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Since time immemorial the elephant has been anintegral part of Indian culture and heritage. TheVedic 'King of Gods' (Indra) assumed a distinctlyIndian character after localization in the land ofthe 'Five Rivers'. He ultimately stepped from hischariot, drawn by the steeds of the Aryan horsetamers and mounted an elephant. Sen (1972)states that it is indeed curious that Indra who wasconceived as being borne on a golden chariotdrawn by two or many tawny steeds, abandonedhis old vehicle and preferred an elephant as hisvahana or carrier. Craven (1976) observes thathymns in Rigveda, the first and chief book of theVedas compiled sometime between 1500 and500 BC, were especially directed towards Indra,the God of the heavens and the warrior king, whorode a white elephant and used the thunder bolt,Vajra, as his principal weapon.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The Indus Valley Civilization (c.2500 to1500 BC) of which impressive remains have beendiscovered at Mahenjodaro in Sindh and Harappain Western Punjab (Pakistan) provides the earliestpicture that we have of India's past. Excavationsat these places have revolutionised the knowledgeof lndia's historical beginnings. A very carefulrepresentation of elephant on seals and on copper

plates makes us believe that the living species ofthe mastodon either attracted the admiration ofthe people of the valley for its gigantic structureand strength or where depictions of elephantsappear on amulets they were propitiatory in nature(Sen, 1972). An outstanding icon in Indian artappears in the Harappan culture for the first timeon a famous seal from Mahenjodaro. The sealshows a central figure seated on a low throne in ayogic position, along with which appear theelephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo and deer andtwo exceedingly stylized human figures (Craven,1976).

ASHOKA AND THE KALINGA WAR

The history of Indian Art and Architectureis obscure between the Indus Valley period andthe 5th century BC i.e., between the period ofAryan conquest (c. 1500 BC) and the advent ofthe historical Buddha (c. 566-486 BC). TheGreek diplomat Meghasthenes (4th Century BC)has left an account of the architectural design ofthe city of Pataliputra, the capital of the MauryanEmpire. The architecture of the Ashokan period(c. 273-237 BC) gains in magnificence, as forthe first time stone was used instead of wood(Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1969).Little is known of the early part of Ashoka's reign,

Elephants in Art, Architecture andHistory of Orissa

Debabrata Swain

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Plate-1Elephant motif half hewn from a huge stone nearDhauli, Bhubaneswar-- the earliest sculpture of Orissa,3rd century B.C.

Plate-2 Infuriated wild elephants attacking a party ofone man and ten women (partly shown in the picture)in a lotus lake in Rani gumpha- Udayagiri caves,Bhubaneswar, Orissa, 1st century B.C.

Plate-3The Story of Udayana and Vasandatta in theGanesh gumpha Udayagiri caves, Bhubaneswar,Orissa, 1st century B.C.

Plate-7 Free standing elephant in the northerncourtyard of the Sun temple, Konarka, Orissa, 13thCentury A.D.

Plate-4 Two elephant guards in front of Ganeshgumpha-Udayagiri caves, Bhubaneswar, Orissa.

Plate-6Elephant and giraffe in the royal court Suntemple, Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.

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Plate-8 Sexual union of elephants Sun temple,Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-11 Folded movement of elephant legs Suntemple,Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-12 Warriors on an elephant Daksha Prajapatitemple, Banapur, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-13 An elephant caught in Kheda in Mayurbhanjex-state, Orissa.

Plate-10 An elephant in the stockade Sun temple,Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-9 Elephants being driven into stockade forelephant catching Sun temple, Konarka, Orissa, 13thcentury AD.

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except that of the eighth year, which was theturning point. In one of his edicts it is said: 'Kalingawas conquered by his Sacred and GraciousMajesty when he had been consecrated eightyears. One hundred and fifty thousand personswere thence carried away as captive, one hundredthousand were there slain, and many times thatnumber died' (Nehru, 1946). The horrors of theKalinga war changed the course of human historyand the message of Buddhism reverberated in theears of the emperor who gave up his ambition ofDigvijaya in favour of Dharma Vijaya andbecame Dharmashoka from Chandashoka.

EARLIEST SCULPTURAL ART OFORISSA

There is a sculpture of an elephant half hewnfrom a huge stone near which Ashoka wrote hisFourteenth Rock Edict at Dhauli nearBhubaneswar (the present Capital city of Orissa),the site of the great Kalinga War (Plate-I). This isthe earliest specimen of sculptural art in Orissa(4th century B.C). One edict there (3rd centuryBC) documents not only Ashoka's conversion,but also his missionary zeal for the nonviolence ofBuddhism. The bell capital discovered atAshokajhara (Bhubaneswar) has a wingedelephant along with other decorative figures onthe frieze. Panigrahi (1986) argues the bell capitalto be of Ashoka's period (c. 273- 237 BC).

ELEPHANT SYMBOL

There are several myths relating toelephants in Indian literature. The most popularbelief indicating the sign of conception inwomanhood by the visit of a snake in her dream(traceable not only in India but also in differentparts of the world with slight variations) wasdirectly transferred to the elephant (Zimmer,1962). Thus, in the Buddhist legend the futureBuddha is said to have left Tusita heaven and wasconceived by his mother Maya or Mahamaya in

a dream who saw him descending from the heavenin the form of a white elephant. Sen (1972)observes that a similar type of legend is alsoconnected with the birth of Mahavira whosemother, Trisala, is reported to have had a dreamof a four-tusked elephant when she conceivedthe said saviour. But, as the elephant ultimatelybecame the symbol of Buddha who is said to havedescended to the earth in the form of an elephant-a saddanta according to tradition, it ceased to bea sign of conception for the common womanalthough it still remained the symbol of fecundationfor the divine female. The elephant figures at Dhauliand Ashokajhara were intended to remind thepeople of the birth story of Gautama Buddha. Infact, the great stupa built at Dhauli by Buddhistmonks from Japan in the early nineteen seventiesdepicts on its wall the dream of Mayadevi andthe birth of Gautama Buddha.

Thus, the elephant has been representedas raining clouds, the Vahana of Indra, fertility ofcrops, the conception of womanhood, the sign offecundation of mother goddess and her Vahana,the guardian of quarters, the symbol of the Sunand also of the Buddha and Mahavira.

KHANDAGIRI AND UDAYAGIRI CAVES

It is in the caves of Khandagiri andUdayagiri (near Bhubaneswar), that the rock-cutmode found its supreme expression. As knownfrom the Hatigumpha (a cave named after theelephant; Hati elephant and Gumpha = cave)inscription (Udayagiri), most of these caves belongto the 1st century BC and were excavated duringthe reign of Emperor Kharavela, the greatest rulerof ancient Kalinga. All the caves, locally calledGumphas, were intended as dwelling apartmentsfor Jaina monks. In keeping with the rigorousasceticism of the Jaina faith, these dwelling cellsare quite simple. In some caves the ceiling is solow that one can hardly stand erect and the

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entrances are so small that one has to crawl toenter the cave. The rear end of the floor insidethe cell is slightly raised to serve the purpose of apillow.

Out of about eighteen excavations in theUdayagiri and fifteen excavations in theKhandagiri, important elephant friezes are seenin Rani Gumpha, Manchapuri Gumpha andGanesh Gumpha in the Udayagiri series andAnanta Gumpha in the Khandagiri series. Thefacade of the Rani Gumpha, the most beautiful ofthe caves, depicts infuriated wild elephantsattacking a party of one man and ten women in alotus lake. The relief delineates with remarkablesuccess (Plate-2) the feelings and action of thepanic-stricken group.

An interesting panel in the Manchapuri cavedepicts a royal procession towards an object ofworship. The king, as evident from his turretedcrown, is on an elephant. He is proceeding withfolded hands along with three other persons. Twoflying Gandharvas above provide heavenly musicand a flying Vidyadhara is seen carrying a tray offlowers in his left hand. It is possible that the scenerepresents the worship of Kalinga-Jina byKharavela (Behera. 1991) who, as per theHatigumpha Inscription, brought back Kalinga-Jina after defeating King Bruhasatimitra ofMagadha.

The story of Udayana and Vasandatta isdepicted in the Ganesh Gumpha (Plate-3). Theartist has chosen the crucial moment of thedramatic flight of King Udayana with princessVasandatta on an elephant. A party of soldiers ischasing the elephant from behind. On the back ofthe elephant are three persons of whom one is awoman, perhaps Vasandatta. The central figureis shooting arrows at the soldiers while the figurebehind him is throwing coins from a bag todissuade the soldiers from pursuing. A soldier is

seen prostrate on the ground apparently to collectcoins. The next sequence shows the personsalighting from a kneeling elephant. Thereafter, theyare proceeding to the right. Finally, the chief manwith folded hands seems to be consoling thewoman who is shown in a half-reclining posture.The entrance of the Ganesh Gumpha is flankedby two elephants placed in a later period (Behera,supra) (Plate-4).

The Ananta Gumpha, the most beautifulcave of Khandagiri, depicts auspicious motifs suchas a four-tusked elephant (Chaturdanta Gaja) andShri anointed by elephants (Sabhisekha Shri), allrelated to the dreams of Trisala before giving birthto Mahavira, the famous Jain-Tirthankara(Behera, supra).

All these motifs of elephants carved on thetympana of the caves indicate the possible use ofelephants by the royalties in wars, processionsetc., and the religious significance attached to theelephant and the elephant symbol. Thepreponderance of elephant motifs indicates theavailability of quite a large number of elephants inthe wild as well as in captivity. The sporting ofelephants in the lotus lake is indicative of people-elephant conflict that existed even in the 1stcentury BC of Orissa's history.

MOTIFS IN THE 7TH TO 13THCENTURY AD

It is difficult to give a coherent history ofsculpture after Kharavela till about the 7th centuryAD. It seems that during this periodBhuabaneswar retained its role as an artisticcentre. A few railing posts were discovered nearthe Bhaskareswar temple in Bhubaneswar andare kept in the Orissa State Museum,Bhubaneswar and the Ashutosh Museum,Kolkata. The sculpture on these railings is limitedto decorative male or female figures. Between the7th and 13th centuries AD, innumerable temples

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were erected in Orissa. The sculptures of theearliest group of extant temples, such as,Satrughneswar, Parsurameswar andSwarnajaleswar, all in Bhubaneswar and the Shivatemple in Badgaon, Ganjam, are quite simple andbeing done in low relief seem encrusted on thetemple surface. A few elephant figures depictedon these temples are important from the naturalhistory point of view. An elephant frieze on therelief of the Parsurameswar temple (650 AD)depicts the catching of an elephant possibly bynoosing and its training. In the 11th century theart of sculpture was highly developed. Some ofthe finest temple sculptures of Orissa are found inthe Rajarani, Brahmeswar and Lingaraj templesof Bhubaneswar.

Large numbers of elephants are depictedon the walls of these temples, the most importantbeing that of the Lingaraj temple (c. 1000 AD).The elephant figures commonly denote royalprocessions while sculptures of elephants in singlesand twos are occasional. In the 12th and 13thcenturies, the standard decorative details becamemagnificently more luxurious which is evident froman analysis of the details of the temple culture ofBhubaneswar and of the other parts of Orissastate. The decoration of the outer walls of theJagannath temple (12th century AD) of Puriclosely follows that of the Lingaraj temple(Behera, supra). It is also true in the case ofelephant motifs on the Jagannath temple. A seriesof elephant processions are seen on its outer wall.

KONARKA TEMPLE OF THE 13THCENTURY AD

It is the sculptures of the 13th century onthe Sun temple (Plate-5) at Konarka (40 km fromBhubaneswar) on the coast of the Bay of Bengal)that represent the epitome of Orissan sculpturalart. The temple is lavishly ornamented from thebottom to the top. Percy Brown (Behera, 1991;

1996) aptly remarked: "Few buildings can boastof such an unrestrained abundance of plasticdecoration as this vast structure, every portion ofthe exterior being moulded and chiselled either inthe form of abstract geometrical ornament,conventional foliage, mythical animals, fabulousbeings - half human and half serpent coils, figuressatanic and figures divine, of every conceivablemotif and subject known to the Indian mind andin a technique which ranges from pattern cut withminute precision of cameo to powerfully modelledgroups of colossal size".

The richness and exuberance of animalcarvings that we notice at Konarka represent anextraordinary achievement. All types of animalshave been depicted both known and unknowne.g., horse, lion, snake, bull, camel, deer,crocodile, monkey, varieties of birds, elephantsand their various combinations. Even a giraffe hasbeen shown in the royal courts (Plate-6) probablythat of King Narasingha Deva I (AD 1238-1264),the builder of this great monument. Though thisanimal was not known to have existed in India, itmight have been imported from Africa, showingthe trading links of Orissa far and wide. However,out of all the animal motifs, that of the elephantrequires special mention in this context. Of course,it will not be out of place to mention here that thenumber of elephants shown on friezes surpassesall other animals. Hence, the elephant motifs bothfrom the religious and artistic point with specialreference to its natural history need to bediscussed.

The selection of a symbol to represent aparticular theme in art depends on the taste andknowledge of the artist and its relevancy to thesubject matter (Sen 1972). Of all the implicationsof the elephant symbol, the animal as the Vahanaof Indra took a distinctive role in the religio-mythical tales of India and also in art, making its

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role as carrier of the mother-goddess a secondaryone. That is why, Sen (supra) states that artistspreferred to associate the elephant with themother goddess, not primarily as her Vahana,but as the symbolic source of fecundation byrepresenting two or more elephants flanked oneither side of the mother- goddess and bathingher with the waters of life. This is exemplified inthe Gajalakshmi motif seen in different temples,the earliest in Orissa being in the Parshurameswartemple (7th century AD), Bhubaneswar. But thecommon Gajalakshmi motif is found to have beenaltered in a decorative panel of the Sun Temple(13th century AD) at Konarka into that of a sittingfemale figure with legs wide apart accompaniedby an elephant pouring waters of life' into her sexorgan with its trunk- a highly suggestive symbolof the fecundation of womanhood by an elephantthough a rather unconventional one (Behera, 1996;Sen, 1972). Neither does this woman look like agoddess, nor is the elephant represented equal insize to her.

The Gaja-Simha or the "Lion standing onelephant" motif is another interesting device, whichis notably alike for its symbolic significance andimaginative handling. The gigantic pair in front ofthe Natamandira of the Sun temple shows thismotif at its best. The rampant lion, with openmouth, lolling tongue, flamboyant manes,protruding eyes, stands over the recumbentelephant that in turn keeps a human beneath itstrunk. The majesty and vigour of the lion incontrast to the attitude of helplessness of theelephant are well expressed by the sculpture. Themotif symbolizes the pious human being fightingfor liberation from the bonds of Nature. Suchmotifs in different forms are common in differenttemples of Orissa.

The great sculptors of Orissa had observedthe gait, movements and the anatomical features

of animals very minutely and producedinnumerable superb animal figures. The free-standing elephants in the northern courtyard ofthe Sun temple are distinguished by the dignifiedbearing and large volume (Plate-7). Elephantsappear in a number of situations, e.g., they movein military processions, carry their masters, trot inthe jungle, their sexual union and being driven intothe stockade for elephant catching (Plates-8 to10). In all these situations they have been copiedfrom nature. It is interesting to note here thatelephant behaviour was so minutely observed bythe artists that in depictions of elephantprocessions one can easily mark lefty and righty(like left handed and right handed human beings)from the folded movement of the legs (Plate-11).

OTHER TEMPLES OF THE 13THCENTURY AD

The richness and exuberance of carvingsthat we notice at Konarka are also seen in othertemples of the 13th century, e.g., Dakshaprajapati(Plate-12). The important elephant motif of theDakshaprajapati temple of Banapur (Khurdadistrict, Orissa) from the natural history point ofview is the exchange of greetings between themembers of a pair of elephants. There is thepopular Simha-Vyala figure standing over arecumbent elephant. It appears that the artiststook fancy in combining features of large cats withother animals (locally called vyala or vidala).Various types of vyalas occur in the Jangha ofthe temples of later periods. The popular devicesinclude Simha-vyala, Gaja-vyala, Aswa-vyala etc.The Gaja-vyala is an imaginative combination oflion and elephant. The body, tail and paws are ofthe lion but the face is that of an elephant.

One interesting sculpture, now preservedin the Ashutosh Museum of the KolkataUniversity and another discovered by Dr. K.C.Panigrahi (Panigrahi, 1986) and now exhibited

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in the Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar,belonging to the medieval temples of Orissa,depicts a series of boats in which elephants arebeing carried apparently to a distant land. Only apart of this frieze has been preserved. Zigzag lineswith half-shown fishes, crabs and crocodilesindicate the waves of the sea.

SYMBOL 'GANESHA'

The motif of Vighna Binashaka, Ganeshaor Ganapati, is an ingenious composition inconjoining the head of an elephant with the bodyof a human and it occupies the foremost positionamong all the hybrid representations, not only inIndian art but in the art of the whole world. Sen(1972) suggests that the worship of Ganesha wasoriginally a practice of worshipping the elephant,which probably arose in regions populated withmany wild elephants. But when due todeforestation, climatic changes and other factors,such danger was no more, devotees had toattribute other qualities to the deity for retentionin their pantheon. The earliest representation ofGanesha seems to be that of the Amaravati coping(Maharashtra) and it is, therefore, highly probablethat sometime about the 1st century AD the figureof Ganesha was improvised by some artist in thesouth (Sen, supra).

The extant reliefs and single sculptures ofGanesha give us an idea about the iconographyand typical Orissan mode of representation(Behera, 1983). Ganesha usually appears as aParswadevata in Siva temples and his depictionwithout the carrier- mouse seems to be an earlierconvention. Panigrahi (1961) states that the mouseas the distinctive feature of Ganesha first occurredin the Mukteswara temple of Bhubaneswar,which was probably, constructed not later thanthe first half of the 11th century AD. But mousehad not been associated with the South Indian

images of Ganesha before the 12th century AD(Sen, 1972).

ORISSAN HISTORY

Kharavela, the mighty ruler of Kalinga (1stcentury BC), had a large army, consisting ofcavalry and elephants. With his mighty forces,Kharavela could extend the territory of Kalingafrom the River Ganga to River Godavari as evidentfrom the Hatigumpha (elephant cave) inscriptionin the Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar. Themonarchs of Kalinga, on account of their largeelephant army, were styled in their inscriptions as'Gajapati' or Lord of Elephants'. Das (1986) statesthat Chodaganga Deva (1078-1150 AD), thefounder father of the imperial Ganga dynasty ofKalinga, is styled as Nava navati sahasrakunjaradhiswara (Lord of ninety nine thousandelephants) and Kapilendra Deva (1435-1467AD), the founder of the Gajapati dynasty, inheritedtwo hundred thousand elephants at the time ofhis accession to the throne.

In the Arthashastra of Kautilya (c. 300 BC)the elephants of Kalinga are admired as the bestof the type in India. For at least seven centuriesafter Kharavela there is no account of the historicalevents of Orissa. Yuan Chwang, the Chinesepilgrim, visited Orissa and the neighbouringcountries in AD 639. It appears from his accountthat Kalinga produced large dark elephants,which were prized in the neighbouring countries(Panigrahi, 1986). The Muslim geographers ofthe ninth and tenth century AD also testify thatlarge elephants were one of the chief commoditiesof trade in Orissa of the Bhauma period (AD 736-940). The geographical work of Ibn Khurdahbih(9th century AD) mentions that elephants werecarried in fresh water (evidently the rivers) to theSamudra or sea from places 15 - 20 days distantfrom the latter. Ibn Rusta, another Arabgeographer who completed his geography in AD

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920, also speaks of Orissan elephants as thetallest elephants of the region. The latest Muslimgeographer, the anonymous writer of Hudud-al-alam, who began his work in AD 982-983 forAbul Harith Muhamad Iban Ahmad, prince of theprovince Guzgan or Guzganan which lies in theNorth - Western part of present day Afghanistan,mentions about Orissa, "Extremely large elephantsare found there, such as in no other place of India"(Panigrahi, supra).

Elephants of Orissa were so much prizedthat in AD 1353 Shamsud'-din llyas Shah invadedOrissa and he retreated only after obtaining a fewelephants. In AD 1361 Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluqinvaded the Ganga Kingdom during the reign ofBhanudeva III. The Sultan concluded hisvictorious campaign by an elephant hunt atPadmatola in old Baramba State. Bhanudeva IIImade a treaty with the Sultan by offering twentybig elephants and agreeing to supply annually tothe Sultan a number of elephants as an annualtribute (Panigrahi, supra). During the reign ofBhanudeva IV (AD 1414-1434), the son ofBhanudeva III, Orissa was raided many times byoutsiders to obtain elephants. Citing Muslimchronicles Panigrahi (supra) states that HushangShah, the Sultan of Malwa, was in need ofelephants for his war with Gujarat and since Orissawas the fabled country of the best elephants, heled an expedition to it in the guise of a dealer inhorses. The Sultan brought with him horses ofdifferent colours which the king of Orissa prizedmost. When Bhanudeva IV with a small band offollowers wanted to examine the horses broughtby Hushang Shah, the King of Orissa wastreacherously seized and made captive and wasnot released till he promised to give the Sultansome of his best elephants.

A rough survey indicates that about 50%of the people of Orissa still bear military titles.The title 'Sahani was given to the commander of

the elephant force and is in vogue to this day(Panigrahi, supra). Another interesting fact we findfrom history (Trautmann, 1982) is that Orissa wasimporting elephants from Sri Lanka during theMauryan period (3rd century BC). At the sametime, we learn from the records of varioushistorical events that elephants were beingexported from Orissa. The import of elephants inthe third century BC can be explained by the factthat the demand of elephants by the Orissan armywas so large that it could not be met from localsources.

ELEPHANTRY AND ELEPHANTOLOGY

There are two war literatures in Orissa, oneof Sarala Dasa and the other of Godavara Mishra,which furnish information on the military systemof the Gajapati kings. Sarala Dasa, acontemporary of Kapilendra Deva (AD 1435-1467), has sincerely attempted to depict the roleof elephantry and other wings of the military in hisOriya war literature named the 'Mahabharata'.The 'Harihara Chaturanga' of Godavara Mishrais more explicit and systematic than the earliertext of Sarala Dasa. The author was a ministerunder Prataprudra Deva (AD 1497-1540). In thefirst chapter the author stresses the importanceof elephants in a battle. The poet writes inSanskrit:"Sahi raja yasya chambah sa tamuryatra hastinah,Tasmattam vibhriydraja yuddhyogya guna vatah."

(He is verily the king who has an army and thatindeed the army which comprises elephants.Hence the King with qualitative disposition shouldpossess an army capable of encounter.)

"Rastriyatha sasankena youvanena yatha striyah,Tatha sena gajendrana taya raja cha sobhate."

(A king shines forth with the army, comprisingelephants, as the night is pleasant with the moonand as the women in youth.)

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The poet also went further to prescribe themethods of capturing, taming and maintainingelephants for the purpose of war. The entirechapter containing 813 hymns is devoteddiscussing elephants and their use in the army.

Brundabana Nathasharma, a renownedwriter of Deogarh in Western Orissa, wrote aseries of essays on elephants and elephantologyin a weekly 'Sambalpur Hitaisini' published from1889 to 1923. Nathasharma's article onHastitatwa (Elephantology) was published indifferent issues of the above weekly in 1908. Hehas cited lucidly in Oriya about the names givento the elephant in Indian literature, the categoriesof war elephants, elephant riding techniques, whiteelephants, foreign names of elephants, size ofelephants, musth in elephants etc. He also saidthat twice the circumference of a front foot givesthe height of an elephant (Nathasharma,1908a,b,c; 1909a,b,c).

KHEDA

Sanskrit literature describes five methodsof capturing elephants in the following order ofdesirability from most to least (Stracey, 1963):

(i) Stockades or kheda;

(ii) by means of female decoys;

(iii) mela-shikars or noosing from the back ofa trained elephant;

(iv) by nooses concealed on the ground; and

(v) by the pit method.

These methods were developed over aperiod of time and became peculiar to particulargeographical regions of the country.

All forms of capturing elephants werepractised in Orissa, as per available records. Thestockade or kheda used to be the most widelyused method to capture elephants. Stracey

(Supra) reports that Meghasthenes (400 BC) wasthe first to record a clear account of the khedamethod of capturing elephants as practised innorthern India in those days, probably in what isnow South Bihar(Jharkhand) and neighbouringOrissa. Capturing elephants in a kheda was oncea royal sport in India and this ancient game of thekings is mentioned in the Ramayana andMahabharata. Kheda scenes are graphicallydepicted in the carvings on the walls of theKonarka temple. In one scene men mounted onhorses and tame elephants and on foot are drivinga herd of wild elephants by beating drums,blowing trumpets and shouting. The herd consistsmostly of elephant female with calves. The herdhas been driven into a large enclosure. This showsKing Narasingha Deva, the Ganga ruler of Orissa,who built the temple of Konarka, used to havekhedas conducted in the 13th century AD.

The kheda method of capturing wildelephants was practised in different parts of theIndian subcontinent to avoid heavy expenditureon hiring or keeping tame elephants. This led tothe method of tying the legs of the captive elephantto the walls of the stockade and the use of trainingdevices, like the Karen stocks, the Upper Assam,hal of the Morans and the South Indian Kraal.Stracey (supra) observes that the Karen methodof tying elephants' legs to the walls of the stockadesuggests connections with the systems of Orissaand Chittagong (Bangladesh). In both of theseareas they also used vertically dropping or 'flap'gates, a feature which was introduced in Mysoreby Sanderson too (Sanderson, 1878). The smallroping stockade is also a common feature ofOrissa and Mysore, but it is absent in Assam andMyanmar (Burma). A peculiar feature of theOrissa, Chittagong and Mysore stockades is thenature of the walls, which are openworked affairsof very heavy timber, whereas in Assam andMyanmar (Burma) these are close-knit structures

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of much lighter posts. So many resemblances incapturing and training methods in countriesseparated widely by seas and mountains cannotbe explained as a mere coincidence. The ancientKalinga waves of colonization of the eastern lands,which spread from the shores of modern Orissa,could have been responsible for the Chittagong(Bangladesh) - Tenasserim (Myanmar) coastsreceiving the basic Aryan methods developed innorthern India. Bihar was apparently the centreof early elephant trade and certainly a key areafor the exchange of information. Migration routesfrom Myanmar (Burma) must have brought boththe Karen and the Shan techniques into Assam.

Kheda operations (Plate-13) were such aregular part of the activities of Mayurbhanj, thelargest of the feudatory states of Orissa that thereused to be a paragraph on it in the annual report,even though for consecutive years the paragraphmay have remained blank. Remnants of oldstockades can still be found in different parts ofSimilipal and its neighbourhood. Till 1932 ruinsof large stockades existed at Arpata Chilma andSimilipal and small stockades existed at PurunaBaripada, Orachandabila and Ban. These areolder than a century. Maharaja Krushna ChandraBhanja Deo (1867-1882) caught elephants in theAhari jungle in Banahari Pragana and hissuccessor Maharaja Srirama Chandra (1890-1912) of Mayurbhanj caught a large number inthe Denga-amba, Jaypur, Pithabata, Chekamaraand Mangargh jungles. The next in succession,Maharaja Puma Chandra (1920-1928), caughtelephants at Dukura (Senapati and Sahu, 1967).In 1932, Maharaja Pratap Chandra caughtelephants at Champagarh. Out of 18 elephantscaught, one old cow elephant was left free. Onelarge tusker and one makhna (tusk less male) died.Out of the remaining 15 elephants, five weretuskers, one a Ganesh (single tusked) and nine

cow elephants (Das, 1932). The speciality of thiskheda operation of 1932 was that no tamedelephants were used to tie the elephants like earlierkhedas. Rather tying of elephants wasaccomplished by two trained 'mahunts' withoutany difficulty. Das (supra) describes themethodology of such operations. Khedaoperations used to be in the nature of festivitiesto which dignitaries were invited (Plate-14). Inthe 1932 kheda there were dignitaries like thePrince of Bikaneer, Maharaja of Puri andMaharaja of Nilgiri. The last kheda of Mayurbhanjwas held in 1938 (Senapati and Sahu, 1967).

Das (1932) points out that in Mayurbhanjstate elephants used to be caught by means ofKheda, by nooses concealed on the ground, bythe pit method and by female decoys. Later, allmethods except catching elephants by Khedawere banned in the state as it was found difficultto catch elephants both by female decoys andnoosing, and elephants were severely injured andsometimes died when captured by the pit method.However, the last elephant caught in the Statewas in 1943, when a single elephant walked intoa trap. Strong ropes were laid and a man sat ontop of a tree. As the elephant touched the trap alight went up and the man pulled the ropes. Theelephant was caught and since then there has beenno catching of elephants as the operations weretoo expensive and there was no market for theelephants (Senapati and Sahu, 1967).

Cobden Ramsay (1910) reports that in theSouth - East of the Athmallik feudatory state, atract of forest was reserved for elephant catchingoperations. The chief of the state conductedelephant catching operations generally about everythird year. The catches did not usually averagemore than ten to fifteen animals. The tract is stillcalled the Hatidhara (meaning elephant catching)reserved forest, which adjoins the Satkosia -

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Baisipalli wildlife sanctuary and still harbours afew elephants.

IVORY

In Africa, both bulls and cows bear tusk,the source of ivory. The females of the Asianelephant do not have tusks; sometimes old-onesbear short spikes or tushes, projecting a fewinches from the lips-line. The proportion of Asianbull elephants with tusks varies from country tocountry. In Orissa over 90% of the bulls aretuskers.

A group of rings and combs worked inEgypt about six thousand years ago is usuallyconsidered the earliest confirmed use of elephantivory in carvings (Lawley, 1994). Specimens ofivory work discovered at Harappa andMahenjodaro show that ivory craftwork wasalready well developed in India as early as fivethousand years ago (Bedi, 1969). Two ivorycarvings discovered outside India are a mirrorhandle, recovered from the volcanic ash ofPompeii, Italy, and a plaque, discovered in a cacheat Begram, Afghanisthan (Craven, 1976). Boththese carvings are traced to the Andhran sculptureof the 1st century BC to 1st century AD. Thesediscoveries indicate a sea trade route flowing fromIndia through Alexandria in Egypt and ultimatelyto Rome on the one hand and on the other to aland based trade route to Central Asia, whichjoined the Chinese Silk Road with Indian tradecentres and seaports in the Deccan.

Orissan art had reached a very high levelof excellence in its ivory work and according toSukumar (1989) the best quality of ivory isreported to have come from the elephants ofOrissa. It is said that the Kalinga (Orissa) Kinghad presented a large quantity of high quality ivoryto the Pandavas (Acharya, 1925). In 1953, thethen ruler of Talcher killed a rogue elephant in the

Dhenkanal forest, which measured 3.3m (11 feet)in height at the shoulder (Behura, 1990; Stracey,1963). Each of its tusks weighed 41.73 kg andmeasured 2.59m in length outside the curve. In1903, the then ruler of Kaptipada had presentedtwo pieces of tusks to his lawyer at Cuttack, RayHariballabh Bose, weighing 111 kg (3 maunds),one being 2.4m (8') and the other 2.36m (7'9")outside the curve, the girth at the base being 45.72cm (18") for both. It was estimated to be worth40 to 50 thousand rupees in England at that timewhen gold per Tola (11 gm) was Rs.24.69 (Rs.24and eleven annas) and the rate of rice was 13seers (12 kg) per rupee (Anonymous, 1903). Inancient times craftsmen working in ivory wereemployed in royal palaces to inlay thrones,couches and other furniture with ivory. In the firstyear of his reign emperor Purusottam Deva (AD1467-1497) of Orissa had presented ivorycouches along with other articles of luxury to thetemple of Lord Jagannath (Panigrahi, 1986).Cobden Ramsay (1910) observes that one or twofamilies in Dhenkanal and Nayagarh made ivorywork of high quality. They manufactured chains,buttons, sticks and statues of fine-workmanship-all of ivory.

EPILOGUE

Orissa was also earlier named Utkal,besides being variously known as Kalinga, Tosali,Koshala etc, and was a place where art andarchitecture had reached the epitome of its glory.In dealing with the aesthetic side of visual art, ithas been noticed that the finer quality of plasticor pictorial representations of any period solelydepends on the inborn faculties of a genius or agroup of talented people concerned, who mightnot have come in contact with other culturaldevelopments. Sen (1972) opines that thesurprising representations of animals in the cavepaintings of Europe and other parts of the world

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belonging to the prehistoric age testify to thisstatement. The minute observations of, and lovefor nature are the essential qualities of an artist,which guide his creative faculties. The greatsculptors of Orissa, the then Kalinga, hadobserved animals in nature and applied theirtechnical knowledge achieved through thecenturies to the animal motifs depicted on the wallsof caves and temples.

The preponderance of elephant motifs onthe railings of caves and temples shows a culturalassociation of people with the animal and theiravailability in plenty both in the wild and incaptivity. It is really surprising that whileKapilendra Deva (15th century AD) had twohundred thousand tamed elephants, the presentwild elephant population of Orissa has come downto less than two thousand only. According to anelephant census of 2002, 1841 elephants of Orissaare now confined to the rugged hilly terrain of theMayurbhanj, Baleswar, Kendujhar, Jajpur,Sundargarh, Deogarh, Sambalpur, Angul,Nayagarh, Boudh, Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Khurda,Kalahandi, Kandhamala, Rayagada, Gajapati andGanjam districts where human land developmentis slow and tardy. The elephant habitats aresubject to human pressure, monocultureplantations, annual fires, mining, encroachments,shifting cultivations, poaching and processes ofdevelopmental activities (Swain, 2004). Becauseof the gap in demand and supply of forestresources and suitability of elephant lands forshifting cultivation, mining and other developmentalactivities we are destined to lose the elephants ina few years' time if no tangible actions are takennow to save the elephant habitats. Reserves arebeing created and developed for these majesticcreatures, which have played such an importantrole in the art, architecture and history of India.

References :Acharya, P.M. (1925). Odisha Itihasa (History

of Orissa) (In Oriya), Utkal Sahitya Press,Cuttack, India.

Anonymous (1903). Masta bada hati danta (Ahuge elephant tusk) (In Oriya), Utkal Dipika,38/20, dated 16.05.1903.

Bedi, R. (1969). Elephant: Lord of the Jungle.National Book Trust, India, New Delhi, India.

Behera, K.S. (1983). Traditions in sculpture. InArt tradition of Orissa, Orissa SahityaAcademy, Bhubaneswar, India: 28-54.

Behera, K.S. (1991). Architecture. In Orissa StateGazetteer, (ed.N.C.Behuria), Governmentof Orissa, Bhubaneswar, India (2):99-1 13.

Behera, K.S. (1996). Konark: the Heritage ofMankind. Vols.I and II, Aryan BooksInternational, New Delhi, India.

Behura, B.K. (1990). Fauna. In Orissa StateGazetteer, (ed. N.C.Behuria), Governmentof Orissa, Bhubaneswar, India (1):103-1 04.

Cobden Ramsay, L.E.B. (1910). Feudatory Statesof Orissa. Firma K L M Private Ltd.,Calcutta, India: Reprint 1982.

Craven, Roy C. (1976). A Concise History ofIndian Art. Praeger Publishers. Inc. NewYork, U.S.A.

Das, G.C. (1932). Mayurbhanjare hatidhara(Elephant capture in Mayurbhanj) (InOriya). Mayurbhanj Gazette, July, 1932issue, 5-7.

Das, H.C. (1986). Military History of Kalinga,Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, India

Lawley, L. (1994). The World of Elephants.Friedman/Fairfax Publishers, New York,U.S.A.

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (1969).5000 years of Indian Architecture.Government of India, New Delhi, India.

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Nathasharma, B. (1908a). Hastitatwa (In Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 05.12.1908.

Nathasharma, B. (1908b). Hastitatwa (In Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 19.12.1908.

Nathasharma, B. (1908c). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 26.12.1908.

Nathasharma, B. (1909a). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 02.01.1909.

Nathasharma, B. (1909b). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 09.01.1909.

Nathasharma, B. (1909c). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 16.01.1909.

Nehru, J. (1946). The discovery of India. TheSignet Press, Calcutta, India.

Panigrahi, K.C. (1961). Archaeological remainsat Bhubaneswar, Oriental Longmans,Calcutta, India.

Panigrahi, K.C. (1986). History of Orissa, (HinduPeriod). Kitab Mahal, Cuttack, India.

Sanderson, G.P. (1878). Thirteen years amongthe wild beasts of India - with an accountof the modes of capturing and tamingelephants. W.H.Allen and Co., London, 2ndedn.

Sen, A. (1972). Animal Motifs in Ancient IndianArt. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta,India.

Senapati, N. and Sahu, N.K. (eds.) (1967). OrissaDistrict Gazetteers, Mayurbhanj, printedby the Superintendent, Orissa GovernmentPress, Cuttack, India.

Stracey, P.D. (1963). Elephant Gold. 1st IndianPubl.1991, Nataraj Publishers, Dehradun,India.

Sukumar, R. (1989). The Asian Elephant :Ecology and Management. CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge.

Swain, D. (2004). Asian elephants : Past, Presentand Future. International Book Distributors,Dehradun, India.

Trautmann, T.R. (1982). Elephants and Mauryas.In India : History and thought (ed. S.N.Mukherjee), Calcutta : Subarnarekha, 254-281.

Zimmer, H. (1962). Myths and Symbols in IndianArt and Civilization (ed. Joseph Campbell),First Harper Torchbook edn., Harper andRow, New York, USA.

Debabrata Swain is Conservator of Forests, BerhampurCircle, Berhampur - 760004.