dividing the total to 45 as there are five items that did not occur in BNC. There do notseem highly significant differences in the preference of use of these compounds in any form bycomparing these lists. Hence, the differences identified earlier are related to individual items and not tothe overall preference of any form (hyphenated, open, solid) over the other.

After finding no comprehensive trends in PWE that are different form BNC, there was aquestion, whether PWE has common tendencies with BROWN and FROWN corpora i.e. in Americancorpora. As BROWN and FROWN are one million words each, they have been combined to make acomparable corpus with PWE. The 15 compounds that have been studied in PWE and BNC have alsobeen studied from BROWN+FROWN corpus.

Table 5: Percentage of Occurrence of 15 Compounds in Three Forms in BROWN +FROWN

Hyphenated Compounds H O S Sum % of 'H' %of 'O' % of 'S' Nearnessso-called 75 0 0 75 100 0 0 BNCSocio-ecomonic 4 0 11 15 36.36 0 73.33 Differentlong-term 83 6 0 89 93.25 6.74 0 BNChealth-care 5 34 0 39 12.82 87.17 0 BNCyear-old 139 9 0 148 93.91 6.08 0 PWEco-operation 12 0 78 90 13.33 0 86.66 PWEdecision-making 9 7 0 16 56.25 43.75 0 PWEsub-section 0 0 32 32 0 0 100 BNCwell-being 25 1 1 27 92.59 3.7 3.7 BNCWorld-view 0 9 1 10 0 90 10 Differentwell-known 37 17 1 55 67.27 30.9 1.81 DifferentLarge-scale 38 2 0 40 95 5 0 BNCSocio-cultural 0 0 0 0 0 0 0man-made 8 2 2 12 66.66 16.66 16.66 BNCex-officio 0 1 0 1 0 100 0

The frequency of occurrence and then percentages of the 15 hyphenated compounds has beencalculated as earlier it had been calculated in PWE and BNC. In the last column of the table 5 , theirnearness has been mentioned i.e. whether a particular compound in Brown + Frown corpus shows atrend which is near BNC or near PWE. In case, the compound shows different trend from both thecorpora, it has been mentioned as ‘Different’ in the last column of the table.

In the column ‘Nearness’, two items ‘Socio-cultural’ and ‘ex-officio’ have been left blank as inthe case of one item it did not occur in Brown + Frown corpus, and in the case of the second, itoccurred just once. So, they have not been aligned with any trend. The results of the study of 15compounds of the table 5 can be summed up in terms of nearness as:

BNC=7PWE=3Different or American= 3Seven hyphenated compounds occurred near the trend established in BNC regarding the use of

these compounds in a particular form. There are three items in the American corpora, which have beennoted showing a trend of usage of these compounds which is closer to PWE than BNC. The threehyphenated compounds showed different trend from both the corpora i.e. BNC and PWE.




5. ConclusionThe results clearly suggest that there are differences among the Pakistani, British and Americanvarieties of English even at such a micro level of punctuation. This research shows that despite of considerable differences between Pakistani English and British English in the pattern of occurrence of individual compounds, the overall percentage of occurrences of compound nouns in any of the threeforms (i.e. Hyphenated, Open and Solid) is almost the same. Hence, it becomes even more difficult forthe learners of English in the Outer Circle countries to learn the standard orthography of suchcompounds. They have to consult dictionaries but the available major dictionaries do not manifestuniform trends. In non-native contexts of ELT, there is a dire need to provide the teachers and thelearners with authentic information regarding the use of hyphenated compounds. This component of the present research is a small step towards the identification and codification of certain areas of Pakistani English. This research further illustrates that Pakistani English not only shows resemblanceswith the British English and the American English in some respects, but it also shows, like any othernon-native variety of English, certain trends of its own.

References[1] Baumgardner, R. J. (1993). The English language in Pakistan . Karachi ; Oxford: Oxford

University Press.[2] BBC English. (1992). BBC English dictionary. London, BBC English.[3] Collins COBUILD English dictionary . (1995). ([New ed.). London: HarperCollins.[4] Davies, M (2010). BYU BNC http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/ [5] Kachru, B. B. (1982). The other tongue : English across cultures . Urbana: University of Illinois

Press.[6] Longman dictionary of the English Language . (1991). (2nd ed ed.). Harlow: Longman.[7] Mehboob, A. (2004). Pakistani English: An overview of its syntax, morphology, and lexis.

Kortmann et al (eds.) (2004). In A Handbook of Varieties of English, 2, 1045-1057.[8] Saeed, T. (2004). Pakistani English: A study of its pronunciation. Unpublished MA Thesis,

University of Leeds, UK.[9] Slomin, D. T. (2005). WordNet. Prinston University Cognitive Lab. USA.[10] Talaat, M. (1993). Lexical variation in Pakistani English. In Robert J. Baumgardner (Ed.), The

English Language in Pakistan (pp.55–62). Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press.[11] Websters Compact Writers Guide (1987). Merriam Webster Inc. Springfield, Massachusetts.

USA.

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EJSR_52_2_13 hyphenated compounds

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