Electric VehiclesSyed Akhtar Ali

Visiting Professor of EnergyEEM407 Green Technology

Institute of Business ManagementKarachi

akhtarali1949@gmail.com

BATTERIES

Lithium Ion Battery• The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery

are the positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte. Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from carbon. The positive electrode is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organicsolvent. The electrochemical roles of the electrodes reverse between anode and cathode, depending on the direction of current flow through the cell.

• The most commercially popular negative electrode is graphite. The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide)

Li-Ion Electrolytes• The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic

carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions.[39] These non-aqueous electrolytes generally use non-coordinating anion salts such as;

• lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), • lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate (LiAsF6), • lithium perchlorate (LiClO4), • lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) and • lithium triflate (LiCF3SO3).

Safety

• Safety is one of the most important aspects when choosing a battery for the EV. A single incident blown out of proportion by the media could turn the public against such a vehicle. Similar concerns occurred 100 years ago when steam engines exploded and gasoline tanks caught fire. The main concern is a thermal runaway of the battery. Carefully designed safety circuits with robust enclosures should virtually eliminate this, but the possibility of a serious accident exists. A battery must also be safe when exposed to misuse and advancing age.

Life Span

• Life Span reflects cycle count and longevity. Most EV batteries are guaranteed for 8–10 years or 160,000 km (100,000 miles). Capacity loss through aging is a challenge, especially in hot climates. Auto manufacturers lack information as to how batteries age under different user conditions and climates. To compensate for capacity loss, EV manufacturers increase the size of the batteries to allow for some degradation within the guaranteed service life.

Performance

• Performance reflects the condition of the battery when driving the EV in blistering summer heat and freezing temperatures. Unlike an IC engine that works over a large temperature range, batteries are sensitive to cold and heat and require some climate control. In vehicles powered solely by a battery, the energy to moderate the battery temperature, as well as heat and cool the cabin, comes from the battery.

Specific energy• Specific energy demonstrates how much energy a battery can

hold in weight, which reflects the driving range. It is sobering to realize that in terms of output per weight, a battery generates only one percent the energy of fossil fuel. One liter of gasoline (1kg) produces roughly 12kW of energy, whereas a 1kg battery delivers about 120 watts. We must keep in mind that the electric motor is better than 90 percent efficient while the IC engine comes in at only about 30 percent. In spite of this difference, the energy storage capability of a battery will need to double and quadruple before it can compete head-to-head with the IC engine.

• Specific power demonstrates acceleration, and most EV batteries respond well. An electric motor with the same horsepower has a better torque ratio than an IC engine.

Cost• Cost presents a major drawback. There is no

assurance that the battery’s target price of $250–400 per kWh,(current cost 600 USD/kWh) which BCG predicts, can be met. The mandated protection circuits for safety, battery managements for status, climate control for longevity and the 8–10-year warranty add to this challenge. The price of the battery alone amounts to the value of a vehicle with IC engine, essentially doubling the price of the EV.

Egg shell as capacitors

NEW ALL SOLID SULPHUR base SOLID BATTERY vs Li-Ion Battery

• an all-solid lithium-sulfur battery with approximately four times the energy density of conventional lithium-ion technologies that power today’s electronics.

• The new ionically-conductive cathode enabled the ORNL battery to maintain a capacity of 1200 milliamp-hours (mAh) per gram after 300 charge-discharge cycles at 60 degrees Celsius. For comparison, a traditional lithium-ion battery cathode has an average capacity between 140-170 mAh/g.

Li-Ion Battery Cost• The above prices for Thundersky and Sky Energy LiFePo4

batteries are averaged to $416 per kWh. This average price times 24 kWh gives a total battery cost of $9,984. The BMS cost is based on only a few prices at $1,600. The charger is likewise estimated at $1,400. The total 24kWh pack comes to $12,984. The average cost per kWh is $541.$541 per kWh compares favorably with recent Motor Trend estimates that lithium-ion batteries presently cost around $600/kWh. A 24 kWh pack was chosen so as to compare costs with the Nissan Leaf. Current estimates put the cost of the 24 kWh Nissan Leaf pack at $15,600. That averages to $650 per kWh.

  AAA Cell AA Cell C Cell D Cell 9 Volt

Capacity(alkaline) 1,100mAh 2,500mAh 7,000mAh 14,000mAh 600mA

h

Energy (single cell) 1.4Wh 3Wh 9Wh 18Wh 4.2Wh

Cost per cell(US$) $1.25 $1.00 $1.60 $1.60 $3.10

Cost per kWh(US$) $890 $330 $180 $90 $730

Primary Batteries

  Lead Acid NiCd NiMH Li‑ion

Capacity 2,000mAh 600mAh 1,000mAh 1,200mAh

Battery voltage 12V 7.2V 7.2V 7.2V

Energy per cycle 24Wh 4.5Wh 7.5Wh 8.6Wh

Number of cycles 250 1,000* 500 500

Battery cost (est.) $50 $50 $70 $100

Cost per kWh ($US) $8.50 $11.00 $18.50 $24.00

Secondary Batteries

  Lead Acid NiCd NiMH Li‑ion

Capacity 2,000mAh 600mAh 1,000mAh 1,200mAh

Battery voltage 12V 7.2V 7.2V 7.2V

Energy per cycle 24Wh 4.5Wh 7.5Wh 8.6Wh

Number of cycles 250 1,000* 500 500

Battery cost (est.) $50 $50 $70 $100

Cost per kWh ($US) $8.50 $11.00 $18.50 $24.00

Table 2: Energy and cost comparison using rechargeable batteries.

 Function Boeing 747jumbo jet

Ocean linerQueen

Marry

SUVor large car Bicycle On foot

Weight(loaded)

369 tons  81,000 tons 2.5 tons 100kg (220lb) 80kg 

(176 lb)

Cruising speed

900km/h(560 mph)

52km/h(32mph)

100km/h(62mph)

20km/h(12.5mph)

5km/h(3.1mph)

Maximum power

77,000kW(100,000hp)

120,000kW(160,000hp)

200kW(275hp)

2,000W(2.7hp)

2,000W(2.7hp)

Power at cruising

65,000kW(87,000hp)

90,000 kW(120,000hp)

130 kW(174hp)

80 W(0.1hp)

280 W(0.38 hp)

Passenger 450 3000 4 1 1

Power per passenger 140kW 40kW 50kW 80W 280W

Energy per passenger

580 kilojoules*

2,800 kilojoules*

1,800 kilojoules*

14.4 kilojoules*

200 kilojoules*

ELECTRIC VEHICLESElectric Vehicles

NISSAN LEAF

http://electricvehicle.ieee.org/files/2013/04/All-Electric-Car-You-Never-Plug-In.jpg

EV-Scope

• Transport uses about 60-70% of world oil, or around 20 billion barrels per year. Electric vehicles, especially when powered by renewable energy can offset energy declines and keep our air cleaner.

EV Market

• Some 83 million cars and light trucks were sold globally in 2013, with 1,776,543 of those being hybrid, plugin hybrid, or battery electric powered. 2013 US car and light truck sales hit about 15.4 million units. Total U.S. plugin sales reached close to 96,000 units, with 495,000 hybrid electric cars sold. Nissan has sold some 110,000 Leafs, Ford sold 88,000 EV units in 2013, and May of 2014 saw 1,686 Chevy Volts and 3,114 Nissan Leafs sold.

EV-Characteristics• EV Motors Electric motors can be DC (direct-battery) or AC

(alternating-household) current. EVs used to be mostly DC, but modern cars and truck manufacturers are lately finding more power and efficiency from AC motors. Electric motors are basic relative to ICE motors and require no oil changes or tune-up. Electric motors run much cooler, and require much less maintenance than gas burners. Additionally, they turn 90%-95% of their energy to moving the vehicle. The ICE uses 30% to move the car, and 70% to waste heat, at best. The electric motor is most powerful right off the line where the ICE needs to rev up to get its peak power. This is why EVs make great drag cars and bikes.

Configuration Motor: 55 kWTransmission: Auto (1 speed)

Motor: 55 kWTransmission: Auto (1 speed)

Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price (MSRP) Not available Not available

EPA Fuel Economy

Miles per Gallon of Gasoline Equivalent (MPGe)1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kWh

ELECTRICITY

107Combined

122

City93

Hwy

ELECTRICITY

107Combined

122

City93

Hwy

kWh/100 mi

32Combined

28

City36

Hwy

32Combined

28

City36

Hwy

Fuel Economics

Cost to Drive 25 Miles $0.96 $0.96

Miles on a Charge 68 miles 68 miles

Time to Charge Battery† 6 hrs @ 240 V 6 hrs @ 240 V

Annual Fuel Cost* $600 $600

Leaf kWh/mi

Alternative MPG $/Gallon $/kWh Discount

Rate Miles/yr

0.34 31 4 0.12 8% 12,500

NISSAN LEAF• Powertrain• 80 kW (110 hp), 280 N·m (210 ft·lb)synchronous motor[1]

• Single speed constant ratio (7.94:1)[2]

• 24 kW·h lithium ion battery• 2011/12 models

117 km (73 mi) EPA175 km (109 mi) NEDC2013 model121 km (75 mi) EPA[3]

200 km (120 mi) NEDC[4]

• 3.3 kW and optional 6.6 kW 240 V AC[5] on SAE J1772-2009 inlet, max 44 kW 480 V DC on CHAdeMOinlet,[6] adapters for domestic AC sockets (110-240 V)

Summary of the Nissan's results using EPA L4 test cycleoperating the Leaf under different real-world scenarios[55][56]

Drivingconditi

on

Speed TemperatureTotal DriveDuration

Range Airconditi

onermph km/h °F °C mi km

Cruising (ideal condition)

38 61 68 20 3 hr 38 min 138 222Off

City traffic

24 39 77 25 4 hr 23 min 105 169Off

Highway 55 89 95 35 1 hr 16 min 70 110 In useWinter, stop-and-go traffic

15 24 14 −10 4 hr 08 min 62 100Heater on

Heavy stop-and-go traffic

6 10 86 30 7 hr 50 min 47 76 In use

EPA five-cycle tests[47]

n.a. 73 117Varying

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nissan_Leaf_EPA_fuel_economy_label.jpg

Consumer Reports (CR) comparison of the Leaf and Volt versus the most fuel efficient gasoline-powered automobiles

available in the U.S. market in 2011 that CR tested.[68] All prices are in US$.

VehicleModelyear

Operating mode

(powertrain

)

Priceas tested

CR overall

fuel economy

Cost permile

Cost for trip miles

30 mi (48 km)

50 mi (80 km)

70 mi (110 km)

150 mi (240 km)

Nissan Leaf

2011 All-electric $35,430

106 MPG-e

(3.16 mi/kWh)

$0.035 $1.04 $1.74 $2.44 —

Chevrolet Volt

2011

EV mode(35 mi range)

$43,700

99 MPG-e(2.93 mi/k

Wh)$0.038 $1.13 — — —

Gasoline only

(>35 mi)32 mpg $0.125 — $3.19 $5.69 $15.69

Toyota Prius

2011Gasoline-electrichybri

$26,750 44 mpg $0.086 $2.59 $4.32 $6.05 $12.95

Toyota Corolla

2011Gasoline

only$18,404 32 mpg $0.119 $3.56 $5.94 $8.31 $17.81

Notes: All estimated costs per mile are out-of-pocket and do not include maintenance, depreciation or other costs.Costs for plug-in electric vehicles are based on the U.S. national average electricity rate of 11 cents per kWh and regular gasoline price of $3.80 per gallon.

Electric Power Research Institute comparison ofthe Nissan Leaf versus average conventional and hybrid cars.

Vehicle

Operating mode

(powertrain)

Total ownership cost

US Average California

Nissan Leaf SV

All-electric $37,288 $35,596

Chevrolet Volt

Plug-in hybrid

$44,176 $40,800

Average Conventional

Gasoline $44,949 $46,561

Average Hybrid

Gasoline-electric hybrid

$44,325 $45,416

Notes: Costs are based on a gasoline price of $3.64 per gallon, an electricity rate of $0.12/kWh, and a vehicle lifetime of 150,000 miles.The average conventional car was constructed by averaging of Honda Civic EX, Chevrolet Cruze LTZ, Ford Focus Titanium, andVolkswagen Passat.The average hybrid car was constructed from Ford Fusion Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid XLE, and Toyota Prius IV.

EV vs Gasoline Supply chain comparedGasoline /Diesel

• Gasoline Transport :25-30%• ICE :25-30%

Electric Vehicle• Generation :30-60%• Transmission :90%• Electric motor;90%• Electric Battery: ?

Battery ηc/d ηgen ηgrid ηrecovery ηprocessing ηww

Li-ion 0.86 0.60 0.92 0.97 0.97 0.45

Pb-Acid 0.50 - 0.91 0.60 0.92 0.97 0.97 0.26 - 0.48

NiMH 0.66 0.60 0.92 0.97 0.97 0.34

Table 2: Well-to-wheel battery efficiencies as given by Eqn. (1). The charge-discharge

efficiency ηc/d is from Table 1.

Daihatsu CharadeConverted 1993In continuous use for 17 years. (Hasn't been to a service station yet!)Motor: X91-4001System: 120 VoltBatteries: LithiumTop speed: 130 km/hRange: 80 - 100 km

References

• http://www.evolveelectrics.com/ADC%20Motors.html

ELECTRIC BUSES

Electric Tram-China• Chinese city of Guangzhou has now developed trams which will run on

supercapacitor batteries without the need for overhead cables.A supercapacitor does not rely on chemical changes which means there is virtually no limit to the number of times it can be recharged and discharged but it can store only a relatively small amount of power, making it unsuitable for cars.

• The Guangzhou trams will need 10 to 30 seconds to recharge at each stop after which they will be able to run for almost three miles before needing a top-up.

• Mobile power-supply vehicles will be on standby in case of problems with the ground-level power supply at the stops.

• The trams are being built by CSR Zhuzhou with electrical equipment developed by Siemens. Each tram can carry up to 386 passengers.

• The tram’s floor will be just a foot above ground level throughout, providing level access from low platforms in streets.

Chattanooga, Tennessee• Chattanooga, Tennessee operates nine zero-fare electric

buses, which have been in operation since 1992 and have carried 11.3 million passengers and covered a distance of 3,100,000 kilometres (1,900,000 mi), They were made locally by Advanced Vehicle Systems. Two of these buses were used for the1996 Atlanta Olympics.[7][8]

• Beginning in the summer of 2000, Hong Kong Airport began operating a 16-passenger Mitsubishi Rosa electric shuttle bus, and in the fall of 2000, New York City began testing a 66-passenger battery-powered school bus, an all electric version of the Blue Bird TC/2000.[9] A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California for 14 months ending in April, 2004.[10]

2008 Beijing Olympics

• The 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of 130 km (81 mi) with the air conditioning on. They use Lithium-ion batteries, and consume about 1 kW·h/mi (0.62 kW·h/km; 2.2 MJ/km). The buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by the Jinghua Coach Co. Ltd.[11] The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the recharging station to allow 24 hour operation of the buses.[12]

First electric commercial bus

• Seoul Metropolitan Government runs the world's first commercial all-electric bus service. The bus was developed byHyundai Heavy Industries and Hankuk Fiber which make a lightweight body from carbon composite material. Provided with Li-on battery and regenerative braking, the bus may run to 52 miles (84 km) in a single 30 minutes charge. The maximum speed is 62 miles per hour (100 km/h).[19]

Big Bike Company Limited,

• in Gloucestershire, England, is now offering fully electric pick up trucks for sale. Powered by an impressive bank of batteries, these small utility vehicles are able to deliver a payload of approximately 500 kg, and have a range of up to 80 miles (130 km). Using a 3 wheel configuration, the rolling and aerodynamic drag is reduced. As a tricycle it can also be driven on a motorcycle licence. They are marketed on the internet, and can be viewed on a temporary web site at www.electrux.net.

Semi-trailer trucks

• The Port of Los Angeles and South Coast Air Quality Management District have demonstrated a short-range heavy-duty all electric truck capable of hauling a fully loaded 40-foot (12 m) cargo container. The current design is capable of pulling a 60,000 lb (27 t) cargo container at speeds up to 40 mph (64 km/h) and has a range of between 30 and 60 miles (48 and 97 km). It uses 2 kilowatt-hours per mile (1.2 kW·h/km; 4.5 MJ/km), compared to 5 miles per US gallon (47 L/100 km; 6.0 mpg-imp) for the hostler semi tractors it replaces.[21]

BYD Bus Specs• Electric power consumption: less than 100kWh/60mins[16]

• Acceleration: 0–50 km/h in 20s[16]

• Top speed: 96 km/h[16]

• Normal charge: 6h for full charge[17][18]

• Fast charge: 3h for full charge[17][18]

• Or overnight charging: 60 kW Max.power to fully charge the bus within 5h[17]

• Range: 155 miles (249 km)[17][18] (186 miles (299 km) according to some reports[18])

• Length*Width*Height: 12,000mm*2,550mm*3,200mm[19]

• Standard seats: 31+1 (31 for passengers and 1 for driver)[19]

• Weight: 18,000 kg[19]

• Clearance between one-step entry and ground: 360mm[19]

BYD Bus contd• The BYD electric bus or BYD ebus, called K9 in China, is an all-

electric bus model manufactured by BYD powered with its self-developed Iron-phosphate battery, allegedly featuring the longest drive range of 250 km (155 miles) on one single charge under urban road conditions. BYD electric bus rolled off line on September 30, 2010 in Changsha city of Hunan province. The K9 has a 12-meter body length and 18-ton weight with one-step low-floor interior for passengers' comfort, It has been running/tested in China and many other countries and regions such as Hong Kong,[2] U.S., Colombia, Chile, Spain, Netherlands and Denmark.[3][4][5][6][7] More than 200 BYD electric buses, in public transit service in ShenzhenChina, have accumulated over 9,216,000 km (or 5,529,600 miles) by the end of August, 2012.[3] In May, 2013, BYD announced its new electric bus factory in Lancaster, California. The new factory will start production in October, 2013.[15]

BYD in Israel

• In August 2012, a contract for 700 electric bus delivery has been completed between BYD and Israeli transit company Dan Bus. The first buses are expected to be deployed sometime in 2012, with more buses gradually joining Dan’s fleet over the next several years. Eventually, Dan Bus hopes to replace about half of its current fleet of about 1,300 buses with the new electric models. Based on the market price of 2.1 million yuan (USD330,000), the contract is estimated to be worth 1.5 billion yuan (USD236.65 million). The contract is BYD’s largest order to date from a public transport operator outside of China[8][11]

BYD in California

• Take the 324 kilowatt-hour iron phosphate battery that powers the eBus. BYD has built another factory in Lancaster to assemble battery packs, which can also be used to store renewable energy from solar panels or wind turbines. A smaller version of the battery pack powers the e6 SUV, giving it a range of 186 miles on a charge, compared to 75 miles for most electric cars currently on the market.

BYD Intro

• BYD, the $38 billion Chinese conglomerate that makes everything from electric cars to LED lighting to solar panels. (The company is best known in the United States for the owner of 10 percent of its shares—a Nebraskan investor named Warren Buffett.)

Electric Bus Breaks EV Mileage Record• Proterra electric bus has set a new EV record for

distance traveled in one day by logging more than 700 miles in a 24 hour period. Its batteries didn’t need to store all the energy, though, as the bus has several charging stations along the route. Strategically placed charging stations allow the bus to grab a few kWh of energy at each passenger stop, and provide near-complete charging at five to ten minute “layover” stops. Periodic charging lowers the battery weight and cost, giving increased range and a shorter payback period.

contd

• In addition to going the distance, these buses rack up an impressive 27 MPGe (miles per gallon equivalent), more than five times the fuel economy of comparable sized diesel or compressed natural gas (CNG) buses. How good is that? My four-cylinder, five-passenger SUV gets about 27 MPG on the highway!

•Six US cities are currently using Proterra buses, and two more have recently signed contracts to purchase them.

The Hardware

• Sporting a high-efficiency 150 kW (200 hp) electric drive motor, the bus is capable of reaching highway speeds, although for the record-breaking test, it averaged 29 mph. To reduce weight, its body is made of a composite material: balsa wood surrounded by carbon fiber and infused with resin. This gives a one inch structure that has the strength of a 2.5 inch I-beam. High-power wiring allows for a ten-minute fast-charge.

OLEV Tram Korea• Today the OLEV tram is still zipping around the park on a 2.2-km

loop of roadway, 370 meters of which has transmitting coils embedded in the asphalt. As the tram rolls along, magnetic sensors in the road detect its approach and activate the transmitters to send 62 kilowatts to the receiving coils on the underside of the tram. Meanwhile, the tram operator keeps an eye on a monitor that shows how well the tram is aligned with the transmitting coils it passes over, and thus how efficiently it’s receiving power. (We are developing a system that will align the vehicle automatically by measuring the strength of the magnetic field.) The bus still contains a battery, but it carries 40 percent less energy than it would have to otherwise. It’s also 6 percent lighter, at 1100 kilograms, and significantly cheaper, costing $88 500.