European Journal ofTourism, Hospitality and Recreation
ResearchEJTHR Tourism
ResearchEJTHR Tourism
European Journal ofTourism, Hospitality and Recreation
Marica Mazurek, MSc., is Phd. candidate in the Institute of economic Sciences at the university of Matej bel, Slovakia. e-mail: [email protected].
COMPETITIVENESS IN TOURISM – MODELS OF TOURISM
COMPETITIVENESS AND THEIR APPLICABILITY:
CASE STUDY AUSTRIA AND SWITZERLAND
Marica MazurekUniversity of Matej Bel, Slovakia
ABSTRACT: competitiveness concept has been adapted to tourism from different disci-plines, containing also management and marketing. our goal is to explain why in competi-tiveness concept are management, marketing and leadership important for success. The re-search is based on secondary sources dealing with the application of process innovations in WRXULVP��HVSHFLDOO\�ZLWK�WKH�VWXGLHV�RI �PRGHOV�RI �FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LQ�WRXULVP����3RRQ·V�PRGHO��the WeS model, the dwyer’s and Kim´s model, bordas model, the crouch-ritchie). Some of these models have been personally discussed with Prof. brent ritchie, haskayne School of %XVLQHVV��&DOJDU\���2QH�RI �WKH�PRVW�LQÁXHQWLDO�GLVFLSOLQHV��ZKLFK�HQULFKHG�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LQ�tourism, was management. Strategic visioning concept includes the concepts of co-operation which have implemented some ideas of the darwinian approach in managerial strategies. This concept has been fully imported in the concepts of co-operation and cross-border coopera-tion in order to be more competitive as a destination. In management concept, targeting di-rectly strategy of how to be more competitive and the strategic visioning has become one of the most common. There has been used a method of content analysis of existing academic literature on competitiveness of tourism and models of competitiveness. The intent is to use H[DPSOHV�DQG�EHVW�SUDFWLFHV�IURP�$XVWULD�RU�6ZLW]HUODQG��UDQNV�DW�WKH�ÀUVW�DQG�VHFRQG�SODFH�LQ�WRXULVP�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LQGH[��LQ�RUGHU�WR�ÀQG�VROXWLRQ�DQG�JRRG�H[DPSOHV�DOVR�IRU�RWKHU�countries in europe and in the world. Keywords: competitiveness of destinations, models of competitiveness, management, marketing, partnerships in tourism, visioning
InTroducTIon
“While competitiveness and success are clearly distinct concepts, WKH\�DUH�QHYHUWKHOHVV�VLJQLÀFDQWO\�UHODWHGµ��&URXFK��5LWFKLH��������p.13). Success in tourism could be measured as the total amount of WRXULVP�UHFHLSWV��UHYHQXHV��DQG�QXPEHU�RI �YLVLWRUV��0DUNHW�VKDUH�LV��however, not always the factor of the competitiveness. competitive-ness and its measurement incorporates multidimensional spectrum of
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS74
indicators. The complexity and interdisciplinarity of tourism research has been fully developed in the epistemologies on tourist destinations. $V�*HW]��������S������PHQWLRQHG��́ WKH�VWXG\�RI �WRXULVP�LV�HQULFKHG�
and yet complicated by the theoretical diversity. There are a number o descriptive, explanatory and predictive models which form the build-LQJ�EORFN�RI �WKHRULHV�DQG�GHVFULEH�ZKROH�RU�VXEV\VWHPVµ��(FKWQHU�DQG�-DPDO��������DGGHG�WKDW�́ WKH�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�ERG\�RI �NQRZOHGJH�UHOLHV�RQ�WKH�EURDG�SDUDGLJPDWLF�XPEUHOODµ��ZKLFK�PDNHV�WKH�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�even more complicated. 7KH�PDLQ�SXUSRVH�RI �WKLV�SDSHU�LV�WR�ÀQG�GLIIHUHQW�SDUDOOHOV�LQ�WKH�
concept of competitiveness and to focus on the explanation of ma-MRU�IDFWRUV�RI �FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LQ�WRXULVP�EDVHG�RQ�7��7��7UDYHO�DQG�Tourism) competitiveness indexes and several models of competitive-ness discussed by academics and practitioners especially with the aim to indicate which factors might be decisive and if time and develop-PHQW�SKDVH�PLJKW�KDYH�VRPH�LQÁXHQFH�RQ�GHVWLQDWLRQ�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�ranking. countries as Austria and Switzerland ranked for a longer pe-riod of time at the top places in competitiveness. for this reason our goal is to discuss some aspects of their competitive approach and rea-sons of their success.
LITerATure reVIeW
Onionskin taxonomy
The multi-pillar approach represents the concept of the macro-en-YLURQPHQW�LQÁXHQFLQJ�WKH�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�RI �GHVWLQDWLRQV�LQ�WRXULVP��$V�&URXFK�DQG�5LWFKLH��������S������VWDWHG��´WKH�FRPSOH[�DSSURDFK�WR�the tourism destination competitiveness is captured within a term on-LRQVNLQ�WD[RQRP\µ��7KH�JOREDO�IRUFHV�VKDSLQJ�WKH�FKDOOHQJHV�DQG�RS-SRUWXQLWLHV�RI �GHVWLQDWLRQ�EXLOG�XS�WKH�FRUSXV�RI �WKH�VR�FDOOHG�́ RQLRQµ�IURP�OD\HUV�VXUURXQGLQJ�D�GHVWLQDWLRQ��HQFORVHG�LQ�)LJ����
This concept bears the signs of multidisciplinarity in tourism. ritch-LH�DQG�&URXFK��������S������GLYLGHG�WKH�RQLRQVNLQ�OD\HUV�WR�WKUHH�FDW-HJRULHV��$V�WKH�PRVW�XQVWDEOH�JURXS�RI �IDFWRUV��ÁXFWXDWLQJ�WKH�PRVW�UDSLGO\�GXULQJ�WKH�SHULRG�RI �WLPH��KDYH�EHHQ�GHÀQHG�E\�5LWFKLH�DQG�&URXFK��������S������´HFRQRPLF��SROLWLFDO��DQG�WHFKQRORJLFDO�IDFWRUVµ��More stability and predictability bear the demographic and sociocul-WXUDO�IRUFHV��KRZHYHU��WKH�UHODWLYHO\�VWDEOH�DQG�UHOLDEOH�DUH�WKH�FOLPDWLF��geographical, and environmental forces.
onionskin taxonomy and its layers, representing epistemologies of plentiful disciplines amalgamated into tourism destination concept,
MAZureK 75
are an example of “working between the disciplines, blending various philosophies and techniques so that the particular disciplines do not stand apart, but are brought together intentionally and explicitly to VHHN�D�V\QWKHVLVµ��/HLSHU���������&RPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LV��IRU�WKLV�UHDVRQ��D�multidimensional concept. Terminologies as destination and competi-WLYHQHVV�KDYH�EHHQ�XVHG�LQ�GLIIHUHQW�GLVFLSOLQHV��DV�IRU�H[DPSOH��JHRJ-raphy, economics, marketing, sociology, and psychology. Tribe �������p. 650) PHQWLRQHG�FUHDWLRQ�RI �´FOXVWHUV�RI �LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\�DFWLYLWLHVµ�and explained them in the case of creation of two modes and the in-terconnecting band between them. he continued that “interdiscipli-narity generates an epistemology characterized by the explicit formula-tion of a uniform, discipline – transcending terminology, or a common PHWKRGRORJ\µ��,ELG��S��������&RPSHWLWLYHQHVV�RI �GHVWLQDWLRQV��IRU�WKLV�UHDVRQ��QHHGV�WR�EH�GHÀQHG�DQG�H[SODLQHG�IURP�WKH�YLHZ�RI �WKHLU�RZQ�disciplines as well as tourism epistemologies.
Concept of tourism destination
$FFRUGLQJ�WR�%XKDOLV��������S�������´GHVWLQDWLRQV�FRXOG�EH�H[-plained as amalgams of tourism product, offering an integrated ex-SHULHQFH� WR�FRQVXPHUVµ��´7UDGLWLRQDOO\��GHVWLQDWLRQV�DUH�UHJDUGHG�DV�ZHOO�GHÀQHG�JHRJUDSKLFDO�DUHDV��VXFK�DV�D�FRXQWU\��DQG�LVODQG�RU�D�WRZQ��+DOO��������'DYLGVRQ��0DLWODQG���������
A destination bears mutual meanings, and its perception depends on the tourist travel motivation, its perception, and marketing strat-egy. Important is how a destination is marketed globally. destination PHDQV�D�PDFUR�FRXQWU\��FRQVLVWLQJ�IURP�PRUH�FRXQWULHV��D�FRXQWU\��province, region, city or town, and the unique place as the national parks, falls, and lakes). 3RUWHU��������GHÀQHG�WKHVH�GHVWLQDWLRQV�DV�FOXVWHUV�RU�´JHRJUDSKLF�
FRQFHQWUDWLRQV�RI �LQWHUFRQQHFWHG�FRPSDQLHV�DQG�LQVWLWXWLRQVµ��9DQKRYH��������DGGHG�WKDW�FOXVWHUV�FRXOG�EH�XQGHUVWRRG�DV�́ D�JURXS�RI �WRXULVP�attractions, enterprises, and institutions directly or indirectly related to WRXULVPµ���$�V\QHUJ\�RI �GLIIHUHQW�DWWUDFWLRQV��VHUYLFHV�LQ�WRXULVP��LQ-frastructure, businesses, directly or indirectly related to tourism, is the typical feature of clusters. “competition in tourism is mainly between FOXVWHUV�DQG�QRW�VR�PXFK�EHWZHHQ�FRXQWULHV��%RUGDV��������
Tourists are motivated to achieve expected travel experience of-fered by a destination. cooper, fletcher, Gilbert, Shepperd and Wan-KLOO��������GHÀQHG�GHVWLQDWLRQV�DV�WKH�´IRFXV�RI �IDFLOLWLHV�DQG�VHUYLFHV�GHVLJQHG�WR�PHHW�WKH�QHHGV�RI �WKH�WRXULVWV��´�$WWUDFWLYHQHVV��QDWXUDO��PDQ�PDGH��DUWLÀFLDO��SXUSRVH�EXLOW��KHULWDJH��VSHFLDO�HYHQWV���DFFHVVLELO-LW\��WKH�HQWLUH�WUDQVSRUWDWLRQ�V\VWHP�FRPSULVLQJ�RI �URXWHV��WHUPLQDOV�DQG�YHKLFOHV���DYDLODELOLW\�RI �SDFNDJHV��SUH�DUUDQJHG�SDFNDJHV�E\�LQ-
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS76
termediaries and principals), activities, and ability to use the ancillary VHUYLFHV��EDQNV��WHOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQV��SRVW��QHZVDJHQWV��KRVSLWDOV��DUH�the precondition of a destination‘s competence to become a tourism destination. The expectations and desires of tourists have changed dramatically during the last decades, and many tastes and desires are embedded in the choice of destinations.
In the middle of the last century were the most popular destinations FDOOHG�DV�´ÀUVW�JHQHUDWLRQ�GHVWLQDWLRQVµ�ZLWK�WKH�W\SLFDO�KLJK�VRFLHWDO�atmosphere, fragmented tourism product offered by the individual tourism service providers. A location of these destinations was pre-GRPLQDQWO\�DORQJ�WKH�QRUWKHUQ�(XURSHDQ�FRDVWOLQH��(QJODQG��)UDQFH��
The second generation of destinations with a label “sand, sea, and VXQµ�VWLOO�VXUYLYHV�DQG�H[LVWV��KRZHYHU�WKHLU�DELOLW\�WR�FRPSHWH�LV�EH-KLQG�D�]HQLWK��$V�WKH�FLWHG�DXWKRUV�VWDWHG��3RRQ��������&ODYHU�&RUWH·V��Molina-Azorin, Pereira-Moliner, 2007), these types of destinations are typical for the mass tourism and pursue a lack of product differentia-tion. This means that in the process of marketing segmentation, they RIIHU�WKH�VDPH�SURGXFW�WR�DOO�VHJPHQWV�RI �WRXULVWV��XQGLIIHUHQWLDWHG�product segmentation).
Mass marketing concepts, based on the price advantages and the large market share, do not cope with the new philosophy of success in tourism. Psychographic variables of the segmentation process, es-SHFLDOO\�´OLIH�VW\OH��FRQVXPHU�SUHIHUHQFHV��DQG�SHUVRQDOLW\�FKDUDFWHUµ�have gained more importance. Psychology and social psychology, ap-plied in the concepts of tourism marketing, are visible in this explana-WLRQ��PXOWLGLVFLSOLQDU\�DSSURDFK�WR�WRXULVP���%HKDYLRU�VHJPHQWDWLRQ�LV�another example of looking at the differences among customers, and one of the concepts is a loyalty building. 'HVWLQDWLRQV�ODEHOHG�DV�WKH�́ VHFRQG�JHQHUDWLRQµ�W\SHV��KDYH�HPEHG-
GHG�WKH�WUDGLWLRQDO�PRGHO�RI �WKH�)RUG�PDVV�SURGXFWLRQ��7KH�GLYHUVLÀ-FDWLRQ�DQG�GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ�DUH�IRUHLJQ�HOHPHQWV�LQ�WKLV�FRQFHSW��W\SLFDO�is the rigid product or service offer packaged and sold by the tour op-HUDWRUV��+LJK�SURGXFW�VWDQGDUGL]DWLRQ�VLPSOLÀHV�WKH�VHUYLFH�SURYLVLRQ��however, the effect and especially experience of tourists is not identi-FDO�DV�LI �WKH�SURGXFW�ZRXOG�EH�´WDLORUHGµ�WR�WKHLU�QHHGV��,Q�RUGHU�WR�EH�FRPSHWLWLYH�DQG�IXOÀOO�WKH�QHZ�GHVLUHV�RI �YLVLWRUV��DV�
WKH�FLWHG�DXWKRUV�FODLPHG�DERYH��´1HR�)RUGLVW�GHVWLQDWLRQµ�KDG�WR�EH�accepted. crucial is the rapid interrelation of such destination with the outside world through the informative channels, strategic marketing approach, visionary attitude, and opening to the new ideas and con-FHSWV��EDVHG�RQ�QHZ�WRXULVP�SHUVSHFWLYHV�DQG�LQQRYDWLRQ�WHFKQLTXHV�and devices, e. g. the use of new information technologies and infor-mation systems).
MAZureK 77
�´)XQGDPHQWDO�WXUQLQJ�SRLQW�LQ�D�UHVHDUFK��DQG�HSLVWHPRORJ\�RQ�WRXULVP���FRQGXFWHG�RQ�UHVRUW��GHVWLQDWLRQ��F\FOHV��ZDV�%XWOHU·V�PRGHO�RI �OLIHF\FOHµ��:DOO��������S��������$V�WKH�DXWKRU�FRQWLQXHG�´WKH�PRGHO�was based on the product life cycle, tracing the evolution of the tour-ist market as manifested in the changing physical facilities and infra-VWUXFWXUHV�RI �WKH�GHVWLQDWLRQ���,ELG���������µ�
The concept is based on the chronological array of stages of explo-ration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation, and de-cline or rejuvenation. The last stages and their development depend on GLIIHUHQW�IDFWRUV��EXW�:DOO�GHYHORSHG�WKLV�LGHD�EDVHG�RQ�%XWOHU��������S��������DQG�VWDWHG�´DV�WKH�DUHD�HQWHUV�WKH�VWDJQDWLRQ�SKDVH��WKH�SHDN�number of visitors will have been reached. natural and genuine cul-WXUDO�DWWUDFWLRQV�ZLOO�SUREDEO\�KDYH�EHHQ�VXSHUVHGHG�E\�DUWLÀFLDO�RQHV��capacity levels will have been exceeded, with attendant environmental, social and economic problems. The area will have a well-established LPDJH��EXW�LW�ZLOO�QR�ORQJHU�EH�LQ�IDVKLRQµ��
The Kotler’s product life cycle model and his application in tourism means that probably the same innovations, improvements in market-LQJ�VWUDWHJLHV�LQ�WKH�VWDJH�RI �PDWXULW\��LQ�%XWOHU·V�PRGHO�SUREDEO\�GH-velopment or consolidation stage) have to be taken into consideration. This model has been used in the academic discourses of many aca-GHPLFV�DV�$JDUZDO���������6KDZ�DQG�:LOOLDPV���������7RRPDQ���������'RXJODV���������&KR\���������*HW]���������$KPHG�DQG�.URKQ���������&RRSHU��-DFNVRQ���������7KH�FRQFHSW�RI �GHVWLQDWLRQ�OLIH�F\FOH�FRQWDLQV�WKH�LQÁXHQFH�RI �FXOWXUDO�DQG�HQYLURQPHQWDO�VXVWDLQDELOLW\�LQ�RUGHU�WR�be able to undergo a change. The deployment of all tools and strate-gies, also marketing and visioning, leads to the destination’s rejuvena-tion. destinations in tourism compete, as ritchie and crouch pointed out, and that “competition between destinations plays a critical role in shaping the global tourism industry. competitiveness is becoming even more important as tourism transition from old industry practice RI �PDVV�PDUNHWLQJ��VWDQGDUGL]DWLRQ��OLPLWHG�FKRLFH�DQG�LQÁH[LEOH�KROL-GD\V�WR�D�JUHHQHU��PRUH�LQGLYLGXDO��ÁH[LEOH�DQG�VHJPHQWHG�DSSURDFKµ �5LWFKLH��&URXFK��������'Z\HU��)RUV\WK���������
Concept of competitiveness in tourism
competitiveness concept has been adapted to tourism from different disciplines, especially from the management and marketing. As crouch DQG�5LWFKLH�DGPLWWHG���������´ZKLOH�PDQ\�RWKHU�SDUDGLJPV�KDYH�EHHQ�the basis of books on tourism, we believe that, from a management perspective, the destination is the fundamental unit on which all the PDQ\�FRPSOH[�GLPHQVLRQV�RI �WRXULVP�DUH�EDVHG�µ�7R�EH�DEOH�WR�XQ-GHUVWDQG�DOO�IRUFHV�VKDSLQJ�WKH�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�DQG�HVSHFLDOO\�WR�GHÀQH�
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS��
competitiveness, it requires the continuous process of knowledge de-velopment. however, some basic epistemological concepts have been already developed. The process of developing models and knowledge RQ�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LV�VWLOO�RSHQ�DQG�QRW�GHÀQLWH��´7RXULVP�GHVWLQDWLRQ�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�FDQ�EH�GHÀQHG�DV�D�JHQHUDO�
concept that encompasses price differentials coupled with exchange rate movements, productivity levels of various components of the tourist industry and qualitative factors affecting the attractiveness or otherwise RI �D�GHVWLQDWLRQVµ��'Z\HU��)RUV\WK��5DR��������0DWLDV��1LMNDPS��neto, 2007). The sources used in destination’s tourism development create comparative and competitive advantage in tourism. ´&RPSDUDWLYH�DGYDQWDJH�ZRXOG�UHODWH�WR�FOLPDWH��VFHQHU\��ÁRUD��IDX-
na, etc., while competitive advantage would relate to such items as the WRXULVP�LQIUDVWUXFWXUH��KRWHOV��HYHQWV��DWWUDFWLRQV��WUDQVSRUWDWLRQ��QHW-works), the quality management, skills of workers, government policy, HWF�µ��.LP��'Z\HU��S�������´��3RUWHU�JURXSV�WKH�IDFWRUV�RI �FRPSDUD-tive advantage into the human resources, physical resources, knowledge UHVRXUFHV��FDSLWDO�UHVRXUFHV��DQG�LQIUDVWUXFWXUHµ��3RUWHU��������5LWFKLH�& crouch, 2003). In other words, comparative advantage factors are FUHDWHG�IURP�WKH�SULPDU\�UHVRXUFHV�LQ�WRXULVP��PRXQWDLQV��VSDV��ODNHV��ULYHUV��VHD���VHFRQGDU\�IDFWRUV��LQIUDVWUXFWXUH��VXSHUVWUXFWXUH���KXPDQ�DQG�ÀQDQFLDO� FDSLWDO��7KHVH� IDFWRUV� FRXOG� EH� FRPSDUHG� WR� WKH� IDF-tors of production. The concept of factors of production has its ori-gin in macroeconomics. The factors of production consist from the ODQG��QDWXUDO�UHVRXUFHV���ODERU��KXPDQ�FDSLWDO���DQG�FDSLWDO��ÀQDQFHV����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������factors of the comparative advantage are the historical, cultural re-sources, and a size of the economy measured by the indicators as GdP �*URVV�GRPHVWLF�SURGXFW��DQG�*13��*URVV�QDWLRQDO�SURGXFW��
comparative advantage is a measurement of the endowments, e.g. measurement of the available resources serving as a potential for tour-ism development. The deployment of these resources is the competi-tive advantage. factors of competitive advantage are, for example, au-GLW�DQG�LQYHQWRU\��PDLQWHQDQFH��JURZWK�DQG�GHYHORSPHQW��HIÀFLHQF\��and effectiveness. More complex approach to the competitiveness of GHVWLQDWLRQV�GHÀQHG�GLIIHUHQW�VFKRODUV��DV�IRU�H[DPSOH��%XKDOLV��������S�������ZKR�LQFOXGHG�LQWR�WKH�GHÀQLWLRQ�RI �FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�WKH�FRQ-cept of sustainability of the local resources. he noted, “a destination competitiveness is a synergy of economic, social, and sustainability FRQFHSWVµ. crouch and ritchie ������ added, “a successful destinations FDQQRW�VSHQG�WKHLU�QDWXUDO�FDSLWDO�LQ�RUGHU�WR�EH�HFRQRPLFDOO\�SURÀW-DEOHµ��7KLV�LPSRUWDQW�WXUQLQJ�SRLQW�LQ�EHLQJ�FRPSHWLWLYH�DQG�GR�QRW�GHSOHWH�IRU�VKRUW�WHUP�VXFFHVV�DOO�UHVRXUFHV��LQÁXHQFHV�WKH�HSLVWHPR-logical base of destination competitiveness that has been established during the last 20 years.
MAZureK 79
&URXFK�DQG�5LWFKLH���������HPSKDVL]HG�WKLV�FRQFHSW��E\�VWDWLQJ�WKDW�“what makes a tourism destination truly competitive is its ability to in-crease tourism expenditure, to increasingly attract visitors while pro-viding them with satisfying, memorable experiences, and to do so in a SURÀWDEOH�ZD\��ZKLOH�HQKDQFLQJ�WKH�ZHOO�EHLQJ�RI �GHVWLQDWLRQ�UHVLGHQWV�and preserving the natural capital of the destination for future gen-HUDWLRQV�µ��7KLV�GHÀQLWLRQ�FRQWDLQV�DOO�DVSHFWV�RI �D�FRPSHWLWLYH�GHVWL-QDWLRQV�H[SUHVVHG�LQ�WKH�HIIHFWLYHQHVV�DQG�HIÀFLHQF\��HFRQRPLFV���VDW-LVIDFWLRQ�RI �FRQVXPHUV�²�WRXULVWV��PDUNHWLQJ�DSSURDFK���LQYROYHPHQW�RI �FRPPXQLW\��FRPPXQLW\�EXLOGLQJ�DSSURDFK���DQG�VXVWDLQDELOLW\�FRQ-FHSW��SURWHFWLRQ�RI �QDWXUDO�UHVRXUFHV�DSSURDFK���$SSOLFDWLRQ�RI �WKLV�GHÀQLWLRQ�LQ�WKH�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�FRQFHSW�DQVZHUV�FOHDUO\�WKH�TXHVWLRQ�ZK\�WKH�PDVV�WRXULVP��ROG�WRXULVP��VWUHDPV�KDG�WR�EH�UHSODFHG�E\�QHZ�tourism developments. 2QH�RI �WKH�PRVW�LQÁXHQWLDO�GLVFLSOLQHV��ZKLFK�HQULFKHG�FRPSHWLWLYH-
ness of destination epistemologies in tourism, was management. Stra-tegic visioning concept includes the concepts of co-operation which have implemented some ideas of the darwinian approach in manage-rial strategies.
This concept has been fully imported in the concepts of co-opera-tion and cross-border cooperation in order to be more competitive as a destination. In management concept, targeting directly strategy of how to be more competitive and the strategic visioning has become one of WKH�PRVW�FRPPRQ��6KLSOH\�DQG�1HZNLUN��������QRWHG�WKDW�´PDQDJH-ment thinkers have almost always talked about vision and it is more ÁH[LEOH�ZD\�KRZ�WR�GHDO�ZLWK�DQ�XQFHUWDLQ�ZRUOG�µ��$V�5XKDQHQ�VWDWHG��5XKDQHQ��0DWLDV��1LMNDPS��1HWR����������́ WKH�
EHQHÀW�RI �D�VWUDWHJLF�DSSURDFK�IRU�WRXULVP�GHVWLQDWLRQ�LV�WKDW�LW�IRUF-HV�GHVWLQDWLRQV�WR�ORRN�RXWVLGH�WKHLU�DUWLÀFLDO�JHRJUDSKLFDO�ERXQGDULHV�and focuses on the external environment, something, which tourism GHVWLQDWLRQV�KDYH�QRW�GRQH�ZHOO�WR�GDWH�µ�([WHUQDO�HQYLURQPHQW�FRXOG�be understood as the boundaries of one state, a province, or a city. &URVV�ERUGHU�FR�RSHUDWLRQ��EHQHÀFLDO�IRU�ERWK�GHVWLQDWLRQV��FDQ�EH�D�good example of the strategic approach.
“Tourism destination strategic planning is designed to be deliber-ate and integrative and to allow and permit the destination to adapt quickly to changing situations and develop information, planning and FRQWURO�V\VWHPV�WR�PRQLWRU�DQG�UHVSRQG�WR�D�FKDQJH�´�&RRSHU��������ruhanen, Matias, nijkamp & neto, 2007). A change means also the change of different concepts and models of destination competitive-ness, which have been evolved during the last period of time.
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS��
Models of competitiveness
$V�WRXULVP�LV�D�YHU\�GLYHUVH�DQG�PXOWLGLVFLSOLQDU\�ÀHOG��DV�KDV�EHHQ�already discussed, for this reason the models of competitiveness in-FOXGH�D�YDULHW\�RI �IDFWRUV���3RUWHU��������GHYHORSHG�D�JHQHULF�FRPSHWL-WLYH�PRGHO�DW�WKH�PLFUR�OHYHO��IRU�WKH�HQWHUSULVHV���3RRQ·V�PRGHO�FRQVLG-ers the innovative processes, quality, and the prioritization of tourism LQ�RUGHU�WR�XVH�WKH�PRVW�VLJQLÀFDQW�IDFWRUV�RI �FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV��7KH�WeS model emphasizes the macro-economic level and tourism policy LQ�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�UDQNLQJ��7KH�SULFH��LWV�VWUDWHJLHV��DV�RQH�RI �WKH�PRVW�LPSRUWDQW�PDUNHWLQJ�WRROV��KDYH�EHHQ�UHFRJQL]HG�DV�WKH�PDLQ�FRPSR-nent of dwyer’s approach to the competitiveness.
bordas model takes into account the perceived value and costs, and contains a strong marketing concept. The model, dealing with the destination policy, tourism management, planning, and market-ing concept in the most comprehensive way, is the crouch-ritchie´s PRGHO��KRZHYHU�WKLV�PRGHO�LV�QRW�WKH�ODVW�FRQFHSW�RI �WKH�GHVWLQDWLRQ�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV��$V�9DQKRYH��������PHQWLRQHG��“meanwhile dwyer and Kim (2004) have developed a new model called “The integrated model of destinations competitiveness, which contains many of the YDULDEOHV�LGHQWLÀHG�E\�&URXFK�DQG�5LWFKLH�µ The following discourse on models of tourism competitiveness develops deeper epistemologi-cal discourse on some basic concepts. &URXFK�DQG�5LWFKLH��������S�����SRLQWHG�RXW��WKDW�´WRGD\�WKH�QR-
tion of competitiveness is powerful and pervasive, receiving much of its expression in the business world through the writings of Professor 0LFKDHO�3RUWHU�DQG�PDQ\�RWKHUV�µ��
Porter’s model was originally created for the business world and his diamond of competitiveness was used the business terminologies, DV�´WKH�WKUHDW�RI �HQWUDQWV��VXSSOLHUV��EX\HUV��FXVWRPHUV���WKH�WKUHDW�RI �VXEVWLWXWHV��DQG�FRPSHWLWLYH�ULYDOU\µ��9DQKRYH��������S��������,Q�RUGHU�WR�EH�SURÀWDEOH��D�GHVWLQDWLRQ�KDV�WR�DSSO\�DOO�ÀYH�FRPSHWLWLYH�IRUFHV��7KH�GHVWLQDWLRQ�DQG� LWV�YDOXH�DGGHG�UHZDUG��UHWXUQ�RI � LQYHVWPHQWV��UHSUHVHQW�D�VXFFHVV��,Q�RUGHU�WR�EH�SURÀWDEOH�RU�EULQJ�VRPH�DGGLWLRQDO�YDOXH��GHVWLQDWLRQ�KDV�WR�EHFRPH�D�OHDGHU�LQ�WKH�FRVW�EHQHÀW�DUHD��WR�imply a concept of differentiation in marketing strategy, to introduce the niche strategy of marketing.9DQKRYH�GLVFXVVHG�VRPH�RI �WKHVH�FRQFHSWV��������S�������DQG�GH-
veloped more by the application of these ideas to the tourism indus-WU\��������S�������$OO�ÀYH�IRUFHV�DQG�WKHLU�VWUHQJWK�́ LQÁXHQFH�SURÀW�RI �HDFK�VXE�LQGXVWU\��H�J��WRXU�RSHUDWRU��DLU�FDUULHU��WKHPH�SDUN���ZKHUH�SURÀW�SRWHQWLDO�LV�PHDVXUHG�LQ�WHUPV�RI �ORQJ�UXQ�UHWXUQ�RQ�LQYHVWHG�FDSLWDOµ��7KLV�PRGHO�KDV�VRPH�QHJDWLYHV��H�J���GRHV�QRW�UHÁHFW�WKH�FRQ-FHSW�RI �VXVWDLQDELOLW\��XQOLPLWHG�GHSOR\PHQW�RI �UHVRXUFHV�WR�UHSURGXFH�
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products). for this reason, the model is more used in the industry and GRHV�QRW�ÀW�WR�D�VHQVLWLYH�WRXULVP�HQYLURQPHQW��
Porter developed in his book “The competitive advantage in tour-LVPµ�D�PRGHO�WKDW�LV�PXFK���PRUH�DSSOLFDEOH�WR�WKH�WRXULVP�HQYLURQ-ment. The cluster analysis is the decisive tool of this concept. “Porter FODLPV�WKDW�WKH�VXFFHVV�RI �D�ÀUP�GRHV�QRW�RQO\�GHSHQG�RQ�LWV�VWUDWHJ\�DQG�SRVLWLRQLQJ��EXW�DOVR�RQ�LWV�EHLQJ�HPEHGGHG�LQ�WKH�HQYLURQPHQWµ��9DQKRYH��������S��������7KH�PRUH�FRPSHWLWLYH�LV�WKLV�HQYLURQPHQW��the better chances are to achieve a competitive advantage. four main GHWHUPLQDQWV�KDYH�EHHQ�XVHG�LQ�WKLV�FRQFHSW��DQG�HDFK�RI �WKHP�SOD\V�an important role for the destination competitiveness.
factor conditions are primary conditions for tourism development, as natural resources, cultural and historical places, infrastructure and suprastructure, and human capital. The main factor conditions in the industrial process are land, labor, and capital and here exists some anal-RJ\�EHWZHHQ� WKH� LQGXVWU\� �SURGXFWLRQ�� DQG� WKH�´WRXULVP� LQGXVWU\µ��demand conditions include such factors as the size and structure of the market, positioning at the markets, psychographic segmentation, and implementation of the innovative approach. Similar concepts have been applied in Austria and Switzerland, two highest ranking competi-WLYH�GHVWLQDWLRQV��9DQKRYH��������VWDWHG�WKDW�́ TXDOLW\�FRQVFLRXV�WRXULVWV�exert constant quality control, pushing suppliers towards high-quality DQG�DWWUDFWLYHO\�SULFHG�PDUNHW�VHJPHQWV�µ��
Tourism and its performance as well as competitiveness depend on the co-operation of different sectors, private and public and the co-operation of the providers of tourism services. The competitiveness LV�VLJQLÀFDQWO\�LQÁXHQFHG�E\�VXSSRUWLQJ�LQGXVWULHV��IRU�H[DPSOH��VDIHW\��SROLFH���KHDOWK�SURWHFWLRQ��KHDOWK�FDUH���TXDOLW\�RI �VHUYLFHV��UHWDLO�VHF-WRU��VHFXULW\��SXEOLF�JRRG�RIIHUHG�E\�D�SXEOLF�VHFWRU����
This concept creates a question, if tourism development has to be left in all aspects on market, or if a government has to intervene in VSHFLÀF�VLWXDWLRQV��7KH�HYHQWV�LQ�WKH�ODVW�GHFDGH�UHYLYHG�D�QHZ�GLVFXV-sion of the government’s responsibilities to act more dynamically and VWULFWO\�GXULQJ�WKH�FULVHV�DQG�GLVDVWHUV��IRU�H[DPSOH�WHUURULVW�DWWDFNV��epidemic disasters, etc.).
The concept of market structure, rivalry, organization, and strategy has been partially explained in while discussing the topics of strategic visioning. Poon’s model is based on the concept of the old and new tourism approach. Poon criticized the orientation of Porter’s model WR�WKH�LQGXVWULDO�VHFWRU�UDWKHU�WKDQ�WR�WKH�VHUYLFH�VHFWRU��SUHGRPLQDQW�in tourism). Innovation and differentiation are the main axis of this model. remarkable idea is embodied in the division of two types of competitive strategies, e.g., strategy for enterprises in tourism and strat-egy for tourist destinations.
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS��
for the tourism industry players, the most important are factors as to ´SXW�FRQVXPHU�ÀUVW��EH�D�OHDGHU�LQ�TXDOLW\��GHYHORS�UDGLFDO�LQQRYDWLRQV��DQG�VWUHQJWKHQ�VWUDWHJLF�SRVLWLRQµ��9DQKRYH���������7RXULVWV�H[SHFW�D�holistic experience and some value for their money. for this reason, a consumer and quality of this experience have to become the priori-ties. The author of the model discusses new approaches, a vision, and innovations. The innovation and differentiation are main ideas of this model. Learning and continual improvement of human capital skills lead to the best achievements.,QQRYDWLRQV�DUH�EDVHG�RQ�KXPDQ·V�NQRZOHGJH��LQFUHPHQWDO�LQQR-
YDWLRQ��DQG�SRWHQWLDO��H�J��WDFLW�NQRZOHGJH��EXW�LW�LV�DOVR�WKH�FRGLÀHG�knowledge. Genuine local tacit knowledge could be a decisive point for the tourism enterprises in the process of competitiveness. This con-cept has been fully implemented and used in Switzerland in the hospi-tality enterprises. In tourism, “important seems to be the transfer of FXOWXUDO�NQRZOHGJHµ��:LOOLDPV���������
A holistic approach to the tourist experience refers to the percep-tion of a complex product, not only the accommodation or catering services. Tourists are sensitive to the friendliness, clean environment, safety, and harassment. This holistic approach could be better under-VWRRG�LQ�WKH�GLVFXVVLRQ�RI �VWUDWHJLHV�IRU�WRXULVP�GHVWLQDWLRQV��KRZHYHU�the micro-level is also important.
Macro-level, or destination level, means tourism policy in a par-ticular destination, usually at the different administration governance level. This concept is more complex and includes more tourism and non-tourism sector players. blending of the public and private sector LQWHUHVWV�DQG�JRYHUQDQFH�LQÁXHQFHV�D�WRXULVP�SROLF\�DQG�UHYHDOV�WKH�complexity of its implementation in a real life.
The complexity of the tourism system in each country and the or-JDQL]DWLRQ��SODQQLQJ��DQG�ÀQDQFLQJ�RI �WRXULVP�JHQHUDWHV�WKH�GLIIHU-ent models and approaches. countries with a highly developed private VHFWRU�DQG�WRXULVP��GRPLQDQW�LQ�WKH�RZQHUVKLS�RI �WKH�WRXULVP�HQWHU-prises) usually do not intervene into tourism development the way as developing countries.
however, the recent experiences and historical events deepened this epistemology with a fact that in some cases the government’s support and leadership could be crucial. one of the reasons of such respon-sibilities is the form of a tourism product in destinations. The exist-ence of public goods complicates the destination management process. 7KH�VXFFHVVIXO�GHVWLQDWLRQV��FRXQWULHV��UHJLRQV��FOXVWHUV�RI �DWWUDF-
tions, cities) represent the model of success for the other destinations. .R]DN���������/HQQRQ��6PLWK��&RFNHUHOO�DQG�7UHZ��������GLVFXVVHG�WKH�idea of a transfer of the best practices based on benchmarking con-cept to the tourism settings.
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Innovative approaches and practices of the most successful desti-nations represent the motivating factor. “benchmarking has been used extensively by the public and private sectors as a tool to develop com-SHWLWLYH�DGYDQWDJH��'RUVFK��<DVLQ��������/HQQRQ��6PLWK��&RFNHUHOO�& Trew, 2006) and this process is a continuous, systematic process for evaluating the products, services and work processes of organizations that are recognized as representing best practices for the purpose of RUJDQL]DWLRQDO�LPSURYHPHQWµ��6SHQGROLQL������D��/HQQRQ��6PLWK��&RFN-erell & Trew , 2006).
A benchmarking approach in tourism has been used in one of the most successful tourism destination, Austria, couple years ago. Austria UDQNHG��QG�LQ�WKH�WRXULVP�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LQ�������KRZHYHU�LQ������has moved to the 3rd�SODFH��*HUPDQ\�LV��nd). Poon’s model, and espe-cially its “plea for a transformation of the role of national Tourist 2IÀFHV�IURP�SURPRWLRQ�WR�SURGXFW�GHYHORSPHQW�GHVHUYHV�DWWHQWLRQµ��9DQKRYH��������S�������KDV�EHHQ�XVHG�DV�D�OHDGLQJ�PRGHO�LQ�WKLV�FRXQ-try. The common denominator of the following three models and the Poon’s model is a quality of services as a separate factor, or the trans-formed quality in the concept of a destination’s image.
In WeS model has been introduced a clear distinction between fac-tors and indicators of a destination model. The most important are WKH�PDFUR�HFRQRPLF�IDFWRUV�UHSUHVHQWHG�E\�WKH�ÀVFDO�SROLF\��WD[DWLRQ���PRQHWDU\�SROLF\��H[FKDQJH�UDWH���FRVW�RI �FDSLWDO��VXSSO\�IDFWRUV��VXS-ply side in tourism represented by tourist attractions, superstructure, FRVW�RI �WKHVH�IDFWRUV�²�SULFHV���GHPDQG�IDFWRUV��PDUNHWLQJ�WRROV�DQG�WKHLU�LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ���LQIUDVWUXFWXUH��DQG�WKH�WRXULVP�SROLF\�IDFWRUV��SODQQLQJ��ÀQDQFLQJ���6LPLODULWLHV�FRXOG�EH�IRXQG�LQ�WKH�&URXFK�DQG�ritchie’s model.
The limitation of the model is that it uses the macro-economic fac-WRUV��KRZHYHU�LW�DOVR�GLVFXVVHV�LQWHUHVWLQJ�LGHDV�DERXW�WKH�LPSRUWDQFH�RI �D�ÀVFDO�SROLF\�DQG�WD[DWLRQ�LQ�WRXULVP���7KH�WRXULVP�WD[HV�DUH�LP-SRUWDQW�VRXUFH�RI �LQFRPH��KRZHYHU��VRPH�WD[HV�FRXOG�EH�D�IDFWRU�RI �distortion, and they appear to be a problem for competitiveness. for H[DPSOH��DOO�HQWU\�DQG�H[LW�WD[HV��YLVD��WUDYHO�SHUPLWV��KDYH�D�VWURQJ�impact on competitiveness.
The cost and the price factors have not been neglected in any of the above stated models. The next model underlines the price factor even stronger. The price competitive approach has been stated in the 'Z\HU·V� RSLQLRQ� DQG�PRGHO� �������9DQKRYH�� S�� ����� DQG�(GZDUGV��������9DQKRYH��S�������'Z\HU added that “a general concept that en-compasses price differentials coupled with exchange rate movement, productivity levels of various components of the tourist industry and TXDOLWDWLYH�IDFWRUV�DIIHFWLQJ�DWWUDFWLYHQHVV�RU�RWKHU�ZLVH�RI �GHVWLQDWLRQ�µ��This concept contains a factor of quality, socio-economic, and demo-
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS��
graphic factors. Quality factor is tightly related with image, which is the central point of bordas model.
The bordas model has some limitations, especially the orientation DW�WKH�GHPDQG��PDUNHWLQJ��LQ�WRXULVP�LQGXVWU\�DQG�LWV�DSSOLFDWLRQ�IRU�the long-haul tourism destinations. Image plays the central role in this model and represents the perceived value. Interesting in this model is a fact, that the image has been created independently and without any FRQQHFWLRQ�WR�WRXULVP��9DQKRYH��������.R]DN��S�������H[SODLQV��́ LQ�WKH�FDVH�RI �D�EDG�LPDJH��LW�LV�GLIÀFXOW�WR�FKDQJH�LW��2QO\�WKH�LPSURYHPHQW�of the supply side and the creation of new and/or upgraded products FDQ�EH�KHOSIXO�µ�,Q�PDUNHWLQJ�WKHRU\��LPDJH�UHSUHVHQWV�RQH�RI �WKH�PRVW�important marketing tools. 6HFRQG�IDFWRU��LQÁXHQFLQJ�WKH�WRXULVP�GHVWLQDWLRQ�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV��
LV�WKH�SHUFHLYHG�FRVW��9DQKRYH��������H[SODLQHG�D�YDULHW\�RI �FRVW�FODVVL-ÀFDWLRQ�DV�´WKH�HFRQRPLF�FRVWV��WKH�SK\VLFDO�HIIRUWV��WKH�SV\FKRORJLFDO�FRVWV�µ�6RPH�W\SHV�RI �WKHVH�FRVWV��HVSHFLDOO\�SV\FKRORJLFDO�FRVWV��K\-giene, health care, risks), have been implemented as the indicators in WKH�WRXULVP�PRQLWRU��70���ZKLFK�ZLOO�EH�EULHÁ\�GLVFXVVHG�ODWHU���7KH�%RUGDV�PRGHO�UHÁHFWHG�WR�VRPH�LQWHUHVWLQJ�IDFWV�LQ�FRPSHWLWLYH-
QHVV�RI �WRXULVP�GHVWLQDWLRQV��KRZHYHU�LWV�ZHDNQHVV�LV�WKDW�WKH�LPSOH-PHQWDWLRQ�RI �WKDW�VSHFLÀF�PRGHO�KDV�QRW�EHHQ�IXOO\�WHVWHG��4XHVWLRQ-DEOH�LV�DOVR�VRPH�OLPLWHG�RULHQWDWLRQ��RQH�VLGH�RULHQWDWLRQ�WRZDUG�WKH�PDUNHWLQJ�DFWLYLWLHV���9DQKRYH��������DSSUHFLDWHG�LWV�FRPSOHPHQWDULW\��especially, that “the model underlines a number of factors neglected RU�XQGHUHVWLPDWHG�LQ�RWKHU�DSSURDFKHV�µ�
The most complex model is the “ritchie and crouch’s conceptual 0RGHO�RI �'HVWLQDWLRQ�&RPSHWLWLYHQHVVµ�$V�KDV�EHHQ�DOUHDG\�GLVFXVVHG�above, the model is based on two advantages - comparative and com-SHWLWLYH�DQG�WKHLU�LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ��9DQKRYH��������GHVFULEHG�WKH�PDLQ�division of the factors of comparative and competitive advantages as ´WKH�FRPSRQHQWV�RI �WKH�PRGHO�DUH�WKH�JOREDO�PDFUR��HQYLURQPHQW���WKH�FRPSHWLWLYH��PLFUR��HQYLURQPHQW��FRUH�UHVRXUFHV�DQG�DWWUDFWRUV��supporting factors and resources, destination policy, planning and de-YHORSPHQW��GHVWLQDWLRQ�PDQDJHPHQW��DQG�TXDOLI\LQJ�DQG�DPSOLI\LQJ�GH-WHUPLQDQWVµ��7KLV�PRGHO�FRQWDLQV�DQG�VXPPDUL]HV�VRPH�RI �WKH�DERYH�GHVFULEHG�PRGHOV�DQG�DSSURDFKHV��KRZHYHU��GHVSLWH�WKH�FRPSOH[LW\�DQG�content richness, the model seems to be too complicated and not eas-ily understood by some tourism policy representatives. The important factors in this model are a sustainability and a community approach. The economic and marketing factors have been wisely balanced with a sustainability approach. environmental protection and sustainable behavior have been also introduced in some different concepts, for example in Poon’s model in connection with a new tourism develop-PHQW��HQYLURQPHQWDOO\�FRQVFLRXV�WRXULVP���
7KH�PDFUR�HQYLURQPHQW� �HFRQRPLF��FOLPDWLF��JHRJUDSKLFDO�� HQYL-ronmental, demographic, social and cultural, technological, political) DQG�PLFUR�HQYLURQPHQW� IDFWRUV� �VXSSOLHUV�� HQWHUSULVHV�� LQWHUPHGLDU-ies, customers, destinations, destination marketing organizations, sup-porting industries, and the other stakeholders) are parts of the holistic tourism system and their synergy is crucial for competitiveness. “An important conclusion is that there is an association between domestic rivalry among tourism enterprises and the creation of persistence of FRPSHWLWLYH�DGYDQWDJHµ (9DQKRYH��������3RUWHU���������5LWFKLH��&URXFK��������GHÀQHG�WKH�PRVW�LPSRUWDQW�SXOOLQJ�IDF-
tors as the main motivation indicators, and they were introduced as “the physiography and climate, culture and history, activities, special HYHQWV�� HQWHUWDLQPHQW�� VXSHUVWUXFWXUH��PDUNHW� WLHV� �UHOLJLRQ�� HWKQLF�URRW�µ��9DQKRYH�������� These authors stated some interesting facts, which should be explained. core attractions are crucial for destination competitiveness, however there are some exceptions. The existence of
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RQH�QHJDWLYH�IDFWRU�LQ�WKH�PRGHO�LQÁXHQFHV�WKH�WRWDO�RXWFRPH��&URXFK�and ritchie used the example that many “economic giants and mod-els of relative political stability, yet still have a modest appeal in many PDUNHWVµ��������S������
The supporting factors of the destination competitiveness model DUH�WKH�LQIUDVWUXFWXUH��DFFHVVLELOLW\��YLVD��DLUOLQH�DFFHVV���IDFLOLWDWLQJ�UH-VRXUFHV��KXPDQ�DQG�ÀQDQFLDO�UHVRXUFHV���KRVSLWDOLW\��KRVW�DQG�JXHVWV�UHODWLRQV��� WRXULVP� HQWHUSULVH� FRQWULEXWLRQV�� SROLWLFDO�ZLOO� �DOORFDWLRQ�of scarce resources). Vanhove continues in the recapitulation of the TXDOLI\LQJ�DQG�DPSOLI\LQJ�IDFWRUV��������S�������ZKLFK�KDYH�D�PRGHUDWH�impact on destination competitiveness and have been developed in the crouch and ritchie’s model. These “situational conditioners are loca-tion, destination safety, destination cost level, destination interdepend-HQFLHV��GHVWLQDWLRQ�LPDJH��FDUU\LQJ�FDSDFLW\�´�9DQKRYH��������S���������
The model is compound of two parts, a destination policy and de-YHORSPHQW��'33'��DQG�GHVWLQDWLRQ�PDQDJHPHQW��'0���$V�5LWFKLH�DQG�&URXFK��������VWDWHG��́ '33'�LV�HVVHQWLDOO\�DQG�LQWHOOHFWXDO�SURFHVV�WKDW�uses the information, judgment and monitoring to make macro-level decisions regarding the kind of destination. dM is more a micro-lev-el activity in which all the stakeholders carry out their individual and organizational responsibilities on a daily basis in efforts to realize the PDFUR�OHYHO�YLVLRQ�FRQWDLQHG�LQ�SROLF\��SODQQLQJ�DQG�GHYHORSPHQWµ��$�KLJKO\�FRPSHWLWLYH�GHVWLQDWLRQ�GRHV�QRW�H[LVW�E\�FKDQFH��9DQKRYH��
������&URXFK��5LWFKLH���������'HVWLQDWLRQ�SROLF\�DQG�GHYHORSPHQW�LQ�WRXULVP�FRQWDLQ�WKH�HFRQRPLF�EXVLQHVV�PDQDJHPHQW��VWUDWHJLF�SODQ-ning, marketing, business management, human resources management, environmental management). The model of destination management, contained it crouch and ritchie’s concept, include such factors as the organization, marketing, service quality, research, resource stewardship, FULVLV�PDQDJHPHQW��KXPDQ�UHVRXUFHV��DQG�ÀQDQFLDO�FDSLWDO���
At the end of the polemics on the crouch and ritchie’ model, the authors of the model stated that “while many other paradigms have been the basis of books on tourism, we believe that, from a manage-ment perspective, the destination is the fundamental unit on which DOO�WKH�PDQ\�FRPSOH[�GLPHQVLRQV�RI �WRXULVP�DUH�EDVHGµ��&URXFK��ritchie, 2003).
Tourism Competitiveness Monitor
Theoretical models, stated above as a result of the extensive aca-demic work, have been implemented in a practice by applying of the tourism competitiveness monitor. World Travel & Tourism council uses the models and indicators to monitor the competitiveness of destina-tions. The Monitor contains eight indexes to monitor the competitive-
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QHVV��SULFH�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�LQGH[��KXPDQ�WRXULVW�LQGH[��LQIUDVWUXFWXUH�index, environmental index, technology index, human resources index, openness index, and social index). The competitiveness monitor serves IRU�WKH�PHDVXUHPHQW�DQG�IRUHFDVWLQJ�RI �FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV��LGHQWLÀHV�WKH�gaps in competitiveness performance, and compared the competitive advantages and disadvantages. The Travel & Tourism competitiveness Index covers 140 countries and is based on the data from publicly avail-able sources, international travel and tourism institutions and experts as well as the results of the executive opinion Survey conducted by WKH�:RUOG�(FRQRPLF�)RUXP�DQG�LWV�QHWZRUN�RI �SDUWQHU�LQVWLWXWHV��UH-search institutes and business organizations). The Travel & Tourism &RPSHWLWLYHQHVV��77&,��,QGH[�KDV�EHHQ�FUHDWHG�IURP�WKUHH�VXE�LQGH[HV���the T&T regulatory framework sub index, the T&T business environ-ment and infrastructure sub index and the T&T human, cultural, and QDWXUDO�UHVRXUFHV�VXE�LQGH[��6XE�LQGH[HV�DUH�EXLOW�E\����SLOODUV��3ROLF\�rules and regulations, environmental sustainability, Safety and security, health and hygiene, Prioritization of Travel & Tourism, Air transport infrastructure, Ground transport infrastructure, Tourism infrastruc-ture, IcT infrastructure, Price competitiveness in the T&T industry, +XPDQ�UHVRXUFHV��$IÀQLW\�IRU�7UDYHO��7RXULVP��1DWXUDO�UHVRXUFHV��and cultural resources).
In comparison to the use of this method in the above mentioned models, the critical statements have been raised against the overesti-mating of the measurement of the country’s overall competitiveness development rather than using it in tourism destination competitive-ness concept. Parallel criticism has been aimed at the repetitiveness of VRPH�LQGLFDWRUV��IRU�H[DPSOH�´WRXULVP�RSHQQHVV�LQGH[µ��ZKLFK�FRXOG�EH�LQFOXGHG�LQ�WKH�́ WRXULVP�LPSDFW�LQGH[µ��7KH�H[LVWHQFH�RI �WKH�LQGH[�of tourism competitiveness and its implementation into the practice are important for the awareness of countries to become more com-petitive in tourism and not only be successful.
MeThodoLoGY
The secondary research approach has been applied for obtaining some examples of good practices from both countries – Austria and Switzerland as well as content analysis of existing literature dealing with models of competitiveness and explanation of models content. The results were also collected during a post-graduate study stay in cana-da. Some ideas and topics were discussed with some academics as b. 5LWFKLH��+DVND\QH�6FKRRO�RI �%XVLQHVV��&DOJDU\��$OEHUWD��DQG�6WHSKHQ�6PLWK��8QLYHUVLW\�RI �:DWHUORR��2QWDULR���HWF��7KH�VSHFLÀF�FDVHV�ZHUH�also studied during a former research dealing with competitiveness of
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS��
tourism in Austria and Switzerland. The study is more conceptually based and uses some case studies collected during former research and personal communication with the tourism representatives and academ-ics especially from Austria, but is predominantly on former secondary research and partly on empirical research. The former research inter-est and publications dealing with one of competitiveness component ²�WRXULVP�GHVWLQDWLRQ�SROLF\�DQG�ÀQDQFLQJ��VWXGLHG�LQ�ERWK�FRXQWULHV�²�Austria and Switzerland) has been partly incorporated into this research.
Findings and Discussion
����2QH�DUHD��ZKHUH�WRXULVP�FKDQJHV�SHQHWUDWHG�DQG�ZKLFK�LV�VLJQLÀ-cantly embracing further development of tourism business and com-SHWLWLYHQHVV��LV�FRQVXPHU�FHQWULF�WRXULVP�PDUNHWLQJ��&&0��EDVHG�RQ�WKH�FUHDWLRQ�RI �D�UHODWLRQVKLS��NLQVKLS��EHWZHHQ�D�FXVWRPHU�DQG�WRXULVP�destination. ccM is one of relatively innovative approaches to market-ing and branding. This type of relational marketing is highly focused at evoking of a strong loyalty relationship between a tourism destina-tion and customers. A process of tailoring tourism services and offer to the demand of customers requires a sophisticated marketing and management approach and the existence of a skilled labour in tour-ism. Some countries, such as Switzerland and Austria, have based their tourism business and strategy on provision of highly sophisticated and strictly consumer-demand tailored tourism services.
Case study: Austria
Austria ranks third in competitiveness of tourism, measured by the Tourism competitiveness Index with such priorities as for instance “an example of quality in comparison to quantity“. Austria, similarly as Switzerland, was able to implement legislative and especially organi-]DWLRQDO�FKDQJHV�LQ�WRXULVP��LQ�WKH�SROLF\�DQG�PDQDJHPHQW�WRZDUG�WKH�innovation approach). The innovative tourism destination strategies and customer oriented marketing strategies have been designated as one of the most important approaches in Austrian tourism develop-ment strategies. State funding was primarily focused on development of standard of quality in tourism, especially in the service sector. Aus-tria applied some guiding principles of success from the above stated models of competitiveness, especially Poon’s model of new tourism DSSURDFK��VHUYLFH�VHFWRU�RULHQWDWLRQ���LQQRYDWLRQ��DQG�GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ��for this reason, both countries were able to build a positive image and reputation as countries with highly recognized and unique tourism product and tourism services. however, some other ideas mentioned LQ�GLIIHUHQW�PRGHOV��dwyer, bordas) could be visible in the strategies
MAZureK ��
applied in successful countries as Austria. dwyer encompassed besides TXDQWLWDWLYH�IDFWRUV�DV�SULFH�DOVR�TXDOLWDWLYH��VRIW�IDFWRUV��DV�DWWUDFWLYH-ness and image, reputation. Austria was able to build a strong image as one of the most stable countries in europe with clean environment and high living standard. This might be based on factors, which were XQGHUOLQHG�DV�WKH�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�IDFWRUV�LQ�%RUGDV�PRGHO��IDFWRUV�RI �quality, socio-economic, and demographic factors). creation of image and reputation seems to become one of the strongest tools of com-petitiveness in this period of time, especially in the time of turmoil, political instability, and economic crises. Austria and similarly Switzer-land are two successful countries, which were able to establish their extremely positive image as stable and attractive destinations for tour-ism. Poon’s model stressed the innovation and differentiation. Sustain-ability, social responsibility and respecting of demographic factors in the tourism product offer are strong competitive factors of Austrian tourism. for instance, the national Social responsibility Index and WKH�DSSOLFDWLRQ�RI �&65��FRUSRUDWH�VRFLDO�UHVSRQVLELOLW\��LQ�$XVWULD�LV�VWURQJO\�VXSSRUWHG�E\�D�JRYHUQPHQW���DQG�$XVWULD�LV���th�DPRQJ�����FRXQWULHV�LQ�WKH�ZRUOG��DKHDG�RI �*HUPDQ\��*UHDW�%ULWDLQ�DQG�)UDQFH��in the implementation of cSr. Austria ranks 1st in health and hy-giene, 1st in the quality of tourism infrastructure, 2nd in travel and tour-LVP�UHJXODWRU\�IUDPHZRUN��LQQRYDWLYH�PDQDJHPHQW�EDVHG�RQ�FOXVWHUV��partnerships and cross-border co-operation, etc.). Strong sustainabil-ity principles, innovations and social responsibility enabled to achieve an international success. Sustainable development means a synergy of D�WULDGLF�HQIRUFHPHQW�RI �WKH�HQYLURQPHQWDO��HFRORJLFDO���FRPPHUFLDO��HFRQRPLF���DQG�VRFLDO�IDFWRUV�RU�SLOODUV�LQWR�GHYHORSPHQW�VWUDWHJLHV���Sustainability, economic performance and quality of life are important pillars supporting competitiveness. 7RXULVP�LQ�$XVWULD��www.austriatourism.com) is focused at three
YLVLRQV�²�WHFKQRORJ\��UHJLRQDOLW\�DQG�WKH�YLVLWRU��KRVW�UHODWLRQVKLS��FR�creation and prosumer principle building). customer orientation, open-ness to foreign visitors and local stakeholder involvement are the best-practice capabilities of successful tourism destinations. one example of such activities is the regional cooperation management and linking Austria to the regions of neighbour countries as for example hungary, Slovenia, czech republic, Slovakia, etc. An excellent example of the innovative approach, based on the new strategies of regional develop-ment and innovations, are so called learning regions. for this reason Austria, by applying the principles of regionality and co-operation with neighbour countries, was able to succeed. network creation, learning partnerships with intercultural goals, cultural sensitivity and openness have created favourable conditions for Austria to be a strongly com-petitive country in the world in all aspects, not only in tourism.
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS90
Case study: Switzerland
Switzerland ranks 1st, in the TTcI in human resources quality, 2nd in Safety and Security, environmental Sustainability and 3rd in Ground 7UDQVSRUW�,QIUDVWUXFWXUH��DIWHU�+RQJ�.RQJ�DQG�6LQJDSRUH��DQG�ZDV�able to built a high quality service offer based on the co-creation prin-ciples and unique services in tourism. This means the improvement of so called relational marketing and branding as well as place marketing �LPDJH�DQG�UHSXWDWLRQ���6ZLVV�WRXULVP�VXFFHVV�LV�EDVHG�RQ�D�KRUL]RQ-WDO��YHUWLFDO�DQG�ODWHUDO�FR�RSHUDWLRQ�RI �WRXULVP�EXVLQHVVHV��SUHGRPL-QDQWO\�SULYDWHO\�RZQHG��ZLWK�WKH�RWKHU�WRXULVP�UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV��DVVR-ciations, sectors, etc.) and public sector representatives. A majority of enterprises in Switzerland are small enterprises, which as a source of higher transaction costs require stronger state interventions into tour-LVP��UHJXODWLRQV��OHJLVODWLRQ��WD[�LQFHQWLYHV��HWF����6RFLDO�UHVSRQVLELOLW\�and quality of environmental protection as well as the availability of TXDOLÀHG�ODERXU�DUH�PDMRU�VXFFHVV�IDFWRUV�RI �6ZLW]HUODQG��6WHZDUGVKLS�of natural resources and land protection as well as the environment regulation are factors of success, which were stated in several models of competitiveness, for example in Poon’s model. one of main cam-paigns during the last period was repositioning of summer tourism strategy for the years 2012- 2015 and the market segmentation strat-HJ\�WRZDUG�QHZ�PDUNHWV��%5,&�FRXQWULHV���HVSHFLDOO\�,QGLD�DV�RQH�RI �most potential tourism destination and partner. Switzerland is one good example of destination, which has a long period of tradition as a sta-ble island of prosperity and reputation. contemporary customers are mostly looking at such values as the quality of life and clean environ-ment, and the image and reputation of destinations is a strong factor because any negative information is spread out quickly via social media as Twitter, TripAdvisor, facebook. for this reason, competitive coun-tries have to be cautious about their image and reputation. Switzer-land and also Austria implemented a very strong branding and loyalty building concept into their tourism strategies. one of the examples of a stronger loyalty building through branding is the individual and SHUVRQDO�VHUYLFH�RIIHUHG�WR�WKH�FOLHQWV��LPDJH�EXLOW�WKURXJK�KLJK�VHU-vice quality in Switzerland) by the implementation of so called alter-native lifestyle hotel services. A creative approach to service provision, which is highly personalized and built through a strong segmentation and by the application of psychographic factors, is one of new ways of doing tourism business in Switzerland. Another important factor, ZKLFK�LQÁXHQFHV�6ZLVV�UHSXWDWLRQ�DQG�UDQNLQJ�LV�WKH�TXDOLW\�RI �HGXFD-WLRQDO�LQVWLWXWLRQV�LQ�6ZLW]HUODQG����th pillar – human resources) and especially a quality of highly prestigious tourism educational institu-tions, for instance hotel schools as ecole hotelire de Lausanne, Swiss
MAZureK 91
hotel Management School, Les roches International School of hotel Management, ecole hoteliere de Geneve, IhTTI School of hotel Management in neuchatel and the others. The quality of labour and the education in tourism are interrelated, and Switzerland similarly as Austria was able to apply the principles of innovations and competitive growth into their tourism strategies and economic and social develop-ment, which are important preconditions of competitiveness growth.
concLuSIon
competitiveness of tourism destinations belongs to the core topics of tourism policy. Seven existing models of tourism competitiveness KDYH�EHHQ�LQWURGXFHG�DQG�GLVFXVVHG��KRZHYHU�DV�5LWFKLH�DQG�&URXFK�KDYH�VWDWHG���������́ PRGHOV�VKRXOG�QRW�EH�XVHG�WR�PDNH�GHFLVLRQV��WKH\�assist in decision making, but should not substitute for the role of the GHFLVLRQ�PDNHU�µ�$V�-HQQLQJ�VWDWHG���������´WKH�UHVHDUFK�DJHQGD�RI �WRXULVP�LV�YDVW��,W�FRYHUV�PDQ\�LWHPV��UDQJLQJ�IURP�PDFUR��RU�PHVR���economic research on the importance of tourism sector or ecological sustainability through to local or global quality of life to micro-behav-LRUDO�UHVHDUFK�RQ�PRWLYHV�RU�VSHQGLQJ�SDWWHUQV�RI �WRXULVW�µ�7KH�FRQFHSW�of competitiveness has been discussed and studied from the different sides and point of view and especially with the focus on tourism. The H[LVWLQJ�PRGHOV�DUH��KRZHYHU��TXLWH�XVHIXO�LQ�GLIIHUHQW�HFRQRPLF�VFH-nario, not only tourism settings. 7KH�PRVW�LPSRUWDQW�IDFWRUV��ZKLFK�LQÁXHQFHG�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�RI �
some leading countries in tourism as Switzerland and Austria, have been underlined and discussed. both countries achieved an excellent UDQNLQJ�LQ�WRXULVP�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�PRQLWRU��7��7�FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV�indexes based on several factors, not only tourism bound factors). It VHHPV�WKDW�ERWK�FRXQWULHV�FRXOG�EHQHÀW�IURP�WKH�DELOLW\�WR�DSSO\�VRPH�strategic concepts of the above discussed models of tourism competi-WLYHQHVV��DV�IRU�H[DPSOH�3RRQ·V�RU�%RUGDV�PRGHOV��ZLWK�VWURQJ�VRFLDO�responsibility and quality of the environmental protection and image and reputation building. branding and strong loyalty building through a provision of personally tailored services and sophisticated segmen-tation based on the psychographic factors are in this period of time very crucial strategic managerial decisions in order to be competitive. on the top of it, both countries have an excellent legislative, organi-zational and managerial framework of tourism business and tourism is one of the priorities of both governments. In conclusion, Switzer-land and Austria are strongly focused on the quality of labour and the education of students who will be employed in tourism. This might
ModeLS of TourISM coMPeTITIVeneSS92
be one of the strong examples of the innovative approach to competi-tiveness and destination growth.
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