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CENTRO ALTI STUDI PER LA DIFESA
CENTRO MILITARE DI STUDI STRATEGICI
CV Francesco SCIALLA
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS IN THE MILITARY ARENA
Tecnologie emergenti e possibili impieghi futuri in campo militare
( codice AH-T-04 )
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INDICE
SOMMARIO/SUMMARY pag. 1
• ANALYTICAL PART
Chapter 1 - Technology: a closer look pag. 7
Chapter 2 - Research in Italy pag. 41
Chapter 3 - Military overview pag. 68
Chapter 4 - Main emerging technological families pag. 81
Chapter 5 - Conclusions pag. 117
• SUPPORT PART
Appendix 1 - List of the CNR’s institutes pag. 124
Appendix 2 - Technology Readiness Level pag. 152
Appendix 3 – List of Figures and Tables pag. 153
Bibliography pag. 155
NOTA SUL Ce.Mi.S.S. e NOTA SULL' AUTORE pag. 160
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS IN THE MILITARY
ARENA Tecnologie emergenti e possibili impieghi futuri in campo militare
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SOMMARIO / SUMMARY
Che cosa siano e come siano fatte le tecnologie (la loro natura) sono elementi importanti
per capire come prevederne l’evoluzione e come porsi di fronte ad essa. Molti esempi ed
esperienze del passato portano a definirne le caratteristiche principali. Grandi programmi
(ad es. lo sviluppo della bomba atomica), progetti di nicchia (ad es. lo sviluppo dei siluri),
progetti senza hardware (ad es. la creazione del Web) e progetti articolati nel tempo e
nello spazio (ad es. i videogames) concorrono nell’identificazione delle proprietà
fondamentali delle tecnologie: le modalità di evoluzione (le tecnologie hanno una “vita”:
nascono, maturano, diventano obsolete), la selezione (non tutte le tecnologie hanno
successo) e l’essere il prodotto di una sinergia fra molti attori (università, industria,
utilizzatore finale). In particolare, non si può pensare di primeggiare in ambito tecnologico,
senza un sistema educativo adeguato (mondo accademico) o senza un supporto
industriale forte, ovvero con un’adeguata capacità presso tutti gli attori testé indicati.
Studiare le tecnologie, inoltre, permette di comprendere come non si possa improvvisare
una capacità tecnologica. Questa è il frutto di decenni di investimenti e di sforzi, dove
anche gli insuccessi sono fonte di conoscenza, utile per il progresso tecnologico.
Il progresso tecnologico è il risultato della sinergia fra molti attori, pubblici e privati. La
natura frammentata dell’Italia si ritrova anche nel mondo della ricerca e, in prima battuta,
non agevola tale sinergia. Infatti università, CNR, INAF ed altre organizzazioni pubbliche
cooperano in modo “polverizzato” fra di loro, con altri attori istituzionali (Ministeri e
Regioni) e con le aziende (grandi, medie e piccole). Tuttavia, il risultato è altamente
efficiente, perché estremamente flessibile e reattivo, pertanto adatto alle attuali velocità e
(per certi versi) imprevedibilità della ricerca tecnologica. Il Ministero della difesa, in questo
contesto, opera non solo semplicemente come “fruitore” ovvero come “utilizzatore finale”
(quindi con un approccio “capability driven”) ma anche come “generatore di ricerca”,
direttamente (con i propri Centri di Test e Sperimentazione) o indirettamente (finanziando
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS IN THE MILITARY ARENA Tecnologie emergenti e possibili impieghi futuri in campo militare
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specifiche attività di ricerca, attraverso il Piano Nazionale della Ricerca Militare, gestito dal
Segretariato generale della Difesa / Direzione Nazionale degli Armamenti). In questo caso,
il Ministero della difesa si pone con un approccio “technology push”, al fine di ridurre la
sorpresa strategica e utilizzare al meglio tutte le opportunità tecnologiche non appena si
presentano.
Gli investimenti (non solo finanziari) in ricerca tecnologica producono risultati positivi nel
progresso dello Stato, misurabili anche in termini di crescita del Prodotto Interno Lordo. I
progressi compiuti in campo militare non solo producono tali risultati, ma garantiscono
anche una migliore efficienza ed efficacia della “funzione difesa”, intesa come protezione
degli interessi nazionali all’estero. Essi, inoltre, permettono di affrontare meglio le
incertezze internazionali attuali e future (guerre tradizionali ovvero simmetriche; guerre
asimmetriche; guerre ibride; lotta al terrorismo e alla criminalità organizzata; ecc.) e
possono fornire uno strumento per mantenere una pace duratura, attraverso una rete
internazionale di ricercatori che condividono passione per la scienza e per la tecnologia,
nonché rispetto dei valori occidentali (la libertà ed il rispetto dei diritti fondamentali
dell’uomo, inclusa l’uguaglianza).
Prevedere l’evoluzione tecnologica non è facile, forse è impossibile laddove si voglia
essere molto dettagliati: pochi anni fa nessuno avrebbe immaginato il fenomeno dei “social
network”, così come, durante la II Guerra Mondiale, l’avvento del radar cambiò
improvvisamente il modo di combattere sul mare e nel cielo. Quindi, sia in ottica di lungo
periodo, sia al fine di reagire al meglio alle novità inaspettate (un rischio sempre presente),
è importante avere una solida base tecnologica, intesa come competenze e rete di esperti
sicuramente fidati. Comunque, allo stato attuale, si possono individuare alcune famiglie
tecnologiche molto promettenti per il prossimo futuro:
• Materiali innovativi, che rendono le piattaforme militari e gli equipaggiamenti dei
soldati più leggeri, più forti e più resistenti allo stress, al caldo e, in genere, a
condizioni ambientali sfidanti;
• Robotica e intelligenza artificiale, che si tradurrà in autonomia nell’esecuzione di
molteplici compiti, anche con rapido adattamento ai cambiamenti ambientali, in modo
trasversale: spazio, aria, terra, mare, etc.;
• Sensori ed armi; per i primi, con l’obiettivo di identificare nuovi modi per incrementare
la “situational awareness” (attraverso il miglioramenti delle prestazioni dei singoli
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sensori e/o per mezzo di integrazione di sensori di tipologia diversa); le armi, invece,
per migliorarne l’accuratezza e la letalità (per mezzo di soluzioni di nuovo tipo, come
ad esempio i laser, che possono essere modulati in potenza, garantendo la
possibilità del loro uso anche come “armi non letali”). In tale contesto, inoltre, viene
ascritta anche la Guerra Elettronica, come strumento indispensabile per la libertà di
uso dello spettro elettromagnetico.
• Logistica, con l’avvento dello “Additive manufacturing” (ovvero della stampa in 3D),
per realizzare le parti di ricambio “on demand”, anche con caratteristiche variabili nel
tempo (stampa 4D).
• Energia, al fine di incrementare l’efficienza dei sistemi di generazione e di gestione
dell’energia elettrica.
• “Cyber-physical systems”, in termini di integrazione fra processi fisici e processi di
calcolo e di comunicazione.
• Scienze umane, poiché, comunque, l’uomo resta e resterà centrale in ogni analisi
militare.
Il loro sviluppo e la loro evoluzione non sono prevedibili con certezza ma, indubbiamente,
si dovranno confrontare con alcuni fattori fondamentali: quelli esterni (globalizzazione e
veloce incremento delle prestazioni dei sistemi di comunicazione e dei sistemi di calcolo) e
di quelli interni (attenzione verso l’ambiente, asimmetrie culturali, situazione finanziaria e
invecchiamento sociale). La loro applicazione nel mondo reale, inoltre, non potrà
prescindere dalle sue caratteristiche, intese come requisiti ambientali e umani.
Costruire una solida base tecnologica e mantenerla nel tempo, adeguandola all’evoluzione
scientifica, non è facile: richiede attenzione ed impegno, sia nei riguardi delle basi teoriche
scientifiche e nella loro comprensione, sia nello sviluppo tecnologico in se stesso. Deve
interessare molti attori e considerare vari momenti (genesi, maturazione, obsolescenza) in
un “unicum” sinergico estremamente importante per i militari. Infatti, la tecnologia non è né
buona né cattiva, in sé. E’ il suo uso che può determinare minacce e opportunità, le quali
possono provenire da un qualunque attore operante nell’arena tecnologica.
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SUMMARY
What technologies are and how they are made (their nature) are important factors for
understanding how to predict their evolution and how to act in front of it. Many examples
and experiences coming from the past may help in defining their main features. Big
programs (e.g., the atomic bomb development), niche projects (e.g. the torpedo
development), hardware-less projects (e.g. the creation of the Web), and projects with
connections in space and in time (e.g., videogames) concur in identifying the fundamental
properties of technologies: the way they evolve (technologies have a "life": they are born,
mature, and become obsolete), the way they are selected (not all technologies are
successful) and the fact that they are the product of a synergy between many players
(universities , industry, end-user). In particular, you can not think to excel technologically,
without a proper education system (academic) or without strong industrial support, i.e.,
with adequate capacity from all the above-mentioned actors. Studying technologies allows
us to understand how it is impossible to extemporize a technological capacity. It is the
result of decades of investment and effort, where failures are also a source of knowledge
useful for technological progress.
Technological progress is the result of the interaction of many players, public and private.
The fragmented nature of Italy can also be found in the world of research and, at first,
does not facilitate this synergy. Indeed universities, CNR, INAF and other public
organizations cooperate in a "fragmented" way, with other institutional actors (Ministries
and Regions) and with companies (large, medium and small sized). However, the result is
highly efficient, because it is extremely flexible and responsive, thus suitable to the current
speed and (to some extent) unpredictability of technological research. The Ministry of
Defence, in this context, not only operates as a mere "end user" (with a "capability driven”
approach) but also as a "generator of research", directly (with its Test and Evaluation
Centres) or indirectly (by funding specific research activities, through the Piano Nazionale
della Ricerca Militare / National Military Research Plan, managed by the General
Secretariat of Defence / National Armaments Directorate). In this case, the Ministry of
Defence has a posture with a "technology push” approach, in order to reduce strategic
surprise and to optimize the use of all technological opportunities as they arise.
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Investments (not just financial) in technological research produce positive results in the
progress of the State, measurable in terms of growth of Gross Domestic Product. Progress
in the military arena not only has these results, but also ensures a better efficiency and
effectiveness of the "defence instrument", as protection of national interests abroad. They
also allow you to better address the current and future international uncertainties
(traditional warfare or symmetric warfare, asymmetric warfare, hybrid warfare, fight against
terrorism and organized crime, etc.) and can provide a tool to maintain a long lasting
peace, through an international network of researchers who share a passion for science
and technology, as well as respect for Western values (freedom and respect for
fundamental human rights, including equality).
To predict the technological evolution is not easy, maybe it is impossible if you want to be
very detailed: a few years ago no one would have imagined the phenomenon of "social
network", as well as during World War II, the advent of radar suddenly changed the way of
fighting on sea and in the sky. So, in long-term perspective it is important to have a strong
technological knowledgebase, as expertise and network of surely trusted experts, in order
to respond better to the new unexpected (always a risk). However, at present, we can
identify some technological families, which are very promising for the near future:
• Innovative advanced materials, which make military platforms—such as ships,
aircraft and ground vehicles – and soldier equipments lighter, stronger and more
resistant to stress, heat and other harsh environmental conditions.
• Advanced robotics and artificial intelligence, which will give autonomy to perform
tasks, adapting to the changing environment in a crosscutting way: space, air, sea,
ground, etc.; as well as in military, industrial, etc.
• Weapons and sensors, seeking ways to improve situational awareness (through the
improvement of the single sensor performance and through the integration of
different kinds of sensors), mobility, and lethality (through new types of weapons, like
laser, which can be modulated, in terms of power, giving the possibility to use it in a
not-lethal way). Electronic Warfare will be a cross-cutting field, in order to achieve
freedom in the use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Logistics, with the use of Additive manufacturing – another name for 3D printing – in
order to create spare parts on demand, also with internal properties changing over
time (4-D printing).
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• Power and energy, looking for improvements in efficiency in power generation and in
power management as well.
• Cyber-physical systems, in term of integration of computation, networking, and
physical processes.
• Human science, because everything is related to the human being.
Their development and their evolution cannot be predicted with certainty but, undoubtedly,
will have to deal with some basic factors: external ones (globalization and rapid increase of
performance of communications systems and computing systems) and internal ones (the
rising attention to the environment, cultural asymmetries, the financial setting and ageing
societies). Their application in the real world, in addition, will also rely on their
characteristics, in terms of human and environmental requirements.
To build a solid technology base and maintain it over time, adapting to scientific evolution
is not easy: it requires attention and commitment, both with respect to the scientific-
theoretical basis and understanding, as well in technological development in itself. It must
involve many players and must consider various moments (genesis, maturation,
obsolescence) in a "unique" synergy, which is extremely important for the military. In fact,
technology is neither good nor bad in itself and its use can determine threats and
opportunities, which can come from any player working in the technological arena.
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What technologies are and how they are made (their nature) are important factors to understanding how to predict their evolution and how to act in front of it. Their main features are the way they evolve (technologies have a "life": they born, mature, become obsolete), the way they are selected (not all technologies are successful) and the fact that they are the product of a synergy between many players (universities, industry, end-user). Studying them, by the way, allows us to understand how it is impossible to extemporize a technological capacity. It is the result of decades of investment and effort, where failures are also a source of knowledge, useful for the technological progress. Finally, you cannot think to excel in technology, without a proper education system (academic) or without a strong industrial support, i.e. with adequate capacity at all the above-mentioned actors
A. Definition and characteristics
It has been written that "you can know the future only after it has happened"1. However,
the proper organization of resources and the analysis of existing information allow drastic
reductions in the technological uncertainty of the future. Furthermore, such planning can
shape the future in the most suitable way to address national needs.
As it is well known, Italy and, in particular, its Defence Enterprise are a cradle of ideas,
innovative solutions, and knowledge. However, the knowledge, skills, and abilities of
individuals and communities (military and civilian alike) are better harnessed through
proper government that allows their full development. From this perspective, we shall
address emerging technologies in order to be better prepared to face the future.
1 Eschilo, Agamennone (Parodo)
Technology: a closer look 1
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In order to optimize the harnessing of our national resources to address and benefit from
emerging technologies we must first understand what these are. According to the Oxford
Dictionaries, technology is “the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes,
especially in industry”, as well as “machinery and devices developing from scientific
knowledge” and “the branch of knowledge dealing with engineering or applied sciences”.
There is extensive literature written on this matter. Basically because the definition found
in dictionaries and encyclopaedia are not relative in comparison to our idea of
“technology”. For example, if we take a look at the Devoto/Oli dictionary2, technology is
defined as “the study of applied science”. However, we all know that the process of oil
refining is a technology; although, this is not a “study” but rather a “process”. Similarly, if
we consider a silicon chip, we agree on the fact that it is a technology; again, it is not a
“study”. Taking these definitions and considerations into account, there are three themes
to technology:
- “A means to satisfy a human purpose”: From this point of view, a process (e.g., the
process of oil refining), a method (e.g., an algorithm for voice recognition), a physical
device (e.g., a chip) are means to satisfy a human purpose.
- “A set or a family of components and practices”: In this case, we refer to a group of
the aforementioned means (e.g., electronics, biotechnologies, advanced materials).
- “The complete set of components and practices available to a culture”: It appears in
such statements as “the USA technology led them to the Moon in 1969”; “technology
makes the hectic life of today”; and so on. Kevin Kelly called this the “technium”3.
Though the context should help in understanding the meaning of the word “technology”, in
order to reduce any uncertainty, the term technology will be differentiated by:
- “technology” as “a means to satisfy a human purpose”;
- “Technology” or “technology discipline” as “a set, or a family of components and
practices”; and
- “The Technology” as “the complete set of components and practices available to a
culture”.
By the way, the last term will occur only occasionally in this study.
The first definition of technology is commonly accepted. Some examples are listed in
Table 1. In fact, it is not the best way to address the technological issue inside an 2 Cfr. Devoto/Oli, ediz.1987 3 (Kevin 2011)
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organization. It would be too vague and imprecise. Indeed, starting from the idea that a
technology is a means (i.e., a method, a process, a device), every organization translates
it in a more specific definition in order to best fit its own requirements, since it is important
for every organization to share common goal. Thus, a well-focused definition of technology
is necessary and useful to foster and coordinate the effort of every part of the organization
itself (e.g., for a software house a technology is more a method than a device; while for a
naval shipyard it could be a process).
Category Example Purpose
Method Sorting algorithm Sort data
Dynamic asset allocation strategy4
Enhancing returns while maintaining the long-term expected risk characteristics
Managers evaluation Performance assessment
Process DNA sequencing Determining precise order of nucleotides within
a DNA molecule
Epitaxial growth Create materials for transistors manufacturing
Oil refinement Extract gasoline from oil
Kalman Filter5 Minimize the mean square error of
measurements
GPS Geo-localisation
Device Hammer Insert nail in wood
Transistor Increase power of an electric signal
Table 1 List of technology examples and their applications
Looking at the second definition, Technology is also a group of technologies, based on
technological knowledge.
The technologies can be combined in technology disciplines as follows6:
• Materials discipline - the set of technologies aimed at producing, altering and
combining materials; applications include: producing paper from wood, producing
4 Financial investment strategy 5 A Kalman filter is a set of equations used to minimize the mean square error of measurements in a space and time system that is exposed to random noise and other sources of inaccuracies. The basis for this filter was a paper by R.E. Kalman, published in 1960, supported by the US Air Force. The original equations, developed for linear systems, were extended to deal with non-linear systems. The extended Kalman filter is now used in many military and commercial systems ranging from image processing to weather forecasting 6 The list is not exhaustive
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aluminium from ore, annealing metal or glass, casting ceramic, welding metal,
laminating wood.
• Mechanical discipline - the set of technologies aimed at putting together mechanical
parts to produce, control and transmit motion; applications include: gear systems in a
helicopter transmission, brakes on a car, and turbines in airplane propulsion.
• Electrical discipline - the set of technologies aimed at producing, storing, controlling,
transmitting and getting work from electrical energy; applications include: power plant
generator, battery, energy distributing grid, power switch, and electric motor.
• Electronics discipline - the set of technologies aimed at using small amounts of
electricity for controlling, detecting, and information collecting, storing, retrieving, and
communicating; applications include: sensor as radar and sonar, a metal detector,
computer, radio, crypto-device.
• Photonic discipline – the set of technologies exploiting the electromagnetic spectrum
range from the ultraviolet (UV) to the far infrared (FIR), to explore the environment by
suitable sensors (e.g., visual to infrared cameras, hyper and multi-spectral, CBE
close-in and stand-off sensors, etc.), and to transmit/elaborate digital and analogue
signals.
• Structural mechanics discipline - the set of technologies aimed at putting parts and
materials together to create supports, containers, shelters, connectors and functional
shapes; applications include: city water tower, buildings, roadways, bridges, airplane
wing, tank.
• Fluids discipline - the set of technologies aimed at using fluid, either gaseous
(pneumatics) or liquid (hydraulics) to apply force or to transport; applications include:
air brakes on a truck, tires on a car, aerofoils on an airplane, warm air heating ducts
and fan in a building, control systems in a naval gun.
In both definitions of technology (a means and a discipline), an effective use of adjectives
better categorize technologies (e.g., supporting technologies, contributing technologies,
emerging technologies, core technologies, etc.) “Supporting technologies” refer to the
technologies underpinning an objective; while “emerging technologies” are technologies
not yet mature, arising at the horizon. Emerging technologies are currently developing or
will be developed over the next five to twenty years and will substantially alter the
economy, society, and/or the way we conduct war. These includes all the technologies to
improve the autonomy of systems (visual recognition in robotics, etc.), high data rates in
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communications, big data management, quantum cryptography, hydrogen generation, and
storage made with nanomaterials.
The perspective from which technologies are categorized must also be considered. As
showed in Table 2, the European Union (EU) defined Key Enabling Technologies (KET)
and addressed also the issue on how to set up a "KETs monitoring mechanism” or KETs
Observatory7. Clearly, for the European Commission (EC), “key enabling technologies” are
those that will shape the future of Europe. For industry, KETs mean the “focus
technologies” essential for future business.
The definition of technologies thus varies with the community or individuals involved,
therefore the term has a broader sense for the EC than for industry. Furthermore,
perspective modifies thoughts on technologies, i.e., for the EC it is essential to advance
materials technologies, while it may not be as important for electronics industries.
Consequently, when addressing technologies, it is important to define the boundary
conditions, meaning the players involved and the scope of the statements.
Technology Note
Nanotechnology The ability to synthesize nano-scale building blocks with precisely
controlled size and composition and then to assemble those into
larger structures with unique properties and functions will not only
revolutionize segments of the materials manufacturing industry
Photonics The science of harnessing light
Micro- and nano-
electronics (MNE)
From the digital world to the green economy, micro and nano-
electronics act as the building blocks of products and services
Advanced Materials The domain is very broad: lightweight & ultra-strong materials,
materials that are capable to resist aggressive environments, etc.
Biotechnology Biotechnology for the industrial processing and production of
chemicals, materials and fuels
Advanced manufacturing
technologies (AMS)
A crosscutting additional KET, that is of critical relevance to the
other five KETs
Table 2. KETs in the EU
7 European Commission, Feasibility study for an EU Monitoring Mechanism on Key Enabling Technologies, 2012
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While the public institutions deal with technologies and Technologies with a “horizontal”
perspective, to benefit the social environment, industry looks at them with a “vertical”
perspective and with a different objective, i.e., a product. Thus it is easy to see the focus of
industry on a different, though still adequate, definition of “enabling technology”. Table 3
shows the list of main technologies pursued from the situational awareness industry.
Area Technology
Sensors Electro-optical sensors, radars, CCTV, stand-off sensors,
RFID
Platform Aerial platform, naval platform, ground platform (fixed and
mobile), Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
Command and Control Human Machine Interface (HMI), data fusion, data mining,
decision support
Table 3 Technologies of interest for the situational awareness.
Core technologies are the major content elements used to create devices and systems.
They can be identified independently or integrated. They are related to specific areas of
scientific discovery and experimentation and may be uniquely defined by their application
of specific scientific principles and concepts. They also provide experimental application
and functional application of mathematical theorems and proofs as they operate. Some
examples of core technologies are the following:
• Analogue to digital converter and vice versa, in signal processing.
• Lithography, as a way of printing circuit patterns onto silicon.
• Powder synthesis, shaping and sintering in the ceramic materials process.
The fact that every technology is based on a number of different technologies acting as
enablers must always be considered. More deeply, every list regarding technologies is not
exhaustive and requires explanation. Finally, every technology and discipline involves
other supporting technologies and disciplines as exemplified by the Travelling Wave Tube
(TWT), a radiofrequency amplifier, which is produced using the technology for creating a
vacuum tube, the technology for building a thin wire emitting electrons when heated, the
technology for the heater itself, and so on. All these sub-technologies create a sort of
pyramid, supporting the design and the production of a TWT. This concept can be proved
repeatedly for every technology. In other words, it is impossible to create a new technology
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without a pyramid of enabling technologies, and knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs).
Enabling technologies and KSAs, the essential building blocks of the technology pyramid,
are created with previous experiences and recorded in references (e.g., books, scientific
articles, etc.) as well as communicated (through courses and on-the-job training). The
presence of a pyramid of enabling technologies and KSAs does not mean that an
invention will occur anyway, it means that without it the invention will not occur. From this
point of view, investments in research are risky, yet necessary.
The pyramid of technologies is like the tip of an iceberg, i.e., the expert knows that there is
an important part of it under the sea, while the novice sees only the emerging part.
In the course of his career, the author has also led the team that has built a prototype of an
electronic board, used to connect two different buses. The total amount of about 1,000
hours of work conceals the fact that the persons involved were highly skilled not only in
welding, but also in manipulating the chip (problems of static electricity), in defining the
best welding material, in creating appropriate and customized mounting brackets, in
testing, etc. The fact that all these activities were done during a navigation period,
increases the complexity of the task, further considering that an Italian vessel does not
have the same kind of power supply of a naval yard or other ground establishments. THA
KSA has proven its importance.
What is the nature of a technology?
From a generic point of view, each technology has three main characteristics:
• It is based on a natural phenomenon;
• It is a combination of simpler elements;
• Every components of a technology is a technology.
In some cases, it is very clear that a technology is based on a natural phenomenon. In the
oil refinery, crude oil is processed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum
naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil, asphalt, kerosene, etc. the hundreds of different
hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated, using the natural phenomenon that they
boil down at different temperatures. Furthermore, in a diesel engine, the phenomenon is
related to the chemical reaction of fuel, generating energy.
In other cases, it is not so easy to understand which phenomenon is underpinning a
technology. In the 90’s, astronomers Marcy and Butler had to identify planet orbiting
around a distant star. Obviously, the use of a telescope was impossible, having in mind the
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distance involved, i.e. some light-years. The solution was identified in the gravitational
force of attraction of the planet on the star, i.e. how stars are affected by the gravitational
tug of planets around them8. It causes a slight oscillation, with a long period (the time to go
around the star). But it is still impossible to have a measure of this kind of occurrence.
Thus, it has been considered another fact: the change of position of a star creates a shift
in its spectrum. This fact is related to the well-known Doppler Effect. Yet, the shift in the
spectrum was still too slight for the available measurement devices. Then, astronomers
identified a fourth natural circumstance in the spectrum absorption of an iodine vapour.
Letting the light of a distant star going through a cell full of iodine vapour, the slight
spectrum shift is detectable9. These are the various phenomena used to detect a planet.
It is a fact that radio signal are jammed or blocked from a metallic body; the use of this
phenomenon in order to have knowledge of metallic body at high distance is called “radar”.
In conclusion, every technology is based on an idea, underpinning the way it works; this
idea is based on a natural phenomenon. In other words, every technology is based on one
or more natural phenomenon. It is a combination of simpler elements, all of them
technologies as well.
Radar requires a transmitter, a receiver, an antenna, a processor, etc. Each of these
elements is a technology and is based on a natural phenomenon. A TWT transmitter is
based on interaction between electron beam and radiofrequency signal. Indeed, the TWT
is a vacuum tube, with an electron gun, and a wire helix. The electron gun is a heated
cathode that thermoelectrically emits electrons (natural phenomenon). The electrons are
focused in a beam with an external magnetic field around the tube (natural phenomenon).
On the other side of the tube is the anode, with a different voltage from the cathode,
resulting in a flux of high speed electrons (natural phenomenon). Wrapped around the
tube, just outside the beam path, is a helix of wire, where the RF signal is amplified
(natural phenomenon). Similarly the antenna, the receiver and the processor of the radar
can be described in terms natural phenomena.
The “dual use” concept is closely related to the nature of technology. It comes from the
fact that a technology can have more than a single use. Indeed it can have a military and a
civil use. In any case, a technology is based on scientific knowledge: the Manhattan
project on nuclear power has had effects both on the military and on the civilian side. 8 http://discovermagazine.com/2003/nov/space-scientist 9 http://astro.berkeley.edu/~gmarcy/encarta.html
15
These studies originated from the study of the matter. Technology disciplines and
technologies – like science – are neutral throughout, providing only means of control
applicable to any purpose, indifferent to all.
It is the use of technology that defines whether or not technology may result in a security
impact. Building on this, the definition of dual-use technology is misleading. In fact it could
produce misjudgement, considering that is very difficult to identify if a technology could be
used in a military environment. This difficulty is increased from the countless number of
technologies available today. In other words, it is necessary to consider both a new
technology (which would have a new use) and existing technologies which could be used
in a new manner. Of course, there is a list of technologies surely useful for military
purposes: guns, electronic jammers, explosives, etc. However, the uncertainty related to
the aforementioned reasons makes it preferable to avoid the use of the term “dual use”.
For this reason, it has been chosen to prevent it in this report.
B. Life of the technology
Every technology has a lifecycle: a genesis, a maturity and obsolescence (see Figure 1).
Yet, how is a technology born? In order to identify the genesis of a new technology, it is
important to define a new technology. Having in mind the definition of technology and its
characteristics, a new technology appears when it uses a new phenomenon or a different
phenomenon to achieve a result. For example, a laser printer is a new technology in
comparison with the previous kind of printer. Indeed it uses the image of a laser on a
drum, instead of little hammer with characters used to beat an inked strip. A scramjet is a
new technology superseding the pistons engines for aircraft. However, the wing of the F-
35 is not a new technology, because it uses the same phenomenon used from the wing of
the F-16 and of other modern aircrafts. Maybe a technology used to build the wing of the
F-35 could be a new technology because of new materials, low-observable (LO) coatings,
and so on. In other words, a new technology A could be part of a higher level technology
B, which is improved.
16
Figure 1 Typical diagram of Performance vs. time: a technology is born, has a maturity, and dies when it is obsolete, meaning that no improvements in performance are recognized, yet while time passing.
A new technology is a link, connecting a wanted result, an objective, with one or more
phenomena. The link could be physical or not. It also has different nature: originated from
an individual or from a team; from a small financial investment or from big financial
investments; with a very fast genesis or with a long gestation. Whichever the nature, every
new technology starts from one of the two sides of the link: from the wanted result or from
the phenomenon. In both cases, the genesis appears only when the link is well defined, in
terms of operating components. Each path, from the objective to the phenomenon or vice
versa, starts with problem: how to use a phenomenon or how to achieve an objective.
These are the so called bottom-up (or technology push) and top-down (or capability pull)
approach, respectively. Looking at the military arena, it is important to consider the vital
role of the end-user, in order to achieve the link connecting a wanted result with one or
more phenomena. This role can be effective only if the end-users can be active in the
process of creating the link. The process will be poor and fruitless if the end-user is only a
“responder” to question coming from Academia or from other sources.
17
In some situation, the phenomenon itself suggests the link: Fleming found that a certain
type of fungus stops the growing of staphylococci; thus, he easily identified the link
between phenomenon and use (fight to infection). However, one has to pay heed on the
fact that other scientists observed the same phenomenon before Fleming, but nobody
identified the above-mentioned link.
In other situation, the objective drives the invention. For example, during the 1920’s,
aeronautical engineers faced the problem that at high altitude the conventional engine was
inefficient. They invented the jet engine. It was the result of a long, conceptual thinking,
someway even compulsive. From this point of view, Newton’s revelation about the long
time used to create the gravitational law is famous. Indeed the scientist facing a problem
thinks on different known phenomena and the way to use them in finding the solution for
the problem and if he experiences a new phenomenon, he has the mind focused on the
problem and he is in the right way biased from it.
Despite everything, studying objectives and phenomena for innovation requires skill. The
Nobel-prize-winning biochemist Mullis, describing his improvement of the polymerase
chain reaction technique, in the Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1993, writes:
“Since oligonucleotides were not that hard to make anymore,
wouldn't it be simple enough to put two of them into the reaction
instead of only one such that one of them would bind to the upper
strand and the other to the lower strand with their three prime ends
adjacent to the opposing bases of the base pair in question. If one
were made longer than the other then their single base extension
products could be separated on a gel from each other and one could
act as a control for the other. I was going to have to separate them
on a gel anyway from the large excess of radioactive nucleoside
triphosphate … What if there were deoxy-nucleoside triphosphates in
the DNA sample, for instance? … With two oligonucleotides, DNA
polymerase, and the four nucleoside triphosphates I could make as
much of a DNA sequence as I wanted and I could make it on a
fragment of a specific size that I could distinguish easily. Somehow, I
thought, it had to be an illusion. Otherwise, it would change DNA
18
chemistry forever. Otherwise, it would make me famous. It was too
easy”10.
Yet, this concept is not easy for someone inexperienced in chemistry. In other words: to be
a prominent researcher implies deep knowledge.
Furthermore, in almost every case, identifying the link between objective and phenomenon
is not enough. As mountain climbers, when a path is identified, it is necessary to address
many issues. For example, a vertical wall or an iced waterfall require special tools not
readily available (hammer, needles, etc.), unexpected bad weather, etc. Every sub-
problem has to be solved and, in not so rare a situation, even the main path could be
revisited. In the same way, the scientist has to convert the conceptual link between
phenomenon and objective in a real solution. It explains also the risk existing in the
genesis part of the new technology’s life.
How to improve the genesis phase?
First of all, one needs both an excellent knowledge of phenomena from various
perspectives (physics, chemistry, etc.) and of the objective to be achieved; typically, an
engineer’s task. However, keeping in mind the complexity of today’s science, it is
preferably a task for a team, composed of people with different skills.
Second, wider communication, with the purpose of increasing the list of possible
phenomena or objectives provides an advantage and increases the probability of creating
the link and converting it in a real solution, succeeding also in the sub-problem
aforementioned. In 1929 physicist Ernest Lawrence was dealing in USA with the problem
of accelerating atomic particles. The problem was that he needed a very high voltage to
generate the electric field necessary to this purpose. Looking at a magazine in the library
of his laboratory, Lawrence found an article written by Wideroe, a Norwegian scientist,
proposing the use of alternating current feeding a series of tubes. The distance between
tubes defined in order to have the particles travelling in phase with the current: in each
tube, the particles have found the same positive part of the alternating current, thus
continuously accelerating. However, it would be a very difficult problem for the creation of 10 http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/mullis-lecture.html
19
a series of tubes, considering that nowadays it would be 3 km long. Lawrence thought on
the possibility to use a magnetic field to let the particle run on a circle, putting only two
tubes in it and using the same idea of Wideroe, but on a circular path. After a proper
number of loops, the particles would have the right speed and could go outside the
machine, useful for the experiments. The mixing idea of Wideroe (alternating current
feeding different tubes) and Lawrence (putting the tubes in circle with magnetic field
forcing the particle to stay in it), are the ground of the modern cyclotron.
These aspects also give an explanation to the fact that technological advance is now
becoming faster. In fact, the Internet and new forms of communication technologies
improve the way scientist and engineers exchange information. This broadens the list of
phenomena and objectives available to research teams.
Research and innovation are also based on trials. It is particularly true in the phase after
the genesis: the development leading to maturity11. In 1928, Frank Whittle was studying
the problem of the engines for airplanes at higher altitudes and, before inventing the jet
engine in its final version, he tinkered with several different solutions: a piston engine to
provide the compressed air for the burner, rotating nozzle, etc.
When a technology becomes mature and underpins a civil or a military project, many
efforts are done for improving it: its components (sub-technologies) are examined in a
thorough way, considering the market’s competition or the warfare environment. Jet
engines had many improvements during the years, in terms of advanced materials or
control subsystems, allowing them to become more efficient and effective. Over and above
that, a technology can be enhanced with solutions coming from other technologies or even
other technological disciplines. In any case, the improvement produces usually a more
complicated result: when the jet engine started operating at higher temperatures, the
turbine-blades would melt; therefore, it was necessary to cool down the blade-system; in
other terms, another subsystem (technology) was added. In fact, this kind of enhancement
comes from both the increasing high performance required and affordability and reliability
requested by the end-user.
11 Economist like Nelson and Winter call it “technological trajectories”.
20
During a technology’s lifecycle there is always a point when neither improvement in to
subsystems nor the addition of new components can give enhancement of any kind. The
technology is at the end of its life. Usually, in this moment, there is a competition between
new technologies rising and mature technologies dying. It is a competition based not only
on performance parameters, but also on logistic compatibility (with investment correlated)
and on psychological aspect, starting from the engineer’s establishment. A closer look,
however, unveils the fact that the resistance comes not only from a psychological push;
indeed every new technology makes obsolete the older knowledge, forcing the engineers
to study and learn the new one, forcing them to be newcomers.
Of course, any technological change is neither easy nor smooth.
The life of a technology is closely related to the speed of advance in the discipline where
the technology lies. Gordon Moore, the co-founder of Intel Corporation, makes fun of the
fact that if technological advance underpinning flight had the same speed of the
technology of the Intel processor, we would have a plane for 500 dollars, it would go
around the world in 20 minutes, using 20 litres of kerosene. It has been proven that
technologies have different speed of advance. It happens also in the same technology
discipline. For example, looking at Table 4, referred to computer technology discipline, it is
possible to recognize how wireless technology doubles its performance in one year, while
the microprocessor speed doubles in three years.
Technology Measure Time for doubling performance
Communications Bit / price 12 months
Wireless Bit / second 10 months
Digital camera Pixel / price 12 months
Supercomputer power Floating point operations /
second (FLOPS)
14 months
Transistor Price / transistor 18 months
Hard disk memory Gigabyte (GB) / price 20 months
Microprocessor No. of transistors / chip 24 months
Microprocessor Hertz (Hz) 36 months
Table 4 Time for doubling performance in the computer technology discipline.
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It is worthwhile to note that technological performance is based on the measure of a
parameter (cost, speed, size, etc.) chosen by the experts with reference to end-user
requirements. Considering the microprocessor, for example, there are two end-users: the
hardware manufacturer, interested in size and in the transistor/chip ratio; and the software
manufacturer, interested in the speed of the processor in Hz.
The increasing performance of a technology based on different sub-technologies,
emerging and dying during the years is a higher level point of view. Figure 2 shows the
example of the hard-disk in the computer industry based on different types of heads. It
displays also the phase of co-existence of old and new technologies with the transition
phase from one to other.
Figure 2. An example of the increasing performance of a technology based on different sub-technologies, emerging and dying during the years. Growth in performance of hard-disks in the computer industry based on different types of heads
22
While similar to the biologic evolution of life, there are many differences between the two
processes. In particular, the evolution in biology is mainly a “vertical” process: each
species follows a path, with minimal, if any, contact with other species; indeed, a dead
species never appears again. In the Technium, the evolution has a very important
“horizontal” path: each technology can have improvement coming from other technologies;
furthermore, a death technology can be re-used after years, decades, centuries.
C. Innovation
Adopting a technology requires an active engagement of the adopter beyond the selection
of which technology to adopt. It is important to consider the relevance of the technology
implementation process. Implementation, therefore, increases the returns to innovation
and, consequently, economic growth. Growth, in turn, affects the technology
implementation decision. In particular, higher growth increases the rate of obsolescence of
technologies. Economic growth can be decomposed into two components; increases in
factor inputs and improvements in total factor productivity, the efficiency with which factors
are used. Innovation, the exploitation of the technological research, is of paramount
importance in both cases.
There is little doubt that technological progress through process innovations played the
key role in initiating, accelerating, and sustaining economic growth in the modern era12.
Measuring the value of R&D output to the firm, is a more limited concept than one that
accounts for outcomes. These outcomes could include the value to society of the extra
years that a new drug may add to life expectancy, or the enhanced well-being families
achieve from cell phone contact. In the military case, the soldier’s life risk reduction. While
these outcomes are arguably some of the most important product of R&D activity, these
outcomes are not priced explicitly and are a separate measurement concept. Similarly,
although the spill overs from innovative knowledge are widely considered to be important
12 Mokyr, 2005
23
sources of economic growth, national accounts do not, as a rule, explicitly measure
externalities.
R&D and other intangibles are widely understood to make a long-lasting contribution to the
creation of economic output and growth. Estimating the magnitude of the contribution is a
question of economic analysis that relies on measures of R&D output. The standard
method, used in many other cases, would be to base an index on the movement in market
prices over time for units of R&D output. For R&D this approach is difficult for two reasons.
First, prices are unobserved as most business R&D is performed for internal use. Second,
the heterogeneous nature of R&D activity makes it difficult to standardize a unit of R&D
output. R&D output measurement is further complicated by the fact that R&D expenditures
fund both valuable additions to the stock of knowledge and complete flops. The magnitude
of each is based on technological opportunity, regulatory influences, demand driven
conditions, managerial and entrepreneurial expertise, and innumerable other random
influences.
Patents are another downstream measure used as proxies for the quantity of R&D output.
Patent data are used in an extensive literature that investigates the determinants of R&D
on productivity measures. However, the value of patents differs widely, with many patents
having very little private economic value and a small number having a large value. As a
result, several refinements have been made to improve this approach: the use of patent
renewal data as measured through the payment of maintenance fees, the number of
claims on the patent document, the number of countries where a patent is filed or granted,
and patent citations.
Anyway, innovation is the outcome of technological research. It may be radical or
incremental: the radical innovation is related to a different answer to solve problem; the
incremental innovation is related to a better solution for an existing answer. For example,
the night vision problem was answered from the radar: it was a radical innovation. A better
antenna, or a more stable oscillator, increases the performance of radar, and it would be
an incremental innovation (see Figure 3).
Typically, the basic research has a high risk (low probability of success) but a high
probability of obtaining a radical innovation, or the creation of something entirely new, able
24
to change the so-called rules of the game. While the incremental innovation (described as
"simple" improvement of a system, a product, process or service) is originated, in general,
from applied research. Incremental innovation, therefore, pursues superior performance,
or better realization processes (resulting in a reduction of costs, with the same
performance of the final product). Incremental innovation is clearly evident and, in fact,
predominant in the world of defence: the interoperability requirements and those of
environmental resistance are formidable constraints that severely limit the possibility that
there may be radical innovations. And yet radical innovation is very important in the world
of defence: the Internet was born in it; the GPS was born in it.
Figure 3. Classical block diagram of radar with a super-heterodyne receiver.
For some years it is observed and yet from defence guided some radical innovations of the
"battlefield" for the development of a new domain (the 5th domain: "cyber") or newly
developed weapons (guided projectiles). In addition, new disruptive technologies (quantum
encryption, swarms of robots, etc.) could lead to a radical innovation in some sectors of
the military field.
Furthermore, the news could also relate to the civilian world, with reference, for example,
to the financial transactions or to the instruments used by the civil protection during major
25
natural disasters. Today, in fact, it is no longer possible to identify a clear boundary
between the military world and the civilian world: there is a "continuum" due to the
presence of the same technologies and tactics in the two worlds (albeit with obvious
customizations). Additionally, the globalization has made cross-cutting and multi-level
every threat to the safety and to the freedom of the Italian citizens and their properties, in
Italy and abroad
From a technical perspective, on the other hand, the very essence of contemporary
science and technology will result in a much higher rate of evolution than in the past:
globalization means that the technology generations have a shorter live than in the past.
The "movement" of information, of researchers and scientist, of ideas as well as
networking between research centres and firms (even minors) have determined the
acceleration of progress.
Innovation, design and creativity are disciplines that span across boundaries, and need to
be understood in an integrated manner. It needs a framework for a holistic approach to
innovation.
The relationship between research and innovation is strictly related to the risk of
translating knowledge in product. An authoritative source has estimated that such a
relationship has the shape of a reverse pyramid13. If we look at an innovation (see Table
5), we can have thousands of people who had the idea (the light based on the use of
electricity), but a fraction of them imagined also the way to proceed (a glow-wire in a bulb).
A smaller fraction came to specific details (tungsten welded, vacuum bulb, etc.).
Somebody realized a prototype and only one made the innovation (light bulb, power grid,
etc.).
Persons Step Objective Example 10.000-1.000 Thinking on the
possibility Identify problem/opportunity and solution
Use of the electricity for light
1.000 Idea on how Thinking on the main aspects Use of a hot wire in a bulb 100 Details Define specific solutions Tungsten, vacuum bulb 10 Prototype Proof of concept Prototype of Swan, Latimer,
Edison, etc. 1 Innovation convince all of a viable solution Bulb, power grid, etc. (Edison)
Table 5. From idea to innovation. Imagine the use of electricity to produce light is not enough to get innovation: design a light bulb, produce it, and connect it to the grid
13 (Kevin 2011)
26
In Italy, it has been decided to reduce the gap between technological research and
innovation: in the General Secretariat of Defence / National Armament Directorate,
responsible for the research activities in the Italian Ministry of Defence, changed in 2012
the name of the 5th department, from “Technological Research” into “Technological
Innovation”, including the activities of technological research. The purpose is to close the
gap.
This goal is the convergence of a political will and a technical requirement. In fact, from a
political point of view, in a time of economic and financial crisis, has been advised of
sighting more carefully the results of technological research (products and services
innovative), to optimize the transition, i.e., the conversion of the research into innovation.
D. Importance of Research from a national point of view
It has been proved that prior to 1880, living standard were roughly constant: per capita
wage income, output, and consumption did not grow; modern industrial economies, on the
other hand, enjoy seemingly endless growth in living standard. In the Industrial Revolution
of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Technologies have had a unique role in powering
growth and transforming economies. The Technology represents new ways of doing
things, and, once mastered, creates lasting change. Adopted technologies become
embodied in capital, whether physical or human, and they allow economies to create more
value with less input. At the same time, technologies often disrupt, supplanting older ways
of doing things and rendering old skills and organizational approaches irrelevant. Thus
technologies are important both in terms of potential economic impact and capacity to
disrupt, because these effects go hand-in-hand and because both are of critical
importance to leaders (civil and military as well). As the early 20th-century economist
Joseph Schumpeter observed, the most significant advances in economies are often
accompanied by a process of “creative destruction”. Schumpeter describes how the Illinois
Central railroad’s high-speed freight service enabled the growth of cities yet disrupted
established agricultural businesses. In the recent past, chemical-based photography
disrupted the way of painting, changing the art. Then it was routed by digital technology in
27
less than 20 years. Today the print media industry is in a life-and-death struggle to remain
relevant in a world of instant, online news and entertainment.
Recent theories of economic growth draw attention to endogenous technological change
to explain the growth patterns of world economies. According to the “endogenous growth
models”, technological innovation is created in the research and development (R&D)
sectors using human capital and the existing knowledge stock. It is then used in the
production of final goods and leads to permanent increases in the growth rate of output.
With the data of 20 OECD and 10 non-OECD countries for the period 1981–97, it has
been investigated the fact that innovation leads to permanent increases in per capita
GDP14. The findings of the paper suggest that innovation has a positive effect on per
capita outputs of both developed and developing countries.
Technological research has a direct and contemporary impact on labour: an investment in
this sector implies that researcher will be paid. We know, for example, that Google
invested 1 million Euros in the University of La Sapienza, creating jobs for researchers.
Because of this, governments invest in R&D. In fact, many of the revolutionary
technologies that make the iPhone and other products and services “smart” were funded
by the U.S. government: the Internet, GPS, touchscreen display, as well as its voice-
activated personal assistant, Siri. Apple itself received its early stage funding from the U.S.
government’s Small Business Investment Company program (SBIC).15 Google have
profited in a similarly immense fashion, considering the fact that his search algorithm was
funded by the National Science Foundation. It is hard to believe that the market and the
private venture had had the capacity and, more than that, the vision and the persistence to
create innovation like the Internet, GPS, Siri, etc.
An economic theory suggests that the State has the role to support the market, when it is
needed. For example, when it creates environmental threats, or when the costs are too
high for a firm. In fact, only a Government with the capability of knowledge and vision can 14 (Ulku 2004) 15 The U.S. Small Business Investment Company (SBIC) program was created by Congress over 50 years ago to help small U.S. businesses meet their requirements for growth and operating capital (in the range 250,000-5millions dollars) not available through banks or other private capital sources. Many well-known U.S. companies received early financing from SBICs, including Intel, Apple Computer, Callaway Golf, Whole Foods Market, Staples, Quiznos, Federal Express.
28
face challenging issues, like climatic changes and ageing societies. A different theory
suggests that only the State has resources to support research. Of course, it requires a
financial effort, that today can be not approved, having in mind the high level of public debt
of country like Italy. However, it has to be considered that a high level of public debt is not
blocking the growth, as demonstrated from countries like Canada, New Zealand and
Australia. Indeed, is how the debt is created that can foster the growth: investment in
education and in research is important from this point of view. Under a specific level of
investment in these areas, the growth is at risk. At the same time, it is of paramount
importance how investments are done. It is hard to believe that a pharmaceutical firm,
which earns annual revenues exceeding 50 billion dollars, has less financial resources
than a Government to finance basic research. In any case, some radical innovations are
the result of decades of effort, of persistence and of vision. The Government is the only
organization with this capacity. This perspective has been well clarified from Keynes, who
stated:
“The important role of the Government is not to do something already
done from individuals, rather than doing what is not done from
individuals”.16
This role requires not only knowledge and understanding of what the individuals will not
do, but also vision, in order to identify what should be done and the individuals do not do. It
is interesting to observe that in United States, arguably the most “free market” country in
the world, features numerous high-budget government agencies that support research at
the cutting edge of the technology (e.g., DARPA, NSF, etc.)
The posture of the Government is obviously different from the one of a private bank: it
supports research, with the focus on the society; thus leveraging the direct and the indirect
positive effects of his investment, also with a long term perspective. Furthermore, it has
not to compete, but it let compete. For these reasons, the Government do not have a
marketing office and an aggressive advertising campaign.
A final consideration comes from the fact that the comparison between the list of Fortune
100 companies in 1966 (America’s largest companies) and the Fortune 100 list in 2006
shows that 66 of those companies do not exist anymore; another 15 still exist but do not 16 (Mazzucato 2014)
29
feature on the list any longer; while 19 of them are still there. In the same period, Western
States evolved, but never died.
E. A synergetic approach
Research is carried out by multiple players (e.g., Universities, Research Centres, both
private and public, Small and Medium Enterprises, Industries, etc.). They create a system,
complex and connected, that produces technologies. The complexity comes from the fact
that in order to identify a “means to satisfy a human purpose”, it is important to have:
- A clear view of the purpose and of the environment where it will be performed; thus
also the end user plays a role in the technological development.
- Knowledge of science, from different perspectives (physic, chemistry, tec.).
- A technical skill to let theory become reality.
In order to better understand this complex and yet an integrated system, it is preferable to
look at example provided from our history in the technological research: the nuclear
weapon, the web, the torpedo, and videogames.
The Manhattan Project, the well known effort for the development of a nuclear weapon
during Second World War, is very useful in order to clarify the above-mentioned concept of
system. In fact, the Manhattan’s research project is a very important project from a military
and scientific perspective. It was also large and disruptive, therefore useful to illustrate
some concepts of great interest.
Firstly, from basic research point of view, that which provided the theoretical basis.
Secondly from the industrial point of view, they produced components used in every stage
of the process of realization of atomic weapons.
It also had important consequences in the geostrategic arena, in the civilian society and in
the economy. These of which shall not be further discussed in these pages.
From the scientific point of view, it is difficult to identify when the knowledge began as the
basis of a theory that describes a physical phenomenon. In fact, every theory is based on
a series of prior knowledge, without which it could not exist. In any case, talking about the
structure of the matter, we can start from the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1808,
John Dalton published his theory on the matter and hypothesised that each element was
30
represented by its own particular type of atoms. This theory was accepted throughout the
century.
Rutherford went further and described the atom not like a lump of solid matter, but as a
tiny solar system in which the negative particles move along orbits around a central core
made of other particles. The revolution in knowledge began with the discovery of X-rays by
Roentgen and with the formulation of the concept of electron by Thomson and the
discovery of alpha and beta radiation by Rutherford. Rutherford and Soddy showed that
the alpha and beta radiation changed the identity of a chemical element and the extension
of this work led to verify the fact that two chemically identical atoms could have different
masses; Soddy called such atoms "isotopes".
At that point, some method was invented to follow the traces of the emitted particles and it
was found that when collided with atoms, it happened that the trajectory of the particle was
deflected much more than expected. To explain this phenomenon, Rutherford proposed a
model of the atom consisting of a central core, with positive charge, surrounded by
electrons moving along orbits which are relatively distant.
This simple description of the atom was completed by the discovery of the neutron, from
Chadwick in 1932. The neutron is the particle of the core free of charge but with a mass
approximately equal to that of the proton. Being free of charge, it can be absorbed from a
core, changing its properties and bringing the atom to an instable configuration. Therefore,
ready to emission of particles, i.e. ready for nuclear fission.
Physicists therefore possessed a model of the atom consisting of protons and neutrons.
The number of protons determined the positive charge of the nucleus, which corresponded
to the electrons so that the total atom was with no charge. The chemical properties of the
atom depended on the number of electrons and the arrangement of the orbits on which
they moved. The number of neutrons could vary, so that atoms chemically identical could
have different masses and different physical properties. Today we know that the atom is
more complex, but on the basis of this simple model was developed nuclear energy.
On a different plane, but converging to interpret the composition of matter, is the work of
quantum mechanics, introduced for the first time by Max Planck, at the end of the
nineteenth century17. It refers to the fact that the interaction between energy and matter is
17 (Kumar 2010)
31
of discrete type, in the form of multiples of a basic value. Even in this case, as mentioned,
the issue is too broad and its discussion is not possible.
However, the basic message that comes from looking at the scientific research is as
follows: it is born so layered and with several independent strands that eventually can
converge. A knowledge base is necessary to obtain great discoveries.
Natural uranium consists of two isotopes, one with atomic weight equal to 235 (235U
symbol), the other with an atomic weight of 238 (238U symbol). The amount of uranium 238
is 140 times the amount of uranium 235. Nevertheless, Bohr and Wheeler showed that it
was more probable the fission in the case of atoms of 235U than in 238U atoms. Moreover,
fission was most likely caused by slow neutrons rather than from fast neutrons. Their
writing was published two days before the outbreak of World War II and, reading it, every
physicist in the world could know the basic theory of atomic energy. But to get to his use in
a bomb, the way was still long.
British scientists, while allowing the remote possibility to build an atomic bomb, had come
to the conclusion that it was worthwhile to pursue this project. Instead, at the beginning of
1940, two German scientists who had taken refuge in Britain, Peierls and Frisch, wrote in a
brief but effective paper, how it would be possible to bring a mass of 5 kg of pure 235U to
produce explosive power of several thousand tons of dynamite. They also suggested an
industrial process for the separation of 235U. The document was analysed by the British
government and a committee of experts was set up. The committee gave a result in just 14
months and declared that a plan for making the uranium bomb was feasible. The outcome
also gave a boost to the American project led by the army and called the Manhattan
Project.
After Pearl Harbour, the U.S. pointed the massive power of industry and research
organizations to the production of atomic bombs18. From the beginning it was clear that the
program of construction of the weapon would have been dominated by two issues: the
supply of fissile material and the nature of the weapon itself.
To calculate the value of the critical mass and purity, it was necessary to refine the theory
of neutron diffusion in fissile material and any reflector surrounding material. To get an
idea of the complexity of the program, the first year included, among other things, the
study of:
18 (Agnoli 2012)
32
• average number of neutrons per fission of 235U
• energy of the neutrons emitted by uranium highly enriched 235U
• cross section for fission of uranium 235U for a range of neutron energies
• delayed neutron emission
• cross sections for capture and diffusion of uranium 235U and in some materials
potentially be used as reflectors
Therefore, it was established a number of sub-programs on chemistry and metallurgy of
uranium 235U.
One problem was the degree of purity required for uranium 235U. Aside from the process of
extracting uranium from “pitchblende” (supplied from the mines), at the time had been
identified 4 ways to separate the 235U from 238U:
• separation by centrifugation
• thermal separation
• electromagnetic separation
• gaseous diffusion.
The separation by centrifugation is based on the fact that in uranium salt fluid molecules
that contain the isotope 235U are lighter than those that contain the isotope 238U. By
centrifuging, separation is obtained between the two isotopes. This solution was proposed
theoretically in 1919 and in 1939 the U.S. Navy had a program on uranium centrifuge with
the University of Virginia. The program was very promising and led to a contract with
Westinghouse. However trying to develop the process on an industrial scale was not
successful, with materials and engineering techniques of the time: the engines broke, the
bearings buckled and so on; it was estimated, that given the limitations present, would
have been necessary 25,000 groups of centrifugation to obtain the amount of fissile
material necessary and with the degree of purity required. In 1942, the contract was
cancelled.
The thermal separation is based on the fact that placing the uranium salt fluid between two
thermal sources, one hot and one cold, the lighter molecules, i.e. the isotope 235U,
accumulate at the hottest spring. Also in this case the United States Navy had a program
in progress, for the production of uranium for different purposes: for underwater
propulsion. The experimental plant was placed at the Naval Research Laboratory, where it
was available an adequate amount of high-pressure steam. The production of enriched
uranium, however, was too slow and it was decided to put the system in series with
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another technique based on the electromagnetic separation. The plant was completed and
worked regularly, but was dismantled at the end of the war because its costs were too high
and sustainable only in time of war.
The electromagnetic separation is based on the fact that the gas molecules are ionized if it
is subjected to electric shocks. Such molecules can be accelerated through an electric
field. If this jet is passed through a magnetic field, the relative deflection varies depending
on the weight of the molecules. Then there will be two jets, one of lighter molecules (the
isotope 235U) and one of heavier molecules (the isotope 238U). Moreover, this principle had
already been used for years in the laboratory in the mass spectrometer. But moving from
laboratory solutions to industrial solutions turned out to be very difficult. The construction
of magnets of 4 meters in diameter required large amounts of copper, which was very
difficult to find. The auxiliary system also was very complex and its realization introduced
delays that were absorbed by using the input of material already partially treated with the
technique of thermal separation. It is worth mentioning that the time factor was always a
priority in the Manhattan Project.
Finally, the gaseous diffusion is based on the fact that in a gas, the kinetic energy of the
molecules is the same for all and depends on the temperature of the gas. So the lighter
molecules have a greater speed. They can overcome a porous barrier, if it is properly
sized and constructed. In fact the faster molecules are more likely to hit a hole. The gas
that passes through the barrier has a higher content of light molecules (235U isotope) and
must be immediately taken, as the process of diffusion through the barrier also occurs in
reverse. To avoid condensation on the barrier, the process was performed under vacuum
and elevated temperatures. It goes without saying that the materials used should not react
with the uranium salt. Even modest surface reactions were unacceptable, for the loss of
product that behaved. Development, design and construction of the diffusion were
entrusted to the Kellogg Corporation. The research on barriers was given at Columbia
University. Stages, without membranes were produced by Chrysler. But many people and
organizations worked to this problem: for example, the Bell Telephone Company and the
Bakelite Company. In conclusion, for the deadline issues, the Hiroshima bomb did not
have the material produced by this method. But it was the only one who survived the war
and was used for the propulsion of submarines.
As regards the weapon, the solution found was initially that of cannon (fig. 4). It was to be
short enough to be airborne, but powerful enough to ensure an adequate speed of the
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projectile, so as to reach the sufficient energy of critical mass, in order to give the start to
the explosion. In 1943 took shape an alternative solution, to reach the sufficient energy of
critical mass by the implosion with simultaneous detonation at some points on the
spherical surface outside. The impact force was created by a spherical shock wave
directed inwards. In 1944, this technique appeared very promising, but the other (based on
the cannon) was based on technologies well known. In any case, the line of study was
developed based on the implosion of convergent spherical waves. Initially it was based on
simultaneous explosions on a spherical surface. In the second stage lenses were inserted
between each detonator and explosive charge: passing through the lens, the wave was
reversed and it appeared convergent.
Figure 4 Scheme of the gun-type nuclear weapon called “little boy”
The development phase was completed with the installation of the two versions of the
weapon: gun and implosion. To these weapons were given the code names of "little boy"
and "fat man." "Little boy" weighed 4,100 kg and measured 71 cm in diameter and 305 cm
in length. "Fat man", on the other hand, weighed 4,500 kg and measured 152 cm in
diameter and 325 cm in length.
Of course, another set of problems that accompanied the Manhattan Project was linked to
the instrumentation necessary to perform the measurements in the laboratory, to support
the theories developed. For example, it was necessary to measure pressure, temperature,
etc. in high speed and in very challenging conditions. For brevity's reasons it is not detailed
35
the effort made in this field and the techniques and technologies developed for this
purpose, but it is also important to consider that item.
The Manhattan Project is a very interesting evidence of synergic effort of government,
academia and industry on a very challenging idea.
Whereas the development of the atomic bomb was based on science but relied also on
production, the Web creation was mainly a project without any hardware.
In March 1989, Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee proposed a way to link together documents
on different computers that were connected to the Internet. He sent a brief proposal to his
boss at CERN, the high-energy physics lab in Geneva. Indeed, CERN is a very important
organisation. It involves several thousand people, many of them very creative, all working
toward common goals. At that time, although they were nominally organised into a
hierarchical management structure, it did not constrain the way people shared information,
equipment and software across groups. The actual observed working structure of the
organisation was a multiply connected "web" whose interconnections evolved with time. In
this environment, a new person arriving, or someone taking on a new task, was normally
given a few hints as to who would be useful people to talk to. Information about what
facilities existed and how to find out about them, were in the corridor gossip and
occasional newsletters, and the details about what was required to be done spread in a
similar way. All things considered, the result was remarkably successful, despite
occasional misunderstandings and duplicated effort.
A problem, however, was the high turnover of people. When two years is a typical length
of stay, information is constantly being lost. The introduction of the new people demands a
fair amount of their time and that of others before they have any idea of what goes on. The
absence of an organized way to share information caused waste of time and the
dissipation of technical details of past projects. Often, the information had been recorded,
it just could not be found.
Berners-Lee got an okay to spend work time on the project, and after a flurry of
programming, he and a few dedicated colleagues took the “world wide web” live on Dec.
25, 1990. It is worth noting that the words “world wide web” do not appear anywhere in the
proposal. Berners-Lee wrote the proposal as a way to organize his ideas and to try to get
some time and money to work them up. He did not hit upon the name until more than a
year later. After the Christmas 1990 launch, Berners-Lee spent two years trying to
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convince people to create browsers and to post Web pages. Lots of people and places
were building different browsers in the early 1990s, and Berners-Lee and his friends put
the first one online.
But by 1993 certain user groups were positioning themselves to try to monopolize the Web
as a commercial product. Chief among them was the National Centre for Supercomputing
Applications at the University of Illinois, which had developed a browser called Mosaic that
would later become Netscape. So Berners-Lee and CERN decided to release the code for
the Web, believing that software development by hundreds of Web enthusiasts at the time,
and millions of people in the future, would always stay one step ahead of any company
that tried to control the Web or force people to pay to use it. The decision came at a very
tense time that could have ruined the Web’s primary goal as a ubiquitous, open
communications platform.
With that single step, the Web exploded across the planet. Other information systems that
used the Internet, such as Gopher and WAIS (Wide Area Information Server), soon faded
into the Web’s wake. And no company, not even Microsoft, has ever been able to out-
develop the masses.
The Web, using the Internet (a well known military funded innovation) is now an area
where Academia, Industry and Defence work together. But it was born in the Academia,
even if it is an actual “thing”, different from theories and ideas, usually typical of Academia.
A different interesting example that allows the knowledge of the research-system is related
to the origin of the torpedo in Italy. The Manhattan project had the focus on a broad range
of engineering knowledge (from chemistry to mechanic and electrical engineering),
whereas a much narrower focus had the origin of the torpedo in Italy, although it happened
in the Fiume region, at that time under the Austrian Empire
Indeed, Biagio Luppis was an officer of the Austrian Navy. At the beginning of the 1860‘s,
he studied a way to destroy an enemy vessel, with the use of a small boat, without people
on board. The idea was expressed in term of a boat 20 feet long with a sail. In order to
keep it invisible, the sail was thought in glass. However, it was preferred a propeller with a
mainspring. Yet, it was not enough. Only after the meeting with Whitehead, it became a
useful tool for the naval war. Robert Whitehead was an English engineer, working in a
mechanical industry in Fiume as well. Initially, he had not the time to strive into the project,
having to fulfil the commitments to build the engines for Austrian battle-ships. Despite that,
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in the middle of the 1860’s, he brought his mechanical and naval knowledge in the effort
with Luppis, to design new type of weapon. The boat was converted in an underwater
weapon, capable to bring an explosive mass under the waterline, in a very innovative and
deadly way as well. At the time of ramming tactics, it was seen as an extension of the ram.
Later, in the 1877-78, against the Ottoman navy in the Black Sea, the Russian navy
demonstrated that torpedo attacks by small craft could prevent the superior battle fleet of
an opponent from asserting command of the sea.
The installation of the gyroscope on the torpedo happened at the end of the century. The
gyro was used on ships during the 1880’s, in comparison with the magnetic compass, to
define the shipping course. An Italian engineer, Ludovico Obry, studied how to use the
gyro on a torpedo, in order to keep it straight during its run. In fact, the gyro was connected
with a control system, coupled with the rudder. Initially, the industry did not showed
interest to this solution. Maybe, because they were studying a solution in-house, without
the necessity to pay money for a patent owned from Mr. Obry. However, the Italian Navy
decided to foster the initiative of Mr. Obry, with the support of the La Spezia shipyard. It
showed the importance for the Navy of having the knowledge to understand important
opportunity for innovations. During the First World War, this knowledge was also used to
start production of torpedoes in Italy, while the usual provider was not available, being
abroad.
A final important evidence of the research-innovation process comes from the history of
videogames. It is very interesting because explains how technologies are connected both
in space and in time: they are connected when arising from different places,
geographically separated; and they are connected during the years, meaning that
technologies used once and then death, could have a “second life”, if appears an
improvement in a sub-technology or if applied to different aims.
In fact, videogames started in the Sixties, when researchers and scientists decided to have
fun with the first generation of computer. They found a way to look at different uses of the
computer, also proving new types of human-computer interface and launching the first
open-source approach to innovation. However, it was a matter of few users: based on very
expensive computers, thus not affordable for anyone else than government, universities
and large companies. In the Seventies, the idea became profitable, thanks to the massive
use of simple hardware. The solution for videogames shifted from software-based toward
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hardware-based. Videogames became popular in the bars. Nowadays, everybody knows
that the videogames shifted again to the software-based solution. And still, they play a
very important role in improving the human-computer interface.
From the experience of the Manhattan Project, of the Web, of the first torpedoes, of the
videogames, can be deduced some items.
First, pure scientific research is a key to both commercial and military technology. In many
cases, interesting scientific discoveries are turned into commercial products, which in turn
lead to military capabilities. The laser is a recent example. It could happen in a very fast
way, like in the Web case, or in decades if not in centuries, like in the Manhattan project.
Indeed, it is based on an incremental knowledge, built during years, decades, and
centuries. In fact, it took many years to understand the structure of the atom, because it
required a complete change of mind-set. The atom is not a "cube”19; nor has the form of a
satellite system. The electron is not a particle20, but neither is it a wave21. And so on. In
fact, “things on such a small scale behave differently than large-scale”22. The continuation
of these studies leads to the phenomenon of entanglement: a scientific knowledge on
which work is going on to get ciphers extremely innovative. Innovation is underpinned not
only from an incremental knowledge, but also from shared knowledge. Looking at the hand
axe and a mouse (see figure 5): two products of human technologies, with a million years
of history between. They are both “manmade”, but one was made by a single person, the
other by the work and knowledge of many people, maybe even millions. No single person
knows how to make a computer mouse: the person who assembled it in the factory did not
know how to drill the oil from which the plastic came, or vice versa. That is a collective
knowledge, the result of centuries of technological research and innovations.
19 (Asimov 1986) 20 Wave mechanics of Schroedinger 21 Matrix mechanics of Heisenberg 22 (R. Feynman, Il piacere di scoprire 2002)
39
Figure 5. A hand axe of the Neolithic and an actual mouse for personal computer. Both have been designed having in mind the dimension of the holder (the human hand)
Without pure, non-applied research, radical innovation is unlikely. A breakthrough in pure
research areas in general requires free interchange of information between academic
institutions. Such open discussion and publication often, however, seems to work against
their use in military applications.
Second, the so called “academic-industrial base” is of fundamental importance. Taking a
look at the Manhattan Project, it appears in a very clear way in the defining of the process
to separate Uranium 235 from Uranium 238 and in the production of the barriers utilised
for this purpose. Although of capital military importance, the Manhattan Project was
successfully performed by civilian personnel; therefore the scientific and technological
military innovation can be made by non-military organization, with the control of the military
structure. For this reason, it is necessary that the military structure has enough technical
knowledge to control effectively it.
Whatever the source of funds and knowledge, the potential military applications of new
discoveries must be a key interest of the defence establishment. It is necessary to have
expert opinion available that can spot potential applications at an early stage.
It is important, though, the control of the information related to the research. In fact, only
the military control has prevented the spread of dangerous and secret information like in
the Manhattan Project; also thanks to the military control was possible to comply with very
stringent timeframes and deadlines. It is well known that the academia has less attention
to the deadlines and the industry has a main focus on financial results, rather than on
requirements. Only the cooperation between the three bodies (military, academia,
industry) can avoid a risk of a biased result: too late (when academia drives) or not at the
40
state of the art (when military drives) or too expensive (when industry drives). Today the
risk coming from an activity done without the participation of the three bodies is reduced:
similar requirements exist in the civil field, when it comes to competition and trade wars; as
a matter of fact, in the commercial field today are used methods and procedures of military
origin.
In any case, to effectively monitor a process of technological research or the opportunities
and the risks associated, is necessary to have a basic understanding of it. The Web
example shows it clearly.
It is notable that the technologies that led to the atomic bomb or to the torpedo were based
on previous scientific knowledge mainly resident in the Academia, and they constitute a
flow and an origin difficult to identify: the structure of the atom has been studied for many
decades, even centuries; as well as the physical law of the gyro.
Furthermore, the manufacturing technologies of various parts of the atomic bomb were
based on pre-existing manufacturing technologies, mainly resident in the Industry. For
example, uranium hexafluoride has been employed in special centrifuges whose
components where mechanical technologies already available or improvements of existing
mechanical technologies (e.g., motors, bearings, pipes, baskets, membranes, etc.). But
they were for the first time used to obtain sufficiently pure uranium 235.
Both scientific knowledge and manufacturing knowledge, together with the end-users
knowledge (military) are connected in space and in time, as said.
Finally, there is no single way to achieve a result. For example, the attainment of critical
mass could be adopted by a spherical implosion, or with a high-speed impact; to increase
the probability of success, the Manhattan Project had chosen to follow both of these paths.
However, not every path is successful. For example the idea of using glass in order to
achieve invisibility was unsuccessful.
To increase the probability of success when an objective is identified, it is preferable to use
multiple independent teams, each the right size for the result to be achieved (not too big,
not too small).
When the problem is very complex, it is fundamental to have an organization able to
coordinate the various parts in which the problem is divided.
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Technological progress is the result of the interaction of many players, public and private. The fragmented nature of Italy can also be found in the world of research and, at first, does not facilitate this synergy. Indeed universities, CNR, INAF and other public organizations cooperate in a "pulverized" way between them, with other institutional actors (Ministries and Regions) and with companies (large, medium and small sized). However, the result is highly efficient, because it is extremely flexible and responsive, thus suitable to the current speed and (to some extent) unpredictability of technological research. The Ministry of Defence, in this context, not only operates as merely "end user" (so with a "capability driven” approach) but also as a "generator of research", directly (with its Test and Evaluation Centres) or indirectly (by funding specific research activities, through the Piano Nazionale della Ricerca Militare / National Plan of Military Research, managed by the General Secretariat of Defence / National Armaments Directorate). In this case, the Ministry of Defence has a posture with a "technology push” approach, in order to reduce the strategic surprise and to use at the best all the technological opportunities as they arise
A. A synergetic approach. The Italian way
Research is one of the key areas on which to invest in order to increase the preparedness
and competitiveness of all areas of economic interest and cultural heritage of a country.
The globalization of the economy, the rapid development of technology, have resulted in
the need to increase the competitiveness of the productive sectors, using new forms of
technology and experimentation, to improve the living conditions of individuals and
contribute to the more consistent development of the economy as a whole.
Research is a sector in which multiple actors (public and private) operate in an articulated
fashion, as shown in Figure 6 in a very simplified diagram to summarize the Italian
organizational structure. When it comes to governance and significant public sector
investment on research, the diagram shows Italian ministries, including the Ministries of
Research in Italy 2
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Defence; Education, Universities and Research; and Economic Development; while
omitting other ministries that invest on research (e.g.., the Ministry of Health) and
institutions (e.g., European bodies and Regional governments). At the level of activity,
institutions that execute research activities are correlated in the same diagram to their
principal government sponsors.
Figure 6. Correlations of technological research in Italy
In Europe, research is generally funded at different government levels, beginning with the
European Union for activities of broad EU interest, followed by central governments for
efforts of national interest, and finally by regional governments when research efforts
benefit local interests. To reinforce these concepts, Title V of the Italian Constitution
explicitly states that “Concurrent legislation23 can be enacted on matters of … scientific
and technological research and support to innovation in the productive arena”24.
In terms of actual research, numerous institutions execute research activities, including in
particular universities, CNR, ENEA. While in the Ministry of Defence the Test and
23 I.e., legislation enacted by the State (central government) and/or the Regions (regional governments) 24 Cf. La Costituzione della Repubblica Italiana, Titolo V, Art. 117
43
Evaluation Centres perform research activity in terms of support activities to their main
mission, which is in fact the testing and evaluation of the means and systems of the Italian
Armed Forces.
As said, research is done by multiple players: Universities, Research Centres (both private
and public) Small and Medium Enterprises, Industry, etc. that form a system, complex and
interconnected, to produce advanced technologies. This is also true in every country
producing innovation. Indeed Italy has its own way to look at this system. Italy is highly
fragmented in every aspect: not only geographically, but also because history gave birth to
a nation that is not monolithic, and therefore networks of players and stakeholders in
research and innovation are very important.
The Italian disposition to natural interpersonal relationship creates connections that
overcome difficulties. In fact, in Italy there are networks of individuals interested in
research and technological innovation, but these networks may be insufficient and tend to
serve political interests, probably owing to the fragmented and regional nature of the
country. As it will be seen, in fact, many public and private organizations are involved in
research and Italian performance data are very good, especially when compared with low
levels of investment.
Said disposition creates dynamic and lively connections that go beyond those in their own
field. As is well known, in fact, many innovations arise from cross-fertilization between
different research fields. In other words, people who deal with medicine have similarities
with those in engineering.
Paradoxically, the same difficulty that makes it difficult to work in Italy (instability,
bureaucracy, etc.) encourages researchers to work with innovative mind-set, creating the
world-renowned Italian mental agility. It is important, however, that difficulties are not
excessive, because in this case the researcher does not have time to do research, instead
shifting efforts to organizing research.
The synergetic approach, from a general point of view is seen in terms of a system.
However, looking in more detail, it is composed of chains. Each chain requires the
presence of different actors: public research centres and private universities, small and
medium businesses, large enterprise, end users (market or government entities).
Furthermore, nowadays technological research is done mainly on an international level.
Thus the above mentioned correlations of technological research in Italy have to be
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considered in a multidimensional way, where the other dimensions include international
cooperation. For example, as depicted in Figure 7, every actor of the Italian research world
has connection with European bodies, of different types (universities, industry, public
research centres). Additionally, they have access also to bodies of single Nations,
meaning that this kind of link is not under the rules of the European Union Treaty, but is on
a national bi-lateral basis.
Figure 7. The international structure of Italian research within Europe.
Having this in mind, in the following pages will be briefly described the most important
Italian actors in the research arena. Looking at the emerging technologies, the focus will
be more on the research activity, rather than on research governance. Indeed, in order to
have a genuine approach to the technology forecast, it has been preferred to have them
as counterpart.
B. Universities
To understand how Italian universities do research, one should investigate the ways in
which academic institutions organize their internal structure in relation to the basic
functions of research and teaching. The issue is highly relevant in the light both of the
reforms adopted by the law and the fact that many universities still have ongoing projects
of reorganization and consolidation of Faculties and Departments.
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As it is known, the organizational structure of a basic unit determines the mode of pursuit
of its primary functions (e.g., teaching and conducting research) and the dynamics of
internal decision processes.
The current situation of Italian universities draws a strong organizational framework of
functional differentiation and lack of formal integration between the basic structures
(Departments and Faculties). Each university has structured its Faculty/Departments ratio
through incremental processes in very different ways. Many universities have settled
practices that overcame the dichotomy between organizational research and teaching,
with the direct involvement of the Departments in the organization and management of
institutional educational activities.
This margin of discretion granted to individual universities certainly seems reasonable and,
in some ways, far-sighted. At the same time, however, you run the risk that decisions
regarding internal structures are taken on the basis of simple adjustments or copying in
simplified ways foreign experiences with often limited or distorted knowledge of them.
In fact, England corresponds to the ideal model characterized by a large institutional
autonomy in the internal decisions of organizational character and relation to internal
governance. While the Netherlands and Germany represent the continental model,
historically characterized by the important role of the state in determining the internal
structures of the university, and exhibiting reduced autonomy in higher education
institutions paired with a strong power of corporations in governing academic institutions.
The Dutch and German cases are representative of two different paths to reform that we
have witnessed in Europe in the last 15 years: the path of radical innovation, which has
changed the organizational structure and internal institutional universities (Netherlands);
the incremental path, in which the changes have been introduced more slowly and
maintaining some features of the original model (Germany).
In Italy universities are spread all over the country and do research in every field: from
health to space; from energy to matter; from mathematics to psychology; and so on. The
Italian MoD / General Secretariat of the Defence funds universities mainly in the
engineering field. For example, the Politecnico di Milano in the field of mechanical
behaviour of metallic materials and design of mechanical components and structures, with
particular emphasis on aspects related to the evaluation of the structural integrity. Special
focus has been given to modelling of impacts at low and high-speed (ballistic), structural
46
health monitoring and prognostic criteria of fracture of metallic materials, evaluation of the
damage in composite materials, methodologies for the verification of resistance and
calculation of remaining life, with both experimental and analytical and numerical
approach. A different interesting example of university activity funded from the Italian MoD
/ General Secretariat of the Defence is the study of anomalies in human behaviour (in a
crowd), done from the university of Udine.
C. National Research Council (CNR - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche)
CNR is the abbreviation of Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, National Research Council.
It is the largest public Italian facility with scientific and technological tasks controlled by the
Ministry of Education, Universities and Research.
The National Research Council was founded on November 18th, 1923. It mainly trains,
promotes and coordinates research in all scientific and technology fields. It became a
national research institution with general scientific competence and scientific institutions
throughout Italy in 1999 as a result of Legislative Decree 19, with priorities for the
advancement of science and the progress of the country.
Subsequently, with the Legislative Decree 127/4 of June 2003, it took on the task to
execute, promote, spread, transfer and improve research activities in the main sectors of
knowledge and its applications for the scientific, technological, economic and social
development of the country.
The goal has been entrusted because the research is considered crucial to the
competitiveness of the national economy and generates new jobs, greater prosperity and
greater social cohesion.
Organs of the CNR are:
• the president ;
• the Board of Directors (composed of a Chairman and seven members);
• the general scientific council (chaired by the President of the National Research
Council and consisting of 20 members that include Italian and foreign scientists of
international renown: six appointed by the president, five elected by researchers and
technological institutes, five appointed by the board of directors, one appointed by
the Conference of Italian University Presidents, one from the university council, one
by Chamber of Commerce and one by Confindustria);
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• the Board of Auditors (consisting of three members and three alternate members).
The National Research Council may enter into agreements and conventions and
participate or form consortia, foundations or companies with public and private entities
made up by Italians and foreigners in order to execute its activities. In January, 2014, in
fact, it signed a strategic agreement with the Italian MoD – General Secretariat of the
Defence.
The situation of the CNR has recorded many changes over the years, the last in order of
time is the “Moratti reform“, the decree nr. 127/2003.
In the beginning was the main agency for funding research in Italy, was what is now called
a funding agency. Also it was and still is the principal consultant of the Government in the
field of research.
The Board receives a contribution from the state, the so-called “ordinary operation fund“,
which covers 67 percent of total revenue.
The remaining funding that helped bring the budget of the National Research Council to
about 80 million euro in 2007 and, a bit higher, at 100 million Euros in 2008, came from
research contracts that the CNR won on the market. CNR then carries out research
because it manages to get research contracts from these various sources. This is a very
positive thing, because the CNR is an amplifier of funds. For every euro invested by the
state, in fact, CNR carries out 1.5 to 1.6 euro worth of research, in what is considered a
“virtuous system”.
The geographical distribution of the laboratories of the National Research Council
promotes deep interaction with the Regions, a profoundly positive aspect for which the
CNR has worked hard. For example, the framework agreement signed with the Lombardy
Region has resulted in 20 million of additional funding, while the CNR contributes
economically to a lesser extent, but essentially with research staff and infrastructure.
As for the participation of CNR in technology districts, there are already, for example, the
districts in Puglia, the aeronautical district, where the CNR participates with Finmeccanica,
and the universities of Puglia. Then there is collaboration in the Bioforme Foundation in
Naples with the Campania region and the Telethon Foundation. The CNR also participates
in the technological district of Liguria on the integrated intelligent systems and realizes with
the Tuscany region a technological district on optics, with the participation of companies
such as Galileo Avionica, Selex ES today (Finmeccanica).
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In 2007, the scientific production of the institution has had a good result: about 11,000
publications, compared to over 8,000 in 2005, as well as patents.
The tasks of the CNR consist in carrying out, promoting, spreading, transferring, and
improving research activities in the main sectors of knowledge growth and of its
applications for the scientific, technological, economic and social development of the
country. These are the key words. On the one hand, the CNR is a multidisciplinary
institution, while in Italy there are some entities with defined missions; the other has a
mission to support the economy, particularly marked in this law. The CNR promotes the
internationalization of the Italian system of scientific and technological research.
The main aspect of the Moratti reforms was to transform the CNR in an organization that
does research instead. At the time, the agency finances its laboratories. It is no longer a
funding Agency, in European terminology, but a research performing agency.
Even the governing bodies of the system have been completely revised. Historically, the
system of the CNR followed a bottom-up approach, but now it has reversed its approach,
articulated in a board, a general scientific council, and an activities review body. The
overall structure is the so-called “matrix structure“, where programs and skills are separate
and cross each other.
The CNR has considerable size, organized in 107 institutions (i.e. laboratories) present
throughout the national territory and divided into 11 departments. The reform has gone
through a drastic reduction in the number of institutions, with the abolition of about 200
research facilities in collaboration with the university.
The laboratories are grouped into 11 departments: Earth and Environment, Energy and
Transport, Agriculture and Food, Medicine, Sciences of Life, Molecular Design, Materials
and Devices, Advanced Manufacturing Systems (Production Systems), Information
Technology and Communication, Cultural Identity, and Heritage. The full list is presented
in Annex 1.
It is a matrix organization, in which departments make programming and convey within the
CNR needs from the government, from Europe, the instances of the state and society, and
in research institutions takes place horizontally. The CNR depends on its research, skills,
experimental equipment, and the excellence of its researchers.
One of its 107 institutions is the Institute of Science and Technology for Ceramics (ISTEC-
CNR) is one of the CNR laboratories with long term activity programs on the whole range
of ceramic materials. ISTEC-CNR has its main quarter in Faenza. Following CNR’s
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mission, the following activities are carried out: research, technology innovation and
exploitation of results and education. ISTEC was founded in 1965 as a Research Group in
Faenza. The city, on account of its cultural tradition, has been called the Town of Ceramics
for a very long time. Faenza lies 50 km to the East of Bologna and is known mainly for its
ceramics having always played a very important role in this field. In fact its name, over the
centuries has defined a particularly prestigious type of ceramic ware.
In 1970 the Research Group became a Research Centre, in 1975 a Laboratory, in 1980 an
Institute, and since then according to the main research topics at the time it concentrated
its activity on conventional ceramics. Stimulated by the growing interest at international
level and new demands of the market on advanced ceramics, ISTEC-CNR devoted the
main part of its activity on these materials. At present about 70% of the resources are
located on advanced ceramics and the rest on traditional ceramics. Advanced ceramics
covers compositional design and prototyping of ceramic devices with porous as well as
more compact textures for energy, optical, electronic, electromechanical applications and
sensing, through cost-effective, environmental friendly easy scalable processes. In this
area studies on transparent ceramics for hyperspectral sensors and for high power lasers
are carried out. Many industrial and scientific laser applications require high energy, high
peak power and nanosecond duration laser pulses that are exclusive domain of devices
based on bulk crystalline and ceramic materials. From the military point of view, high
power lasers can be used in jammers against infrared missiles as well as high energy
weapons.
In this frame, laser ceramics can play a significant role due to several reasons. First, the
fabrication of large samples is easier than with the usual crystal growth technologies.
Second, laser ceramics can provide a definite advantage in the fabrication of complex
structures such as dopant gradients or layered structures and so forth, which can be
exploited to improve the management of the thermal load and of the thermally induced
stresses in the lasing material, which are among the limiting factors for the achievement of
high average power levels. In the advanced ceramics area are also the ultra-high
temperature ceramics (UHTCs, melting point range 3000K-4200K). UHTC are extremely
interesting for thermal protections and propulsion in aerospace applications (and ultrasonic
vehicles) and for very high temperature industrial processes.
The Italian MoD – General Secretariat of the Defence has supported ISTEC research
activities both in laser and in UHTC areas, like the one shown in figure 8.
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Figure 8. CNR-ISTEC ceramic zirconium boride (UHTC) bolt.
A different institute of the CNR is the INSEAN, located in Rome with a history starting in
1927. INSEAN duty is to carry out research in the fields of naval architecture and marine
engineering, developing models, technologies and innovative design methodologies, with
applications mainly in the transport and other maritime activities. It uses both modelling
facilities and testing laboratories (e.g. See fig. 9). Funding sources of INSEAN are Grants
from participation to research projects within EU Framework Programmes and initiatives
from other national and international bodies as well as income from testing and
consultancy activities towards shipbuilders and ship owners. Very interesting fields are the
marine vehicle area and the unconventional marine vehicle area. Technologies are
developed for the study of hull and propulsion improvement, in terms of efficiency and
safety. Modules deal with the study of: marine vehicle dynamics, fluid-structure interaction,
propulsion and control systems. The prediction and control of the ship dynamics requires
the study of the interaction with the surrounding wave field (seakeeping and
manoeuvrability, water boarding, slamming phenomena). In addition, under nonlinear
conditions (large amplitude motions), along with local stresses on the (elastic) structure,
internal fluid motion problems (sloshing phenomena) are to be addressed. As part of the
module propulsion systems, innovative techniques of simulation and experiment are
developed for the optimization of ship engines and analysis of new concepts for
propulsion. Of particular interest is the study of phenomena closely related to the operation
of the engine, in addition to the performance aspects, such as those related to the
evolution of the wake, cavitation, erosion, induced vibration and noise emission.
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Specific issues relating to unconventional marine vehicles (high-speed multi-hull, surface
effect, planning, etc.), underwater vehicles and special vehicles for unmanned underwater
operations (ROV and UAV glider) are dealt with. For high-speed vehicles, most interesting
hydrodynamic phenomena are nonlinear fluid-structure interaction and the interaction
between the free surface and the vehicle, which plays an important role in the dynamic
stability. Physical and mathematical models are developed for the description of the
phenomena characteristic of different types of vehicles and different motion conditions. For
unmanned vehicles, special emphasis is given to the development of technologies in the
field of underwater robotics. The marine environment is one of the most “hostile“ to the
application of robotics since the “portability“ of the solutions used in terrestrial applications
is greatly reduced and it therefore involves the search for highly specialized technological
solutions and mathematical models.
The Italian MoD – General Secretariat of the Defence has supported INSEAN research
activities in the marine vehicle areas.
Figure 9. CNR-INSEAN Laboratory.
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D. ENEA
ENEA (Ente per le Nuove Tecnologie, l’Energia e l’Ambiente), the Italian organization
responsible for new technologies, energy, and the environment traces its origins to nuclear
activities, particularly fission research. In the years following the Chernobyl catastrophe,
ENEA turned and changed its portfolio, focusing on energy, renewables, energy efficiency,
and nuclear fusion – with technological implications of nuclear power to the medical field,
the diagnostics industry and agriculture – the technologies that have to do with the
environment and materials in the broadest sense. With a staff of about 3,000 people
(between fixed-term contracts and permanent), it is supervised by the Ministry of
Economic Development and has various laboratories distributed on the Italian territory:
Casaccia, Frascati, Bologna, etc.
Regarding human resources, ENEA is therefore the second public research organization
after the CNR.
In fact, Law No. 99 Article 37 of 23 July 2009 confirms the role of ENEA as public
organization dedicated to research and development in the field of energy technology in its
various forms, and sustainable economic development, thus expanding the sphere of
action with regard to the objectives to be pursued and the areas in which to act; suffice it to
recall that, as regards energy, nuclear fission enters the field in a decisive way.
Sustainable economic development is a broader goal of development in an
environmentally fashion.
Also, turning the ENEA into an Agency, the law emphasizes the role of advisor of the
central and local public administration.
The fact that ENEA has 709 patents deserves a mention, of which 79 yield approximately
130,000 euro a year – this is the record of the last three years – and are rising by about
8% each year.
The Italian MoD – General Secretariat of the Defence has supported ENEA research
activities in the NATO Standex program to develop technologies for the remote, real-time
detection of explosives in various situations, for example in major underground stations.
E. INAF
The INAF is the National Institute of Astrophysics (Istituto nazionale di astrofisica). Among
the various areas of research, astronomy and astrophysics are undoubtedly flagships of
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the Italian community and are recognized as areas of excellence, both nationally and
internationally.
An analysis of the international scientific productivity, now independent bodies, which is a
kind of ratings agency for scientific institutions, sees Italian astrophysics in fifth place in the
world, with an output reaching record levels: 10.3% of world scientific products in
astrophysics are made by Italian and are well in front of other disciplines. In fact, if we look
at the aggregate level, Italian science ranks seventh.
The INAF is a young institution born in 2001, with a decree establishing it since 1999 by
merging a national institute, the 12 astronomical and astrophysical professional throughout
the area. Shortly after, in 2005, undergoes a profound transformation and absorbs seven
institutions that were in the CNR and who were responsible for radio astronomy, physics,
and astrophysics of the interplanetary space.
Therefore, these institutions are incorporated and the INAF evolved from sector
universities to a full-fledged research institutions. Its staff rose from 900 to 1,300.
The INAF works in the basic research for astronomy and astrophysics, paying particular
attention to the technological implications for the country and for its industrial base (e.g.,
using and studying new materials, such as silicon carbide, to develop new technologies,
which allow it to build space telescopes, capable of focusing X-rays). The aim is to study
the most enigmatic objects in the universe, namely black holes. However, the results are
also available to the medical community and national industry, such that a biocompatible
material, with extreme lightness and strength can be used in orthopaedic implants,
eliminating or reducing the need for filling the femoral head of the hip.
Furthermore, they have developed dust sensors in order to analyse the composition of the
comet tails. Such sensors, however, are still available for the monitoring of airborne dust,
micro-particles and environmental pollution.
Recently the lab has been completing the European radio project by developing the
Sardinia Radio Telescope with a 20 percent contribution from the Italian Space Agency for
a total cost of 63 million euros (plus another 8 million euro for infrastructure). This asset, in
particular, could be a pivotal element in the future Space Surveillance and Tracking
program of the Italian MoD.
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F. INFN
INFN, Istituto Nazionale di fisica Nucleare National (Institute of Nuclear Physics), is an
institution created about 50 years ago covering various fields of activity. It is an institution
that develops innovative research, i.e., basic research.
It has three principal lines of action:
• particle physics,
• nuclear physics, the oldest, which gave its name to the institute and that when it was
created was very innovative;
• the so-called “astro-particles“.
The latter is more recent. The particles, studied by the institute over the years, are
recognized important messengers of the evolution of the cosmos. Who has access and
has experience in the detection and observation of these particles can have information on
the cosmos that are not simply related to the light seen in telescopes.
The institute was born with a decentralized organization. In other words, some universities,
(initially were four) are aggregated trying to create a national institution in order to obtain
large research infrastructures and “critical mass” which, at the university level, was difficult
to coordinate and implement.
Over time, an element that has characterized the institute was the internationalization. The
Institute in fact works and operates solely in the international field. Even the Italian
operations are part of international programs, some of which are well known, such as
CERN, created on the basis of large Italian initiatives promoted by people who work in this
area, and is closely linked to the birth of the INFN.
The INAF of course is not only a manufacturer of research driven by curiosity, but wields a
huge amount of associated technology.
In the last decade, has been considered an important responsibility to verify the
applications of this technology. Were followed various projects called strategic.
G. Industry and SME
In Italy, large companies, which have more than 500 employees doing research, cover as
much as 70.7 % of the total expenditure for industrial research in the country: that means
that few do it all.
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Small and medium-sized enterprises, which represent the majority numerically, invest little
in research and development and in traditional sectors also less. This occurs in Italy and
elsewhere in the world, but in Italian small and medium-sized enterprises account for 99
per cent of the total, then the vast majority. Larger businesses invest in research and
development at the same levels as competitors in other countries. Moreover, in 2008,
Italian exports had had a very important growth and that growth in foreign markets, in this
globalized world, and so competitive, you can only offering products and processes to
unique content, then containing innovation.
It should be noted that they are yet in place adequate growth and a concentration of small
and medium-sized companies, in order to generate medium industries that can operate in
an international context, with adequate critical mass of research, although often limited to
niche areas.
The many small and medium-sized Italian companies, of necessity are characterized in the
area of research, by small critical masses. Thus they rely mainly on the development of
technological innovation, although significant, the success of which is linked, however, in
general, to incremental innovations, incurred by a styling and a very aggressive marketing.
We speak of the “made in Italy“.
The AIRI, Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca Industriale (Italian Association for Industrial
Research), has started a process of evaluation of the submersible research, which is
made of activities in support of small size in small and medium industries and that is
primarily concerned with the styling and small improvements of the product, not so much
of the process. This phenomenon is roughly estimated at around 0.2 to 0.3 % of GDP.
The industrial scenario, then, is composed of a few large and medium-sized businesses
that sustain most of the investment and a huge amount of small and medium sized
companies in the made in Italy and following, of necessity, a different logic of research and
development, but which are an important part of the Italian economy.
Geographically, it is to be noted that private investment in some territories (Piedmont,
Lombardy, Emilia Romagna and Liguria) is greater than 1 percent, then no more than the
average in the European Union, which is 1.39, but still higher than the Italian average,
which is 0.55. In fact there are very low rates in other Italian regions.
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H. Defence
Conduct technology research for military applications is fundamental to all ministries of
defence in the Western World. In fact, it allows to reduce the strategic surprise and, in
general, to ensure a reduction of the risk in the operational theatres.
In Italy, this function is held, by law, by the General Secretariat of the defence- National
Armaments Directorate (also known as SEGREDIFESA or SGD). As shown in figure 10,
the Italian National Armaments Director is responsible for his activities in front of the
Ministry of Defence (which is responsible in front of the Parliament).
Figure 10, Italian MoD overview
It should be noted, however, that scientific research, together with technological innovation
activity that results, is likely to define the level of social and economic progress of the
whole country system, significantly affecting the well-being and quality of life for national
community. For this reason, the Ministry of Defence and specifically the General
Secretariat shall make every effort to work in synergy with all the organizations (public and
private) that, in Italy, are in charge of the technological research effort.
In principle, the activities of Military Research of SGD does not lie in the field of basic
research (the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, University and Research), but
rather in the field of applied research, operational research and in part of the Industrial
Research / Development (which largely is the responsibility of the Armed Forces). With
Ministry of Defence
Chief of Defence
Services (Army, Navy, Air Force,
Carabinieri)
Joint OperationHeadquarter
Secretary General ofDefence and
National ArmamentsDirector
ProcurementAgencies (Terrarm, Navarm, Armaereo,
Teledife)
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reference to the scale Technology Readiness Level (TRL), they are, with appropriate
approximations, between levels TRL 4 and TRL 6, but with an attention on TRL below 4
(see Fig. 11). Thus, in the Italian MoD, both Chief of Defence and National Armaments
Director look at the Research and Technology arena; however, while the Chief of Defence
has mainly a “capability pull” approach, the National Armaments Director has a more
“technology push” perspective.
Figure 11 From Research to development and service in the Italian MoD responsabilities
It should be stressed that this point is as approximate, because it correlates with the object
and the area of the research, adapting to a different context (software, health care, etc.) a
schema created for aeronautical-space conditions. Military Research intends to acquire
knowledge in the areas of technology and innovative strategic interest for Defence and is
carried out in the absence of a specific and immediate provision of operational
implementation, with the aim of filling the gaps in operational capabilities (capability gap) of
the military in the medium and long term.
As a cooperative and coordinated effort, so to maximize efficiency and effectiveness of the
overall R&T construct, Segredifesa pursue the priorities listed below,:
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• Strengthening Italian Defense Test/Research Centers network
• Dual use and collaboration with Italian Ministry of Research (MIUR)
• North Atlantic Collaboration
• Europe Collaboration (EU and EDA contexts)
• Bi-lateral collaboration
In addition to the functions of coordination and control of resources in the field of
technological research, carried out by the Department V 25, SEGREDIFESA (See Fig. 12)
ensures, through the technical departments responsible for the matter (TERRARM,
NAVARM, ARMAEREO, and TELEDIFE), the preparation and management of contract for
the research activities identified.
Figure 12. Italian Secretariat General of Defence and National Armaments Directorate (Segredifesa) staff organization
25 The main areas of responsibility of the 5th Department of Segredifesa, in the Science and Technology (S&T) field, are listed below:
• S&T Strategy, Planning and Execution • Harmonization of Defence objectives with the national scientific-technical policy • Functional coordination of IT MoD Test Centers • Scientific Information Management • Management of international agreements (S&T domain)
Secretary General ofDefence and National Armaments Director
Deputy SecretaryGeneral of Defence
1st Dept.Personnel
2nd Dept.Legal and Admin.
6th Dept.Cases
Deputy SecretaryGeneral of Defence
and National Armaments Director
3rd Dept.Industrial Policy and
International Cooperation
4th Dept.Armaments
Programmes
5th Dept.Technological
Innovation
General Office
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In the field of technological research related to the field of armaments, SEGREDIFESA
plays an assessment and address, which consists in recognizing and coordinate the ideas
and proposals, including those from civil society (universities, research centres, industries)
and from interior of the same defence (Test Centres and other commands), integrating
them in the National Plan of Military Research (PNRM, Piano Nazionale della Ricerca
Militare), which is - in this specific field - the correspondent of the National Research Plan
(PNR - Piano Nazionale della Ricerca) managed by the Ministry of University and
Research (MIUR). With the Ministry of Education, however, has started a relationship
structured to enable a synergy also aimed to provide more opportunities for concretization
research supported by the Ministry of defence. It will pursue the following objectives:
• Synergies in terms of dual-use technologies research 26 ;
• Creation of a long lasting net of mutual trust, in order to address future, unexpected
disruptive technologicies.
The PNRM groups currently over 200 projects covering almost all fields of technology
(e.g., health, biohazards, advanced materials, electronic, etc.), the development of which
is considered a priority also to ensure a national presence qualified in future weapons
programs. It was established in July 2001 to promote, evaluate and coordinate
technological research in the military field. The PNRM, based on a set of operational
national needs (Joint Chief of Staff) and on a set of industrial base national needs (Key
Strategic Areas), takes into account needs established in NATO and EU context. The
selection of the project financed is done in Segredifesa (5th Department), with a
technology assessment. However, from financial point of view, does not include the
research activities embedded in the major system procurement
In addition, based on the activities done in the PNRM, Segredifesa has launched in 2012 a
new initiative, called “Project THESIS”, which is dedicated to engineering students officers
in their Master degree thesis preparation. They will do it on a matter covered from a PNRM
project, in cooperatin with the company and/or the university in charge for that project.
26 The issue of dual-use technologies is based on sharing of costs and risks, while better benchmarking, having a wider knowledge base. On the other hand, it creates the risk of specific military areas uncovered and the risk of foreign dependency
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Of equal importance are the strengthening and expansion of cooperation on an
international scale, done from SEGREDIFESA in keeping with the need - widely accepted
in Europe and NATO through the European Defence Agency (EDA) and NATO Science
and Technology Organisation (STO) - to define and develop coordinated programs, so as
to arrive at the best use of resources through the elimination of overlap and duplication,
the distribution of effort and enhancement, sharing and dissemination of results.
Military Research, being oriented to the development of operational capabilities, takes
place not only in the conduct of studies and theoretical research but also in the realization
of technological demonstrators able to verify the validity and applicability of the technology
object of the research in a context similar to that real.
The results of the research projects must provide, among other things, an aid to the
definition of Operational Requirements (ROP: Requisito Operativo Preliminare) and serve
as a basis for checking the feasibility of future technological development programs of
Defence. Moreover, investment in research exist to ensure autonomous capabilities at
national level, or ability to proceed as “smart customer”, with “purchase intelligent”,
including the possibility of using foreign systems and adapt them to the Italian needs.
During 2013 was carried out an important action of pooling of the main capabilities offered
by the Centres for Test of Defence. The coordination of the activities of the Centres Test is
carried out by a joint committee composed of the General Secretariat of Defence and the
Staff of the Chief of Defence. However, for their technical capabilities (both in terms of
infrastructure, and in terms of skill), under the initiative of SEGREDIFESA, they began to
do research for three years and now the process is in a almost steady state phase.
Indeed, this activity, subject to the priorities of institution (test and evaluation of military
equipment is the main aim), was funded initially in 2012 by the General Secretariat of the
defence. The results are very positive and, thus, the activity is continuing, with a mean
effort of approximately the 10% of the total budget.
The most important T&E Centre are the following:
• The multipurpose centre for experimentation Army, site in Montelibretti, near Rome
(Centro polifunzionale di sperimentazione dell’Esercito),
• The Centre’s experimental flight (CSV – Centro Sperimentale Volo) of Pratica di
Mare, near Rome as well,
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• The Naval Support Centre and experimentation (CSSN – Centro di Supporto e
Sperimentazione Navale) in La Spezia.
They all are able to cope with the demands of the testing of materials and means of the
Italian Armed Forces. The numerous laboratories and test sections allow making technical
evaluation for suitability for use of military means on them.
The Technical Centre Logistics Joint NBC (NBC Cetli - Centro Tecnico Logistico Interforze
NBC) Civitavecchia (RM) has the institutional duty to carry out studies, audits and
applications of a military nuclear, biological and chemical.
In the DNA sequencing (countering bio-terrorism, for example) is very active the Army
Health Study Centre (SANIVET), based in Rome, near the Celio, the Defence Hospital.
I. Case study: STEPS initiative
The cooperation between different players (public and private; prime and SME; industry
and university; etc.) has proven its importance not only in a generic way, but also in
specific initiatives, like the following one.
Synergies between the Distretto Aerospaziale del Piemonte and the European Regional
Development Fund (ERDF) 2007-2013 have enabled Regione Piemonte to design and
fund the initiative “Piattaforma Aerospazio” for accelerating the innovation of aerospace
technology within the Region and reassuring its worldwide excellence.
The “Piattaforma Aerospazio” commands the concentration and integration of resources
on three comprehensive projects of high relevance and competitive edge potential for the
local aerospace technology network:
• UAV based System for civil Land Monitoring
• Green Engine for Air Traffic 2020
• Systems & Technologies for Space Exploration
The STEPS initiative (see Fig. 13) is based on cooperation between System Primes,
SMEs, Academy and Research Centres. Indeed, it is a joint development of technologies
and systems for Space Exploration done by a consortium led by ThalesAleniaSpace and
including Politecnico di Torino, Università di Torino, Università del Piemonte Orientale,
ALTEC and 23 SMEs based in Piedmont.
The main benefits are:
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• The proposed research and technological streamlines show a high strategic potential
in the international collaboration context of Moon and Mars Exploration. It brings an
increase of competitiveness in the Regional Productive System promoting SMEs
involvement in the space sector, looking at globalization in terms of opportunity,
resulting in evidence of Piedmont entrepreneurial and research capabilities both at
National and International level.
• Increase of job request in High Tech sectors and consolidation of the District’s
technological excellences with advanced technologic spin-offs in other in other
market sectors.
• Consolidation of the synergetic approach, means collaboration between Politecnico
and local Universities with the research institutes and large and small industries; in
fact promotion of general public engagement and private as well, and young
generation education in space exploration development.
• Reduction of the transition gap between research and innovation.
• Transfer Technology between large industries and universities towards the SMEs
and vice versa
Figure 13. STEPS Project: Regione Piemonte, TAS-I, university, SME
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J. Considerations
In general terms, looking at the statistics ISTAT and the OECD, it is observed that the
status of public research is better than that of private research. But we must also take into
account the fact that in the ISTAT’s evaluation the 50 percent of the time of university
professors is considered as dedicated to research. It is an optimistic assumption.
The Italian university, however, manages to maintain an exceptional quality of his research
and the products it develops. One can cite two examples, which serve as litmus paper.
One of them is represented by the spin-off arising from the activities carried out,
particularly in big universities, dedicated to technological research and scholarship in the
sciences so-called “hard“ (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics). The other is
the so-called issue of brain drain, which, however, can be read conversely, the other side
of the fence. It is true that the brains flee, but considering the fact that for some years the
Italian university does not recruiting, it is a viable solution for good young people, because
otherwise they would disperse and be lost. And, at least, they prove the wellness of an
Italian high level education.
It is seen clearly that, when we talk about large companies and small-medium-sized
enterprises, we are faced with two completely different worlds: should be introduced within
this framework a third area, namely that of subcontractors, which are transformed into
technology partners and in need of a different attention, different from the above
mentioned two type of players. However, in order to avoid a too complex analysis, it is
better not to consider this third type of player, having in mind that a large company as well
as a SME and a research centre, could be or could have a technological subcontractor.
Overall, we are witnessing a change in the production and research related to it: in many
fields research and design remain in Europe, while production moves to other parts of the
world; exceptions are the activities related to:
• The "value chain" (e.g. .: high fashion). In these cases, in fact, the production
remains competitive on the market because it is based on skills and technical
capabilities defined and guaranteed by a historical relationship, basically of trust
between client and provider (including subcontractors at all levels); the activities of
interest of defence are of this type, because trust reduces the risk of including
weaknesses in military systems (i.e. issues arising from the presence of entrusted
components in trusted systems)
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• the SME (Small and Medium Enterprises), which does not have the resources to
relocate
SMEs, because "living" in the economical western system, provide a high innovative
contribution (in terms of incremental innovation). For SME, then, the Italian MoD has a
special attention, for being a major asset: they have high expertise and a high speed
reaction, useful in the face of threats of new type, unforeseen. They, by their nature, are
more flexible and more responsive than the big companies. Large companies, however,
remain of fundamental importance for the management of large programs and, in any
case, for all the activities broad in scope and duration.
On the issue of strategic independence, the decline in public investment has led both large
companies and SME to increase the non-military activity. With the result that the "strategic
independence" suffers. Thus military investments must be more careful than in the past,
trying to reduce the financial risk, but is a characteristic of the program of military
modernization.
Nowadays, the Italian financial situation drives many decisions. But the vision of the
ecosystem research, with strong connections between different geographical areas and
functional expertise (training, research, industrial production, etc.) clearly shows that the
horizontal cuts may produce damages in an unpredictable way. If a reduction is needed,
then it has to be the result of strategic decisions in the field of industrial research and in
that of basic research.
Generally speaking, it must surely be guaranteed a minimum level of functioning of the
structures, however, the allocation of resources should be based on the quality and
validation of research results that a structure has been able to produce. Another element is
the issue of continuity. In other words, research facilities and universities that are doing
research and universities doing research “spot” are useful only to themselves, not to the
Country. On the contrary, it has to be put in place a search system that values the fact that
they do research, but at the same time look at a systemic level of development of the
Country, in its production and research. This is related to continuity and to check in short,
medium and long term. Indeed it is essential to maintain continuity: the technique of yo-yo
that goes up and down, in the research is inevitably a disaster. A research wants
continuity, because it is a difficult achievement of piece by piece. Block halfway research,
technology development or innovation process means having thrown away the money.
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Continuity for maintaining and developing the technological competitiveness of the Country
is a problem not only political, but structural, that politics must manage and that the
Country must follow.
The weakness of Italy compared to the international context, with regard to the
investments for research, technological development and in particular the human
resources dedicated to it is also linked to the difficulty of defining and implementing
national policies for the support of public and private research that is appropriate to the
world competition, as well as being continuous and implemented in times compatible with
the rapid technological change which is impacting, at least in the last three decades, the
competitiveness of the continents, nations, and then the companies. It also appears more
and more evident the absolute need to be identified and made operational as soon a
single, authoritative national coordination centre of many initiatives of the various
ministries, for the support of industrial research and technological innovation. In fact, the
lack of coordination, and therefore the growing confusion between the initiatives and the
level of central government and the regions, resulting in duplication and fragmentation,
make sometimes difficult, despite the resources, the adaptation, in financial terms and
methodological tools for the support of industrial research and technological development
and their financing with continuity over time. As for the role of research, it is widely
recognized that the social and economic development of the contemporary world today is
based on knowledge. At the same time, there is the need to manage increasing volumes
of knowledge, with new dimensions of the space - that is no longer a limiting factor - and
time, which has seen a tremendous acceleration of the production, dissemination and the
life cycle of knowledge itself. We need to continually see the application of our results, but
we also need to produce knowledge, because only the production of knowledge will allow
us then to use it for a more competitive country. It is measurable only in the medium and
long term, by means of the results just mentioned.
Obviously, a critical element is the bureaucracy, grown excessively in Europe and in Italy
(with the exception of the PNRM): important is pursuing the streamlining of procedures
and rationalization of methodologies for the evaluation of research projects.
Finally, closely linked to the need for a single direction is the absolute necessity to raise
the public research, carried out in universities and public research institutions, in order to
create innovation, including through closer collaboration with the business system. From
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this perspective, the budget of the Italian Ministry of Defence dedicated to the
Technological Research is much below the Western standard. It is important to consider
its strategic relevance and thus review it, when the financial crisis will be over.
Italy suffers from the fact that in business, especially in the medium and small enterprises,
there is the absolute absence of PhDs and, therefore, people have difficulties not only to
conduct research, but also to understand it. When a company has to buy a knowledge
(even in term of “best practise”), has to trust someone who understands what they are
purchasing. In Italy, according to the report Education at Glance 2009: OECD Indicators,
total expenditure on tertiary education in relation to GDP is among the lowest in Europe. It
detects extremely limited compared to other EU countries, even if we assume the
parameter of spending per student, with all the warnings that such a use of the data
requires. We know that the problem of the comparison between the different countries is
very complicated and that even the OECD or other research institutions are increasingly
able to verify what the model according to which, within each country, these data are hired.
The situation of the PhD in Italy cannot be defined certainly exciting, when compared to
that of other countries. The percentage of the population engaged in this activity, in fact, is
very modest. It is doctorates which have characteristics predominantly domestic. Namely
that the mobility of students who have a degree in a university, then chooses a PhD
program at another site is very modest. Moreover, even where these candidates present
themselves have the possibility of success of the lower local candidates.
Quite modest, although significant growth in recent years and in particular in some
universities is the presence of foreign students enrolled in graduate schools. When talking
of “brain“, in fact, of course it has to be considered not only the financial salaries, but the
research infrastructures. Countries that want to attract brains shall have strong research
infrastructure.
Innovation and technology development are critical to ensure operational supremacy as
well as the sustainability and competitiveness of the defence industry in the international
market. However, the technology development context has changed rapidly in recent
years in three interrelated ways: research and development (R&D) budgets have declined
significantly due to austerity measures; innovation focus have shifted from defence to the
civil sector; and the international dimension has become increasingly important.
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It is important that the MoD at all responsibility’s level understands the role that it plays in
this regard and the consequences that its actions have. Our experience suggests that
small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) find it very difficult to plug into MoD
processes or lack the know-how and resources to enter procurement procedures. The
SME are typically characterized by a lean structure. It allows the ability to reshape quickly
research activity, in presence of a change of mind by the MoD. However, if we take a
closer look, focusing on a single situation, with a single SME involved, the rapid reshaping
of research activity could be too expensive and is possible unless the change requested
goes outside the border of the niche of excellence of the SME. This is a major risk,
considering the dynamic ‘ecosystem’ of today’s defence. Furthermore, the transition gap
between research and production has to be considered, when comparing big industrial
players with SME: mainly in terms of volume production and in terms of life support. In any
case, although the technology race is based on rapid evolution, it is important that the
MoD stays on his path for a timeframe.
With all the above mentioned considerations, it should be taken into account the possibility
of create in Italy a central advisor office for the Minister, in order to connect
SEGREDIFESA with the political authorities on a continuous way, on the Research and
Innovation matters.
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Investments (not just financial) in technological research produce positive results in the progress of the State, measurable in terms of growth of Gross Domestic Product. Progress in the military arena have not only these results, but also ensure a better efficiency and effectiveness of the "defence function", as protection of national interests abroad. They also allow you to better address the current and future international uncertainties (traditional warfare or symmetric warfare, asymmetric warfare, hybrid warfare, etc.) and can provide a tool to maintain a long lasting peace, through an international network of researchers who share a passion for science and technology, as well as respect for Western values (freedom and respect for fundamental human rights, including equality).
A. Historical background
For hundreds of years, the nations of Europe and North America have periodically
attempted to coerce, invade, or conquer other societies. However, until the mid-fifteenth
century the Chinese and the Arabs were at the forefront of technology. The new posture of
the West came from two sources: a culture that encouraged the domination of nature
through experimentation, scientific research and mathematical models; a competitive
approach, in which states, bankers and traders competed with one another.
From the fifteenth to the eighteenth century, European technological superiority
manifested itself outside Europe in the form of ships and guns. During the nineteenth
century, the most important technologies were steamships, rifles and telegraph. The dawn
of the twentieth century saw great technological advances, the most striking being the
airplanes, followed by the use of the radiofrequency (radio and radar), nuclear power, and
computers.
The West has relied on its superior technology to influence and to conquer, yet these
technologies have not always guaranteed success. Years before the well-known Vietnam
Military overview 3
Military overview 3
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experience, the sailing vessels that gave the Portuguese a century-long advantage in the
Indian Ocean failed to overcome Muslim galleys in the Red Sea. The same weapons and
methods that the Spanish used to conquer Mexico and Peru were ineffective in Africa.
Spain was one of the first European colonial powers and in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries it was the major world power, conquering many distant lands. Despite the
nations close proximity to Africa though, the majority of the colonization occurred in South
America. The reason is not limited to attractiveness of territories.
The Portuguese could have reached India without gunpowder, but they could never have
maintained themselves there or brought their cargos back. The same considerations apply
to the Spanish in the New World. There was a great deal more to it than just gunpowder;
but without gunpowder weapons Cortes and Pizarro would move hardly left more of an
imprint on the Western Hemisphere than Vikings.
The point is that the use of technology is successful only if based on a broader
comprehension of it and of the relations between it and other aspects of the world. It
means that a technology has to be known as deep as possible, looking at his physical,
economic and social limitations.
From the social point of view, it is important to keep in mind the dual role played by
technology. First, it can be successful in military operations, if not perceived by
counterparts as an “evil product”; this perception could be the trigger for a fanatical
reaction meaning a very powerful force against the user of the technology. Second, it can
define the role of the user in a broader way; in Western societies, with a great presence of
capital, the technological approach is well accepted, because it reduces manpower; on the
contrary, Third World Countries have a great presence of labour and a technology used to
reduce the workforce tends to have a negative reception.
Superior technology translates into greater power over nature and sometimes even other
peoples, yet technological superiority is no guarantee of success, because the technology
only delivers results in a specific environment, or because the opponent responds in
unexpected ways.
Nowadays, technology plays an ever-increasing role in the development and
transformation of warfare. Technology existed in many forms, only a small portion,
generally speaking, was military-specific. Further, this military-specific technology did not
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exist in isolation, there was something else: tactics, logistics, intelligence, organization,
communications, and a host of other elements made up the whole.
However, from a more strategic perspective, Technology has the role to prevent strategic
surprise, in terms of increasing opportunities to accomplish the mission and reducing risk
from opponents. It can provide results not only in a long term vision, but also in the short
term. Indeed, Defence Research Processes, while originating in the Defence enterprise,
create connections between the military and scientific worlds. It creates a knowledgeable
workforce, ready to address urgent technical requirements.
This function of the technological research is added nowadays to the classical function, in
relation to war. Indeed, technology has played an ever-increasing role in the development
and transformation of warfare. Technology existed in many forms, only a small portion,
generally speaking, was military-specific. Further, this military-specific technology did not
exist in isolation, there was something else: tactics, logistics, intelligence, organization,
communications, and a host of other elements made up the whole.27
B. The actual role of Technology in warfare
Technological research provides an important support to address the symmetrical warfare.
In 1944, Britain was under German attacks, unleashed by flying bombs without pilots: the
V-128. The attacks began June 15: “More than 200 missiles were launched against us in
twenty-four hours; more than 3000 were to follow in the five following weeks”29. It was the
result of many years of test and evaluation, started before the war and done on unmanned
aircraft and rockets, in an experimental base located in Peenemunde, on the Baltic coast.
The air strike conducted on that base (17 August 1943), succeeded in slowing down the
development and the production of the new weapons. Thus, new weapons did not have
the opportunity to exploit their lethality and the delay allowed allied armies to take control
of the North of France, the region from where the V-1 had to be launched in order to reach
27 (Dupuy 1993) 28 V comes from German “Vergeltung” (retaliation). 29 (Churchill 1953)
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Great Britain. It is worth observing that at that period, V-1 was a “radical innovation”. Still
during the Second World War, there is an example of “incremental innovation” in the
operation conducted from Germany to free the battle cruiser Scharnhorst and Gneisenau,
on 12 February 1942. The ships were blocked in the harbour of Brest, and were under a
very striate control from the English fleet. But they managed to escape, thanks to reliability
problems of the English radars, on board the aircraft patrol. The increasingly frequent
malfunction ended in a global break down occurred on the 12th of February. After the war,
emerged that the German service in charge for jamming the English radar, ineffective till
then, was reinforced with new tools and devices, but, in order to avoid any suspect on the
counterpart, they were activated gradually30. In both sides, the knowledge, coming from
the technological research, underpinned the ability to prevail on the enemy: in identifying
opportunities and in finding solutions (V-1 vs slowing down the development process), or
in understanding the threat and in finding countermeasures (radar vs jamming).
Technological Research provides the ability of self-defence against an enemy strong and
comparable with Italy. It also ensures the ability of self-defence against a higher enemy,
participating in alliances such as NATO, on an equal footing and in line with the rank of
Italy in the world. Moreover, by its nature of long-term process, it also becomes a tool to
increase cohesion in strategic alliances. For this reason, there is a military structure
dedicated to technological research in the NATO (the STO - Science and Technology
Organization), and the European Union has a military structure dedicated to technological
research (the EDA - European Defence Agency).
Besides, in the case of asymmetrical warfare technological research contributes, supplying
tools. It can be oriented in finding innovative solutions, guaranteeing respect for human
rights even in conflicts against those who do not respect them. Or, looking at the financial
aspects that can provide solutions cheaper than the traditional: low-cost solutions31.
We’ve had a long history in the Western Countries of using our deep pockets as a
competitive advantage on the battlefield, and it has been a very effective strategy. Now it
is starting to be barren. And it can be seen in the hard choices that the Ministries of
Defence have to make on how many of any particular system they can afford to buy. For
this reason, many agencies are looking for new technologies and architectures that would
30 (Churchill 1953) 31 Asymmetric warfare is typically characterized by a disparity in observing the human right or in the type of weapons utilized. In this case, the problem is the affordability of a long lasting conflict.
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allow changing the cost and the flexibility of the traditional systems and making them more
affordable and powerful.
The post-World War II defence industry has been a net generator of technology born in the
military and used in the civilian arena. But increasingly we’re going back to where the
commercial world develops technologies that are then adapted for the defence world. Given the power of commercial available technologies, there are a lot of actors around the
world being able to move very quickly and turn civilian capabilities (e.g.: advanced
semiconductor components, networking technologies), into very powerful military
capabilities. It is a national security issue to be sure that we can do that at least as fast,
and more effectively than others do.
In any case, both in the symmetrical warfare, as well as in the asymmetrical warfare, the
technological research allows minimizing the risk of human lives.
It is easy to understand that the technological research helps in identifying risks and
mitigate them (e.g. Cyber- terrorism; bio-terrorism, etc.). On the other side, it helps in
seeing opportunities and exploits them (e.g.: Google-glass; automatic cars; tablet; cellular
phone).
Even in the short term, it is useful because creates knowledge that solves problems with
an operational impact almost immediately. It uses a network of scientists and researchers
ready to respond to urgent operational requirements, even putting to good use the
knowledge gained and residing at the Defence. For example, the military technological
research has studied and studies the DNA sequencing of bacteria and viruses that can be
used as biological agents and is now ready to respond to possible bioterrorism attacks. In
addition, the knowledge gained in this field (DNA sequencing) allows presenting fast and
inexpensive systems to check if a person is suffering from Ebola, a solution useful for
military and civilian personnel fighting against that virus. Similar situation had had for
Anthrax.
At the end, there is a need to be investing in some things that can have their impact in the
shorter term, and in things that may take years or in some cases even decades but that
can really change the game in some fundamental ways.
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C. A possible tool for long lasting peace
Innovation, the ‘solid result’ of research, does not occur in isolation but relies on
interactions between a range of actors within a complex ‘ecosystem’ comprising dynamic
links between actors and rapid knowledge exchange. It is also a longstanding process,
based on human essential qualities: curiosity, need for wellness, etc. It is a powerful
leverage, available for stabilizing areas and sharing long term objectives: political,
economic, scientific objectives. Taking a closer look at it, innovation starts from an
insecure situation and a need for stability.
It is important to understand how security provision works within the contemporary
international system.
Although stability is one of the most widely pursued security goals, understanding its
dynamics requires careful scrutiny. Stability by definition entails the facilitating of order
through predictable continuity, both in people’s lives and in governing authority. Therefore,
when looking into a generic Nation, there are four essential stability functions:
• predictable order through authority (state security),
• a public welfare net (social security),
• nonviolent resolution of internal disputes (internal security)
• Insulation from outside coercive interference (national defence/international security).
Causes of instability are political (political repression or a sense of political injustice),
economic (rapid or significant upward or downward economic change) military
(militarization of a society), cultural (ethnic, racial or religious heterogeneity; tensions
among internal groups) or environmental (population pressure or competition over natural
resources).
Instability can descend into a seemingly endless self-perpetuating cycle that leads to more
instability and conflict. It also may spread across countries because instability, insecurity
and terror are now easier than ever to export.
Since the end of the Cold War in 1989, central state governments have typically been
considered the most important or even sole sources of stability, and subnational and
transnational non-state forces have been identified as a major source of instability.
Although these claims have some validity, both considerations appear to be too outdated.
Indeed, conventional thinking about international stability rests on four main assumptions.
First, states and intergovernmental organizations are the dominant locus of authority in
global society, as territorial state sovereignty is the right form of political organization that
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delineates and produces world order. However, this perspective is no more valid in a
simple way, without addition or qualification. In fact, in the global world, there are industrial
players bigger than many states and intergovernmental organizations; their decisions can
influence the world order. Further, people are increasingly connected through new
technologies such as the Internet” (e.g., through social networks), with diminished interest
on interpersonal interaction; they are more interested in “to be connected” rather than “to
have a car”: meaning that the territorial point of view is fading in the cyber-real world
Indeed the younger generations are becoming more interested in the concept of being
connected rather than the means of being connected, which means that traditional means
of understanding human networks through transportation and economic patterns are
becoming more obfuscated and are slowly transitioning into the emerging cyber domain.
States and governmental organizations seem to be not yet ready for handling this shift.
Second, armed non-state groups are illegitimate actors, disrupting security and triggering
political disorder and violent conflict. These assumption is strictly connected with the
premise that state group are always looking for stability, which is true, but only if
considering the stability side of security. However stability is not equal to security.
Third, the mass public consistently demands state government protection. However, a
deeper analysis reveals that, in fact, the public always demands protection; wherever it
comes from.
Fourth, private bodies can enhance security only if they do not use threatening tactics or
violence.
In recent years an increasing number of state and non-state actors have displayed an
indifference to international norms and laws as well as conventional forms of conflict
resolution. They have demonstrated a preparedness to adopt offensive strategies that
have the potential to challenge the traditional security architecture. Traditionally global
security is achieved by protecting and maintaining the existing political regime. However,
priority needs to go to human and social security, emphasizing social protection and
fulfilment of basic survival needs to citizens.
Thus, the military forces evolved in the last decades, with a shift to a closer cooperation
with civilian actions: governmental and non-governmental as well.
With these scenarios in mind, emerging technologies, and the connected research, can
both help in predicting the future, giving new tools to experts (modelling and simulations,
tec.) and be a tool in support in the security process. From this perspective, Research
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Processes can provide welfare, reducing a source of instability and insecurity. Indeed it
can provide innovation, in terms of economic growth, which is a fundamental point. But it
also creates a cultural environment and, in the long term, establishes networks between
people and thus a way to let our values and our beliefs be known abroad.
Technological research can be an instrument of a long lasting Peacekeeping operation.
Indeed, the conduct of research oriented to health issues demonstrates the will for peace.
In addition, it creates links between researchers, beyond the nationality (because they
share the interest towards science), reducing the separation between nations.
Furthermore, the creation of research infrastructure (laboratories, etc.) allows having a
long lasting common project. It is also a way to establish networks between people and
thus a way to let it be known our values and our beliefs abroad, well beyond the
propaganda affecting the Western Country in some part of the world.
In a second phase, when the peace operations conclude, the growing country can be a
cradle of innovation. From this perspective, in a very long term, the industrial model can be
adopted.
The best practices in the industrial world are to establish foreign laboratories that perform
best-of-breed research in selected fields and are fully integrated into the local scientific
community. Researchers participate with state-of-the-art research in regional university
and government laboratories. Working closely with the local research community results in
a fuller understanding of the state of the art.
The best practices in industry allow visiting scientists to access specific laboratory
locations or, preferably, laboratories at partner universities, so as to minimize their access
to confidential information.
All industrial efforts have begun small, with one foreign laboratory and two or three specific
research areas to gain an understanding of the success strategy. For example, locating a
robotics research laboratory in Japan would directly connect U.S. research with the
leading edge research in Japan. Yahoo! expanded their Silicon Valley research labs to
facilities in New York City, Bangalore, Barcelona, Santiago, Haifa, and Beijing. The
reasons for this expansion are varied, and include exploiting personal contacts or
university partnerships, accessing talent that is difficult to move to California, keeping
talent that would rather go "home," and instilling a sense of competition among research
groups. Just to give an example, would it be implausible that Albania could produce a
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state-of-the-art research in some field in 30 years, even if it was in a very deprived
situation some 20 years ago?
Many in the West (and not only) believe that the world is automatically and at high pace
moving toward a single, global culture that is basically the Western one. But this belief is
optimistic and dangerous. The spread of Western consumer goods is not the spread of
Western culture. Drinking Chianti makes a Russian no more Italian than eating sushi
makes an Italian Japanese.
There is an important role for the Research activities and the Education system related.
In the past, the elites of non-Western Countries studied in Oxford or at La Sorbonne and
thus they understood and (at least in part) acquired the Western values.
This paradigm is no longer valid, today.
However, relationship between scientists and researchers in different Countries and
cooperating in some research field could give the same result: let non-Western people
understand Western values and (at least in part) acquire Western values.
This could be a function of S&T less related to the Scientific and Technological progress,
but more related to Nation Strategy.
In conclusion, while emerging technologies provide immediate support in every kind of
operation (including the Peace Keeping operations), the Research Process provides a tool
for helping the long term stabilization of the peace through the evaluation of possible
courses of action in support of leadership decisions. These tools, however, can be fruitful
only if associated with a proper political, social and economic environment. A synergy with
all these factors will always be successful.
The technological research, in fact, can be a tool in support or an alternative to the
classical military forces in the stabilization process. It can provide wellness, reducing a
source of instability and insecurity. It can provide innovation, in terms of economic growth.
It is also a way to establish networks between people and thus a way to let it be known our
values and our beliefs abroad, well beyond the propaganda affecting the Western Country
in some part of the world.
D. Support to the country growth In the early 90s of the last century, two major innovations have characterized economic
developments and, in the end, the same style of life of the people: first, globalization, in the
sense that economic activities have become interdependent; in the second place, the so-
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called technological revolution, with the new spread communication possibilities (Internet,
etc.), both had an impact in the scientific progress and were conversely influenced by it.
In more details, the development of communications, already started in the nineteenth
century is definitely an important element in the increase that has had in the last century
the rate of scientific progress. In fact, scientists in various parts of the world have been
able to compete in fast times and even collaborate remotely, putting together “brains” and
infrastructure, in a way made possible by new communication techniques and
technologies.
During the 2000s, however, has started an economic crisis from which we are not yet out.
Analysis of the data collected, the OECD highlights the following results:
• the economic crisis, which began in 2008, has had a negative impact on R&D
(Research & Development) in all countries, although in a different way and as
regards Nations (and as lower impact in China and Korea), both with regard to the
industries (and example, greater impact for medium technology);
• the crisis has amplified, in essence, weaknesses (and strengths) present;
• it is agreed that innovation is crucial to meet the global challenges of the future (e.g.
protection of the environment, aging population).
With regard specifically to Italy, the benchmarks show the following:
• in terms of socio-economic impact of innovation, Italy is in a lower-middle of the
OECD average;
• the main issues are the need to improve the conditions for innovation, to reinforce the
intangible resources and to improve relations between the State and Regions
In general, some trends emerge worldwide:
• extensive use of tax incentives to push the R & D;
• increased pressure government in identifying priorities of innovation, in his address
(through strategies);
• preference towards expansion rather than towards the creation of new companies.
Thus, Technological Research is considered an engine of progress and is expected to
have a fundamental role for the challenges ahead. In fact, both the agricultural revolution
and the industrial revolution have shown progress (in terms of increased social welfare
and production) in presence of equal other economic factors. This theory has been
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demonstrated with reference to the continuous progress, thus not only in particular
periods, such as the agricultural and industrial revolutions mentioned. However, the
research/innovation process is based on the better use of economic factors or from the
innovations for the market, resulting in GDP growth, as shown in Fig. 14. Indeed, from a
generic perspective, through a sifting process the new ideas become innovation, in terms
of social wellness and of GDP growth; by the way, the growth of companies revenue have
a positive feedback on the State, due the connected fiscal aspects.
Figure 14. From the idea to the exploitation, which means innovation, in terms of Company revenue and GDP growth
The continuous progress has a positive influence on the best use of resources and,
therefore, welfare (Cf. Solow’s work): an increase of 1 % in spending on research and
development results in a 0.6% increase in productivity, in terms of product / busy
(Confindustria data). In the US, looking at the period 1929-2002, it was observed that there
is a positive correlation between spending on research and development and growth of the
Gross Domestic Product. Similarly, the OECD data for the period 1975-2000 show that a
10% increase in R & D due to an increase of 0.7% of Gross Domestic Product, that is, if
you spend 3% of GDP in research and development, an increase of 0.3% leads to an
increase of 0.7% of GDP (OECD countries invest an average of 2.3% of GDP in R & D).
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As demonstrated in Chapter 1, research and innovation is a process:
• long (decades)
• integrated with other (education, infrastructure, financial system, defence, justice,
etc.).
• incremental (you cannot stop or skip steps, except at the cost of significant negative
impact)
For Italy, in particular, it is a fragmented process: various Ministries invest in R&D (MIUR,
MISE, Health, Defence), regions (as from the Title V of the Constitution), and private
bodies. Each has its own focus and its task.
Therefore military investment in research should be considered in several aspects.
First, they directly contribute to social welfare, because in themselves create jobs,
specifically in the Italian soil. Each project or research program funded by the Ministry of
Defence involves Italian researchers and technicians.
Second, they contribute to the creation of innovations useful to society not only when
referred to dual-use technologies identified today: the studies on electromagnetism that led
to the military radar, have also led to the civil radar (for the control of air traffic, for the
weather forecast, etc.), but also in everyday appliances (microwave oven). Studies on the
propagation of sound in the sea, for the discovery of submarines, have also led to
research tools for fishery. The GPS (Global Positioning Systems), born for military
purposes, is widely used in the civil field. Studies to increase the capacity of the batteries
of submarines have pioneered innovative solutions in automotive (lithium batteries for
cars). In the early 1990s, DARPA broke new ground in devices that combine sensors,
actuators, and electronics on a chip. The U.S. military used them in systems that tracked
soldiers inside buildings, armed torpedoes, detected biological weapons, and improved
avionics. Today they provide critical functions in air bags, virtual-reality animation, gaming
systems like the Wii and Kinect, ink-jet printers, smartphones, tablets, and high-definition
TVs.
Third, more in general, are part of a multidisciplinary context and with a multiplicity of
actors, which is the national system of technological research, which as mentioned is the
engine of progress.
However, it is necessary to be aware that the choices on the path that leads to innovation
are the result of a balance between resistance to change and easy enthusiasm, which can
follow failures.
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The resistance to the changes is typical of the human nature and it was well summarized
by John Locke when he wrote that “New opinions are always suspected and usually
opposed, without any other reason but because they are not already common”.
On the other hand, there are examples of enthusiasm too easy, sometimes based on
inaccurate information or misjudgments. One example is the Aerocar: according to some
studies, there have been over 75 patents granted for a flying machine, from 1917. Among
them, only one reached certain notoriety, in the 50s: the project of Moulton Taylor called
Aerocar. Unfortunately, although approved by the US Civil Aeronautics Administration, the
Aerocar was unsuccessful: the car was not robust enough for use on the road and the
number of additional licenses required for the guide was high. Only five Aerocars were
ever built.32
32 (Cummings 2013)
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To predict the technological evolution is not easy, maybe it's impossible if you want to be very detailed: a few years ago no one would have imagined the phenomenon of "social network", as well as during World War II, the advent of radar suddenly changed the way of fighting on sea and in the sky. So, in long-term perspective, and in order to respond better to the new unexpected (always a risk) as well, it is important to have a strong technological knowledgebase, as expertise and network of surely trusted experts. However, at present, we can identify some technological families, which are very promising for the near future: innovative advanced materials, advanced robotics and artificial intelligence (autonomy), weapons (lasers) and sensors (including Electronic Warfare), logistics (3D – 4D printing), power and energy, post-digital innovation era (cyber-physical systems), human science. Their development and their evolution cannot be predicted with certainty but, undoubtedly, will have to deal with some basic factors: external ones (globalization and rapid increase of performance of communications systems and computing systems) and internal ones (the rising attention to the environment, cultural asymmetries, the financial setting and ageing societies). Their application in the real world, in addition, will also rely on its characteristics, in terms of human and environmental requirements.
A. Methodology
After giving a closer look to technologies and their evolution (chapter 1), to the technology
providers in Italy (chapter 2) and to technology uses, in the Italian military (chapter 3), this
chapter will propose a technology vision and foresight. Technology foresight has
notoriously problems in “picking winners”, while technology vision must not “pic winners”,
since predicting the future is not easy. Rather than do this, this chapter attempts to identify
not only the relevant races that defence and security organisations must address, but also
the skills and expertise that a modern defence enterprise must develop to exploit or
Main emerging technological families 4
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influence emerging technologies. Since it is easier to pick emerging technologies in the
near future, a long- term vision must focus on skill and knowledge, rather than on specific
technologies. Consequently the focus of the decisions maker has to shift from
Technologies, if looking on a short term, to skill and expertise, if looking on challenges far
in the future (Cf. fig. 15). As a matter of fact, only a deep knowledge of science and
technology can provide the tools required from the uncertainty, which is an intrinsic
characteristics of the future. Therefore, it is important to have this type of knowledgebase
in the Defence, or resident in an organization with an existing and long lasting mutual trust.
More precisely: Science and Technology influence each other in a mutual reinforcement.
The result is an increasing knowledgebase (Fig. 16). Science and technology feed off of
one another, propelling both forward. Scientific knowledge allows us to build new
technologies, which often allow us to make new observations about the physical world and
take a closer look to phenomena, which, in turn, allow us to build even more scientific
knowledge, then inspiring new technologies and so on.
Based on an assessment of recent publications, nanotechnology, radar and cyber warfare
were the most prominent technology areas in terms of publication activity, accounting for
approximately 70 percent of the sources identified. However, this result is strictly related to
the horizon of the above mentioned papers: a short or medium-term horizon, rather than
long term. For this reason, time has been introduced as an additional concept. While
nanotechnology will be very important in the next decade, later quantum information will be
a disruptive Technology.
In order to have a better and more comprehensive approach to the emerging technological
families, a proper procedure has to be applied.
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Figure 15. While in the short term the main focus could be on technologies, in order to manage the challenges of the long period it is more important to focus on skill and expertise.
With the military perspective, the main emerging Technologies will stem from the scientific
world, taking into account the future way to use the five domains (land, sea, air, space,
cyber) and the main factors shaping the world of tomorrow (social, economic), never
forgetting some objective limitation.
Figure 16. Science and Technology influence each other creating an increasing knowledgebase
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Thus, the first phase of the analysis is focused on describing the main factors, including
the above mentioned “objective limitations”, used in mapping the context within which
innovation takes place through stakeholder interviews and conducting a systematic review
of publications related to emerging technologies. Indeed, innovation does not occur in
isolation but relies on interactions between a range of actors within a complex “ecosystem”
comprising dynamic links between actors and rapid knowledge exchange. Furthermore,
factors shape the innovation: external factors (as ageing societies) or internal factors (e.g.,
the globalization of the research). The domains are considered well known at least at the
level useful for this work. As well as the requirements in a global scale: communicate, find,
engage, control, etc are considered well known or known enough for the purpose of this
work.
In the second phase, some technological families are described, picked up as a result of
the sifting process adopted: based on assessment of recent publications, workshops and
meetings, and interviews with the most relevant stakeholders.
One major theme that emerged in the Italian MoD is the emphasis that the MoD has
tended to place on developing new “things” as a result of its research spending. However,
as it has been demonstrated, there is a clear ability of technology to help improve
processes; logistics, maintenance and support; new modes of training and testing; and in
particular the opportunity for technology and innovation to deliver efficiency benefits as
well as improved effectiveness. For this reason, the foresight is not limited to “things”.
Bearing in mind these considerations, after a description of factors related to the future
types of Technologies, we will presented a list of Technologies, which today look the most
promising. The focus will not be on the characteristics of the future technologies, but on
the ideas beyond them, knowing that technical results will come at the end. They are listed
from the today’s point of view: moving to the future, the risk of misjudgement is very high
and, furthermore, the possibility of radical innovation is higher but still uncertain. Thus,
once more, looking at the long term vision, it is more important to focus on skill rather than
on topics, in order to assure the timely delivery of disrupting and enabling technologies for
future military missions. In addition, it is the only way to develop a comprehensive
approach, since particular issues not only result in failure to meet policy goals, but also
can produce a loss of confidence in the reliability of the whole innovation process.
Furthermore it will guarantee an answer to the need of being periodically updated to track
technology advances and evolving market conditions.
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B. Main factors The most important internal factors are globalization and the fast improvement of the
communication technologies as well as of computation technologies. The combination of
those elements speed up, every day faster, the research innovation processes. Therefore,
it is mandatory for the leaders in the technological areas to maintain a continued effort to
stay on the cutting edge. There is no possibility to stay put and rest on their laurels:
leadership is always under siege. From this perspective the decision maker has to be
careful in changing the reference point for each technology as soon as he understand that
he is no more putting enough effort in maintaining the leadership. This is an issue more
relevant when looking with a medium or a long term vision, rather than for short term
results. However, it has to be considered the trust element already mentioned: the
reference point can be changed only if the new one is at the same level of trust.
We must consider that globalization and communication give easier access to new
developments in the research process, but there is a higher error rate at the same time.
Meaning that there is less control on the correctness and accuracy of information. Indeed,
the absence of structured checks, such as “peer reviews”, imposes a cautionary approach
and a fast response. And, in order to be effective a collaborative and fast innovation is built
on four pillars: people, methodology, structures, and platforms. If one of these pillars is
missing, the outcome is poor.
Consider external factors: the rising attention to the environment, cultural asymmetries, the
financial setting and ageing societies.
Rising attention to the environment is a way to live, born some decades ago, but now well
established in the western countries, with growing investigation and action in recent years.
It will remain an important factor, because it supports the world in which we are living and
guarantees the existence of that world. It will shape Technologies in terms of desirable
results and in terms of unacceptable innovations.33
33 The reduced space of this work gives not the opportunity to investigate the psychosocial aspects connected to it. As it is well known, the civilian market (nowadays strictly connected with the military market) is driven not only from the objective result of each innovation, but also from the psychological reaction to it.
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The changing posture regarding the environment is a type of cultural asymmetry. Many
areas of the world do not care at all for the environment. The value of human life is a
similar example of cultural asymmetry. These types of asymmetries are to be considered:
• when cooperating with different countries in the field of research;
• when identifying solutions and using them, in a crisis or in a conflict. This has to be
considered especially defending our forces.
The financial setting drives the problem of the affordability. From a general point of view,
every solution has to be cheaper than the threat. Otherwise, considering the fact that
resources are limited, there is a risk that we do not have enough resources to counter a
threat. Of course this concept has to be adapted for different situation. However the risk of
saturation coming from the consumption of all resources (including the financial resources)
has to be examined for each solution.
Ageing societies will result in give a different military: made of older individuals,
characterized from lower human energy and lower reaction capacity, but more
experienced. Facing the challenge of aging population needs a profound long-term data
base from across Europe. Ageing is a fascinating process. It affects all of us, both as
individuals and as societies. Especially in Europe, higher life expectancy leads to
population ageing, one of the megatrends of the 21st century. This is often seen as a
formidable challenge for the European welfare state, to its labour markets, social security
and health care systems. However, it also provides fascinating opportunities, especially to
benefit from experience and support within four generations. The prevision is underpinned
from data: the twentieth century saw infant mortality decrease by 90 percent, maternal
mortality decrease by 99 percent, and, overall, human lifespan increase by more than 100
percent. The issue have been addressed in the Outlook 2012 edited by OECD, but also in
a paper of the Italian Ministry for Education, Universities and Research (MIUR34)
addressed as well the challenge of an Ageing society, with a specific focus on the Italian
reality35.
By 2025 there are predicted to will be more than 2 billion of persons over 60 on Earth.
From the civilian perspective, this creates new markets, for services and goods. The bases
34 Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca 35 (Ministero_Istruzione_Università_Ricerca 2013)
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for it start in the research of today: for example, more attention will be on mental issues
(Alzheimer, etc.) and movement support (exoskeleton, etc.), thus resulting in impact in
many future dual-use technologies.
The objective limitations come basically from the human body itself and from environment
(temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.). For example, the dimensions of a finger are
defined and every innovation referred to a finger, has to consider it: every tool used by
human being, has to deal with this limitation, such as the axe and the “mouse” of the
computer do (Cf. Fig. 5). The fact is that very high accelerations limit physiologically on
flight duration and the need to reduce human life risk are fostering the development of new
types of combat aircraft, without pilots.
C. Innovative Advanced Materials Advanced materials can cover a broad area of innovation in materials, including polymers,
macromolecular compounds, rubber, metals, glass, ceramics, other non-metallic materials
and fibres as well as the whole field of nanomaterials and speciality materials for electric or
magnetic applications.
Advanced materials make military platforms—such as ships, aircraft and ground vehicles –
lighter, stronger and more resistant to stress, heat and other harsh environmental
conditions. Currently, the process for developing new materials to field in platforms
frequently takes more than a decade, but it is becoming faster. Cross-cutting skill
(materials science and engineering, biology, etc.) will identify new solution, while the
growing computation capacity, underpinning the model process, will reduce the
development phase. This situation will have two main consequences:
• the civil market will provide a wider range of advanced materials in a shorter time;
• the military studies can look at defining, designing, development and engineering
particular materials in a less expensive way; it will be possible a rapid development of
materials with specific platform capabilities and intended missions in view, rather than
supporting long-term, generalized materials development acceleration followed by an
assessment of potential applications for the resulting materials.
The development of increasingly sophisticated techniques and tools to sequence,
synthesize and manipulate genetic material has led to the rapidly maturing discipline of
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synthetic biology. To date, work in synthetic biology has focused primarily on manipulating
individual species of domesticated organisms to perform specific tasks, such as producing
medicines or fuels. However, it will bring both innovative biological innovation and
knowledge useful to create new materials. First, from the biological point of view, these
capabilities could include efficient on-demand bio-production of novel drugs, fuels, sensors
and coatings; or engineered microbes able to optimize human health by treating or
preventing disease. The main area of investigation, in the next future, will be robustness
(in terms of optimizing the functional robustness of engineered microorganism in different
environmental conditions), stability (in terms of preserving the genetic integrity of the
engineered microorganism, in order to maintain the same functionality) and safety, to
control the growth and proliferation of the engineered microorganism in complex settings.
Second, from a holistic and synergetic point of view, it will help the traditional material
science in addressing new challenges: let us look, for example to the robustness of the
spider net as an exemplification of a possible cooperative approach from biologists and
engineers. Materials found in nature combine many inspiring properties such as
sophistication, miniaturization, hierarchical organizations, resistance and adaptability.
The emergence of biological materials science is due, in part, to the advent of new power
tools in the computation area: researchers have the tools to study, in greater detail, the
structure and physical properties of biological materials, whether cells, tissue samples or
complete organs. This knowledge can be used to engineer new “smart” materials that
have higher performance and can, for example, self-assemble, self-repair and/or evolve
The creation of new material families based on biological systems — biomimetic materials
synthesis — involves much more than simply copying structures observed in nature1.
Researchers also need to appreciate the building principles used in their construction.
Biomimetic science promises to be of considerable value to future material design
challenges. For example, considering the high-performance electrodes for modern lithium
batteries, it is important that the materials chosen are porous. This type of structure is
favoured because it provides a large surface area for electron-exchange reactions.
However, the pattern of porosity in these materials typically limits electron movement. The
hierarchical pore structure of biological systems offers a similarly large surface area but
minimal resistance to transport. In the lung, for instance, a few litres of air can be
exchanged in a matter of seconds.
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Nano-science and nanotechnology are based on the manipulation of individual atoms and
molecules to produce materials from them for applications well below the sub- microscopic
level. They involve physical, chemical and biological knowledge at scales ranging between
individual atoms and molecules, below the nanometre, up to ca 100 nanometre. The
subject also concerns the integration of the resulting structures into larger systems. Many
aspects of nanotechnology are based on the fact that the nanoscale world is different from
the macroscopic world: at the micron size level and above, materials have bulk -
conventional- properties that obey the laws of classical science, while sub-microscopic
objects-mesoscopic between 1 micrometre and 100 nm and nanoscopic below this size
range- have properties that are affected by fluctuations around the average and become
subject to the laws of quantum mechanics. In this way, many new tools and functionalities
are opening up, with a plethora of new economic and operations challenges and
opportunities. Using quantum mechanical software tools and materials informatics
methods, the properties of existing materials can be determined; and new materials
compositions tailored to the design of entirely new materials with bespoke performance
characteristics. For example, nanoscale materials design offer dramatic resistance to
wear, erosion, and corrosion. Additionally, as length scales of materials decrease, surface-
area effects become extremely important and quantum effects appear that lead to
profound changes in the properties of materials and devices. The small size of the
materials increases the percentage of atoms that are situated on the surface of the
objects. Thus, in nanoscience and technology surface physics and chemistry start
dominating the materials properties. The large percentage of atoms on the surface for
small entities, and the reactivity that this gives rise to, concerns one of the principal factors
that differentiate properties of nanostructures from those of the bulk material. One
important result of the high surface area per unit mass is the reactivity of nano-size
materials. If, for instance, the surface of nanoparticles is not protected with a surface
molecule, interactions between the particles will readily occur. Besides, the physical and
chemical properties of nanomaterials significantly depend on their three-dimensional
morphologies – sizes, shapes and surface topography – the surrounding media, and their
arrangement in space. The correlation of these parameters with the relevant physical and
chemical properties is a fundamental requirement for the discovery of novel properties and
applications – as well as for advancing the fundamental and practical knowledge required
for the design and fabrication of new materials.
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There are basically three ways to engineer complex entities of reduced dimensions:
• the manipulation of atoms into the desired structures; such bottom-up fabrication
forms device structures directly from mechanisms of material growth such as atomic
layer deposition methods;
• the top-bottom strategies for manufacturing nano-sized materials consists in
downscaling conventional methods (for example, procedures used in the
semiconductor industry’s);
• Self-assembly; this follows from the science of supra-molecular chemistry, which
involves the ability of atoms and molecules to react spontaneously to form complex
structures as a result of their physical and chemical interactions. Self-assembly is
based on engineering the interactions between particles by chemically functionalizing
their surfaces, so that they self-assemble to form the desired structure.
At present, a very interesting example comes from the “carbon world”. We know that in
nature it exists in many formations. However, a new formation, graphene, is a fast growing
product of nanoscience and technology. Its two-dimensional hexagonal lattice of carbon
atoms has been found to have remarkable physical and chemical properties, and is also
being considered for many diverse applications. The remarkable properties manifested by
nanotubes and graphene arise from their structure as an atomically thin mesh of carbon
atoms arranged in a honeycomb hexagonal pattern. The very strong carbon–carbon bonds
produce an exceptionally high strength-to-weight ratio. As was quoted in the Nobel Prize
announcement graphene has a breaking strength which is more than 100 times stronger
than the strongest steel. The symmetry of the carbon atom arrangement in the hexagonal
lattice also provides low electrical resistance opening up electronics applications. Small
variations in carbon structure are able to create diverse new properties. Nanotubes can be
made semiconducting or metallic by changing their diameter, length or their twisting angle
between the lines of hexagons and the direction of the tube.
A different example of nanoscale results comes from the computer industry. In 2011, the
computer industry adopted 3-D transistors for high-end integrated circuits because they
switch faster while consuming less power than planar ones. Such circuits have
conventionally been made via photolithography, the same process used for most computer
circuits. In this process, silicon wafers are coated with a light-sensitive material called a
photoresist and are then exposed to a pattern made by shining light through a filter known
as a mask. Wherever light strikes, the photoresist cures; the rest is washed away, and the
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wafer is then etched chemically to create features in exposed parts of the surface. For the
fastest microchips, which have elements as small as 22 nanometres and 80 nanometres
apart, this process will run into limits determined by the wavelength of light.
In fact, new way of building computer chips is taking shape that involves synthesizing
molecules so that they automatically assemble into complex structures—which then serve
as templates for etching nanoscale circuitry into silicon. The approach could let the
computer industry continue to shrink electronics beyond the resolution of existing
manufacturing machinery. It is possible to make these materials self-assemble into
complex patterns, such as a densely packed row for stripes. This is done by adapting the
polymers’ length, size, and other characteristics, such as how two blocks attract and repel
one another. Patterns made in this way can be much denser than what is possible using
lithography. That means the approach can be used to create the smallest, most densely
packed, and uniform parts of an integrated circuit.
Even in the dental medicine, new materials will give improvements. The success of dental
implants depends majorly on osteo-integration. Nanotechnologies are increasingly used
for surface modifications of dental implants as surfaces properties such as chemistry and
roughness play a determinant role in achieving and maintaining their long-term stability in
bone tissue. Future nanometre-controlled surfaces may ultimately direct the nature of peri-
implant tissues and improve their clinical success rate.
However, not only nanoscience “per se” will dominate the future. Current rocket engines,
due to their method of construction, the materials used and the extreme loads to which
they are subjected, feature a limited number of load cycles. Various technology
programmes are concerned, besides developing reliable and rugged equipment, with
preparing for future reusable propulsion technologies. One of the key roles for realizing
reusable engine components is the use of modern and innovative materials. One of the
key technologies which concern various engine manufacturers worldwide is the
development of fibre-reinforced ceramics—ceramic matrix composites. The advantages for
the developers are obvious—the low specific weight, the high specific strength over a large
temperature range, and their great damage tolerance compared to monolithic ceramics
make this material class extremely interesting as a construction material. Besides
developing and testing radiation-cooled nozzle components and small-thruster combustion
chambers, work are already existing on the preliminary development of actively cooled
structures for future reusable propulsion systems. One of the objectives is to create
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multidirectional (3D) textile structures combined with a cost-effective infiltration process.
Matrix ceramics are not the only type of materials under development for special uses:
metal/ceramic and ceramic/ceramic joining techniques are a promising area.
Furthermore, the miniaturisation of gas turbine engines poses significant challenges to the
performance in heat management due to the close proximity of the hot and cold
components. The investigation shows that the choice of configuration and materials
influences the impact of heat transfer on the micro turbine performance and heat
management is therefore key to achieving the full potential of micro turbines.
Also the health is important area of interest, in particular, the replacement of bones in
critical positions. For example, for the repair of craniofacial defects an autologous bone
graft is up to now the ideal material, but its availability is limited and harvesting can be
associated with complications. Bone replacement materials as an alternative have a long
history of success. With increasing technological advances the spectrum of grafting
materials has broadened to allografts, xenografts, and synthetic materials, providing
material specific advantages. Bone substitutes are undergoing a change from a simple
replacement material to an individually created composite biomaterial with osteo-inductive
properties to enable enhanced defect bridging.
Another area of possible application of advanced materials is the issue of Raw Materials.
Western Countries are confronting an increasing supply risk of critical raw materials.
These can be defined as materials of which the risks of supply shortage and their impacts
on the economy are higher compared to most of other raw materials. To tackle the supply
risk challenge, innovation is required with respect to sustainable primary mining,
substitution of critical metals, and urban mining. In these three categories, bio-metallurgy
can play a crucial role. Indeed, microbe–metal interactions have been successfully applied
on full scale to win materials from primary sources, but are not sufficiently explored for
metal recovery or recycling.
Finally, in the energy field: policies to improve end-use energy efficiency have invoked
great interest over the past several decades because the reduction of energy waste is
often the fastest, cheapest, and cleanest energy resource. Buildings play an important role
in greenhouse gas emissions since they constitute a large proportion of the global energy
demand. This dramatic scenario is usually a consequence of poor thermal insulation
characteristics of building fabric. Among the elements of a typical building envelope,
windows are responsible for the greatest energy loss due to their notably high overall heat
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transfer coefficients. About 60% of heat loss through the fabric of residential buildings can
be attributed to the glazed areas. Windows are useful multifunctional devices for buildings
which provide passive solar gain, air ventilation and also the ability to view the outside.
Unique glazing technologies are therefore required to improve visual and thermal comfort
of the occupants, whilst mitigating the energy consumption of buildings. In addition to it,
studies are going on, focused in the possibility of giving to the window the capacity of a
solar cell: with an internal solution or with a spray on the surface of it.
Anyway, the most challenging issue of the next years will be the reduction of the time used
to go from the concept to the market. Compared to traditional materials science
development methodologies, the new approach is focused on reducing “concept-to-
delivery” time. Looking at the traditional type of advanced materials, it will include many
metallurgical capabilities:
• Detecting and monitoring techniques for production process control
• Sampling and sample preparation
• Analysis and control
• Surface and Coating as well as interior analysis
• Health and environmental analysis
• Quality control and laboratory management
• Testing techniques
• Standardization, certification, accreditation and verification.
From the military point of view, this new knowledge will be used directly (introducing new
technologies in the military fields) or aiming at new technologies, in order to find better
solutions for specific military problems (e.g.: air renovation in the submarines, noise
signature reduction in naval platform, etc.).
Looking farther into the future, some other interesting topics already emerge. For example,
a principal discovery in modern cosmology is that standard model particles comprise only
5 per cent of the mass-energy budget of the Universe: the remaining 95 per cent consists
of dark energy and cold Dark Matter. Dark Matter is an as-yet-unknown substance that
does not emit electromagnetic radiation but which numerous observations suggest makes
up at least 80% of the matter in the universe. Indeed, despite the mounting evidence for
the existence of Dark Matter in galaxies, clusters of galaxies and the Universe at large
scale the nature and properties of the dark matter particle are still largely unconstrained by
observations. Noting the uncertainty that characterizes this type of scientific arguments
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(which may have effects on military technology in 20 years); it is clear that you have to rely
on knowledge. As mentioned at the end of the preceding paragraph
D. Advanced Robotics and Artificial Intelligence Robotics, in terms of technology dealing with the design, construction, and operation of
robots in automation, has already demonstrated its importance in the world of today. It is
used in surgery, in home-devices, in industrial plant. However, the term has a very broad
range of meaning and thus dealing with it could be misleading. °Robot° is a neologism
derived from Czech noun "robota" meaning "labour". Contrary to the popular opinion, it
was not originated by Karel Capek, the author of RUR, because it was originated by Josef
Capek, Karel’s older brother (a painter and writer). However, the term was but first
popularized by) Karel, in the novel RUR, published in 1920: in it, robots revolt against their
human masters.
As said, we know that robots are present in today’s life. But the way they work is well
defined, with absence (or a very little) intelligence. Indeed, it has not yet proven their ability
to work in the dynamically evolving battlefield. US troops have used a remotely piloted
helicopter in Afghanistan since 2011. The K-MAX unmanned helicopter was deployed to
haul cargo in and out warzones. It allowed US forces to cut ground convoys that were
vulnerable to roadside bombs. Yet it relies on operators to remotely control the aircraft,
needing a trained pilot and a communication link able to transfer big amount of data
(instruments, sensors, commands, etc.). Furthermore, there are many taxonomies for
robots: control taxonomy (Pre-programmed, Remotely-controlled, Supervised
autonomous, Autonomous), operational medium taxonomy (Space, Air, Ground, Sea,
Hybrid), functional taxonomy (Military, Industrial, Household, Commercial, etc).
Therefore, it has been decided to refer to “advanced robotics” meaning that in the future
more intelligence will give autonomy to perform tasks, adapting themselves to the
changing environment in a crosscutting way: space, air, ground, sea, etc.; as well as in
military, industrial, etc..
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The emerging robot is a machine with sensors36, processors, and effectors37 able to
perceive the environment, have situational awareness, make appropriate decisions, and
act upon the environment. It is also able to interact with human being with various
human/machine interfaces: displays, telepresence, and virtual reality. The performance of
each of this part and of the whole system, in a holistic way, will improve in the future
dramatically. From the military perspective, it is strictly connected with the following
elements:
• They can operate in very risky environment (hot, hazardous, dirty, dangerous)
without the limitations of protective garments, which limit manned efficiency and
effectiveness (see fig. 17);
• They have higher performance, with regards to manoeuvrability (faster, higher
acceleration), to response time (pre-positioning), to psychologically vulnerability (not
deterred by near misses), to long standing operations;
• They are ideal for the increasing lethality of warfare (available for each kind of
mission, without any risk of casualties or POWs); they can be used in suicide mission
and furthermore, they can provide a first response answer to new threats, made of
disruptive, transformative maybe unknown technology;
• They are flexible and with low signature, to counter terrorist, insurgent, as well as the
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (dirty nuclear bombs, CBR);
• They are a solution for the increasing personnel costs and the changing
demographics of the western countries.
36 Active and passive optical and ladar vision, acoustic, ultrasonic, RF, microwave, touch, etc. 37 Propellers, wheels, tracks, legs, hybrids, hands, tools, etc
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Figure 17. The robots do not have the limitations of protective garments
In fact, the use of drones (a kind of robot, remotely piloted) is already attractive in many
ways: compared with satellite imagery, it is much cheaper and offers higher resolution; it is
definitely “ready on call“; because it is taken under the clouds, it is unobstructed and
available anytime. From the military perspective, they can provide tasks like patrolling or
search. Drones can yield information useful to gain a clearer assessment of the forces in
the field (especially if done with multiple drones at the same time, maybe operating in
swarm): first if equipped with different sensors, they can provide a multispectral analysis of
an area; second, contemporary real-time different perspective give a thorough spatial
knowledge; third, a sequence of imagery of the same space in different moment, can
contribute not only in delineating possible risk, but also in understanding the past facts, in
a forensic way38.
It is very interesting the fact that the “cheap” version of the drones can have a role in the
civilian world. Indeed, this low-altitude view (from a few meters above the plants to around
100 meters) gives a perspective that farmers have rarely had before39. It is also much
cheaper than crop imaging with a manned aircraft. The advent for civilian purpose of
38 When planning a retaliation operation, it is of paramount importance the evidence of the responsible. 39 Drones can provide farmers with basically three types of detailed views: • Seeing a crop from the air can reveal patterns that expose everything from irrigation problems to soil variation and
even pest and fungal infestations that are not apparent at ground level. • Airborne cameras can take multispectral images, capturing data from the infrared as well as the visual spectrum,
which can be combined to create a view of the crop that highlights differences between healthy and distressed plants.
• A drone can survey a crop every week, every day, or even every hour; if combined they can create a time-series animation, showing changes in the crop, revealing trouble spots or opportunities for better crop management.
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drones small, cheap, and easy to use is due largely to remarkable advances in technology:
tiny MEMS sensors (accelerometers, gyros, magnetometers, and often pressure sensors),
small GPS modules, incredibly powerful processors, and a range of digital radios. All those
components are now getting better and cheaper at an unprecedented rate, thanks to their
use in smartphones and the extraordinary economies of scale of that industry. At the heart
of a drone, the autopilot runs specialized software, often open-source programs, rather
than costly code from the aerospace industry. Thus, this is an example of the synergies
between military research and civilian research, which can provide benefits for both
communities.
The future will be a drone-robot suited to handle a challenging, dynamic environment, with
a “thin” communication link (where-to-go / what-to-do / restriction / etc.). For this purpose,
many technological families have to be addressed: sensors, microelectronics (as hardware
for an artificial intelligence) as well as algorithm (for data fusion, decision making, own
position and orientation, etc.). In turn, the military and security uses of robotics and
“unmanned“ or “uninhabited“ (and sometimes “remotely piloted“) vehicles in a number of
relevant conflict environments , raise issues of law and ethics that bear significantly on
both foreign and domestic policy initiatives. The use of autonomous unmanned platforms
in combat and low-intensity international conflict, but also the increased domestic uses of
both remotely controlled and fully autonomous unmanned aerial, maritime, and ground
systems for immigration control, border surveillance, drug interdiction, and domestic law
enforcement, have produced an emerging debate concerning “robot morality“ and
computational models of moral cognition. An unmanned platform fulfils the demands of law
and morality (and may therefore be permissibly deployed) when it can be shown to comply
with legal and moral requirements or constraints as well or better than a human under
similar circumstances. Some scientist observes that this principle may also serve to
generate a technological obligation to move forward with the development and use of
robotic technology that would render war itself, and the conduct of armed hostilities, less
destructive, risky, and indiscriminate
In a more sophisticated way of looking at the nature as a source of inspiration, researchers
are studying swarms of robot, usually of small size. The systems are elegantly simple and
yet, in large numbers, accomplish the seemingly impossible. At some level, you no longer
even see the individuals; you just see the collective as an entity to itself: whether you think
of cells or insects or animals – that together accomplish a single task that is a magnitude
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beyond the scale of any individual. In this case, everything is/will be underpinned by the
collective artificial intelligence.
However, while a combat robot could and should be frightening, a rescue robot should be
not creepy. It should be more user-friendly, incorporating lessons learned from studies of
how humans interact with technology and from the neurocognitive sciences: despite what
most people know intellectually, they still often automatically treat computers and other
devices like human being. Because we have only one “social brain” and we use it with
human as well as with machines. It has to be considered the fact that people stuck for ours
are even psychologically in a more dangerous situation than people in a laboratory. From
this perspective, the presence of an unfriendly robot could create a psychological break-
down, whatever the robot does. Rescue robots have been used for more than a decade:
the earthquake in Kobe (Japan) created a great interest in rescue robots. But many
aspects are not yet fully developed: materials, energy and power, autonomous decision
making, user-friendly behaviour. Robots must be programmed to pick up on human cues
and respond appropriately, just as humans do with other humans.40 And, like human do,
adapt their movement to the situation. In an emergency room, doctors move quickly, but
not insanely fast; they do not jaunt nor run at a frantic speed: they adapt the velocity to the
situation of the moment. However, the man-machine interrelations, is not the only
challenge present at the moment. For example, firefighters are tasked with conducting
search and rescue operations at incidents ranging from minor smoke conditions to multi-
agency disasters. In each instance, a rapid risk assessment must be conducted based on
preliminary dispatch information. Small, lightweight “man portable“ robots are a natural fit
for gaining improved situational awareness, yet few have been employed for this
application. Between the others (high temperature, energy consumption, etc.) the
problems encountered in using wireless robots in urban environments are among the
primary reasons.
A very different way to approach the robotics is the one related to space activities.
Typically all the scenario destinations’ missions are analysed and characterized in terms of
strategies, architectures and needed building blocks. Then specific analyses concerning
the key technologies to accomplish those missions are performed, taking into account that
40 It is of interest a lesson learned many years ago when a German car company introduced its early navigation system featuring a female voice. Ultimately, the system was recalled, because German male drivers did not appreciate to take directions from a woman.
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a mission can be accomplished with different solutions. Looking, in this field, at the Mars
missions, surf zone environments represent an extreme challenge to robot operation. A
robot that autonomously navigates rocky terrain, constantly-changing underwater currents,
hard packed moist sand and loose dry sand characterizing this environment, would have
significant utility in a range of defence and civilian missions. The study of animal
locomotion mechanisms can elucidate specific movement principles that can be applied to
address these demands; but not only: a combination of artificial solution (a wheel) and
natural solutions (leg) have been tested, with legs which can curve and become wheels.
With the increase of the loaded weight that a soldier carries, the integration of robotics will
be a significant point of interest to the Army.
Summarizing, the possible use of robotics will be:
• In helping troops in heavy logistic tasks (haul cargo)
• In search and rescue operations
• In patrolling
• In combat operations, if not complicated nor dynamically changing
To achieve these results, from the technological point of view, many area of interest will be
addressed; the most important are:
• Artificial Intelligence (AI);
• Human-machine interaction, including ethical and legal analysis;
• Use of new materials (lighter but stronger) and higher efficient energy management.
AI is one of the newest fields in science and engineering. Work started in earnest soon
after World War II, and the name itself was coined in 1956. While a student in physics
might feel that all the good ideas have already been taken (by Galileo, Newton, Einstein,
and the rest), AI, on the other hand, still is mostly unidentified. Indeed, even the definition
of AI creates difficulties: basically because it could be closer to human mind (human
behaviour) or to an ideal response, given what it is known. AI is based on: mathematics
(logic, computation, theory of probability, payoff maximization, etc.), on neuroscience
(human brain study), psychology (animal and human thinking study), linguistic (connection
between language and thinking), control theory and cybernetics, etc. It is a very complex
area, in a continuous evolution. For example, looking at computer science, throughout the
60-year history of it, the emphasis has been on the algorithm as the main subject of study.
But some recent work in Al suggests that for many problems, it makes more sense to
worry about the data. However, it is more plausible that in the future the pendulum will
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oscillate again towards the algorithm. Anyway, we must bear in mind that AI will work in a
multi-agent environments, in which each agent needs to consider the actions of other
agents and how they affect its own welfare: the warfare is in itself a competitive
environment!
The AI will be a pillar of the future advanced robotic systems, but it will be present also in
in other important systems, like the operation planning / decision support systems.
Unlike during the Cold War, when advanced technologies (such as missiles, guided
munitions, computer networking, satellites, global positioning and stealth) stemmed largely
from government-directed research and development strategies, the movement toward the
Robotic Age is driven by companies focused on producing consumer goods and business-
to-business services. They are pressing many other key enabling technologies, such as
advanced computing and “big data,“ autonomy, artificial intelligence, miniaturization. Thus,
again, from the military perspective, it is very important the presence of skilled people in
the military context.
A warfare regime based on unmanned and autonomous systems has the potential to
change the core concepts of defence strategy (including deterrence, reassurance,
dissuasion and coercion). Even fundamental military concepts such as the interplay of
range, speed and mass will be greatly affected by a shift toward unmanned and
autonomous systems.
E. Weapons and sensors
Military research is seeking ways to improve situational awareness, mobility, lethality and
the maintainability and effectiveness of systems. Thus, there is a high attention to sensors
and to weapons.
Accurate intelligence about the enemy always tops the military’s wish list and success in
future conflicts will require technologies that can perform persistent surveillance to help
identify enemies and friendly forces.
Advanced sensors will help meet future challenges, through the improvement of the single
sensor performance and through the integration of different kind of sensors, combining
their response in a data-fusion function, done at sensor level. It will ensure better
performance (accuracy, distance, etc.) and better result in any environment such as fog,
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snow or sand. They will be the actual type of sensors (radar, infrared, etc.), plus the type
now under study (Terahertz, etc.). But it has to be considered the fact that, the farther in
the future, the less forecast success probability. Once more, it is important to rely on
knowledge, provided from experts of the state of the art. Sensors will be present in the
structure of future systems, for the mechanical damage assessment. But they will be as
well to better assess their status. By understanding what they have experienced, we can
determine what capacity they have going forward or whether they have been degraded.
Finally, sensors embedded in the structures, can enable better power management by
providing information on the need of more power in a particular sub-system and less in
another.
Taking a closer look to electro-optical/infrared sensor, it appears clear how Navy and Army
face different challenges and why they use and will use in the future, different types of
sensors. It explains the reason why the research and development activities are done in
cooperation between joint and single service effort. Indeed, the Army is predominantly on
land with an atmosphere that can beclouded by dust, smoke, and other obscurants, and
with most engagement distances defined by the horizon and by terrain configuration.
Those factors drive the Army to use primarily long wave infrared (LWIR) sensors that
enable them to see through smoke, handle hot burning targets without saturating, slew
around quickly without motion blur, and see in extremely cold environments without being
photon starved. Current Army advanced sensors are multi-wavelength incorporating
shorter wavelengths for improved resolution and improved autonomous operation. The
Navy, on the other hand, operates in a maritime environment with less loss in the mid-
wave infrared (MWIR) band, than in the LWIR band. Also, the Navy generally has much
longer engagement distances than the Army. All imaging sensors, whatever the
wavelength, strike a balance between the parameters of the area that is imaged, the
spatial resolution in the image, how often the area is imaged, and multi-wavelength
operation. The trade-off amongst these parameters naturally varies with the mission and
the operating environment. However it has to be considered that the future of EO/IR
Technology have to be examined in three areas: sensors for ships and submarines,
sensors for aviation (including high altitude / space platform), and sensors for the Landing
Force/Army. It will shape the type of wavelength / spectrum considered and thus the type
of converter to electric signal; but also the algorithm for extracting information from the row
signal. It has also to be considered that the final use (maritime, air, space, land) will impact
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on the environmental limitations and from other type of requirements (weight, power
consumption, etc.). The technologies underpinning the future electro-optical systems are,
basically, the following but, as said, they have to be considered both in a general approach
(join) and in a single service approach (Navy – Army – Air Force) as well: automation and
controls, optics, chemical and physical knowledge of the interaction between light and
matter, atmosphere analysis, mathematics and algorithm studies.
In the field of weapons, the laser is the most promising solution for future air defence
systems. From the user point of view, there are many benefits: it can be fired by one
operator using a video game-like console (with a small training cost); it will cost some Euro
for each shot, rather than costly munitions (it is more important when facing inexpensive
threats; it can be modulated, in terms of power, giving the possibility to use it in a not-lethal
way; etc. In operations where it has to be detected terrorist activity and to respond to crisis
situations in the wake of an attack, the military forces will use nonlethal tactics and devices
to subdue rioting crowds. Many solutions are under study, but the most useful nonlethal
technologies to modern forces seem to be the directed energy weapons (laser or
electromagnetic waves) that allow troops to impact adversaries in various settings,
including at sea. Lasers could also give a visual jam from long distances, disorienting
adversaries. The glare from the beam should be intense enough to make it impossible to
aim weapons In fact; the only issue comes from technology, which is not yet mature
enough to provide this type of weapon. Many progress have been made in the recent past,
also at devices level (for example the Italian MoD financed studies from SME as well from
CNR-ISTEC, to work on ceramics emitters). But the path is still not easy, basically
because it will be a radical innovation which request continuous investments for a decade
or more; and that is uneasy to achieve in the current financial situation. However if in the
USA some test have been already successfully completed41. It is also in competition with
other kind of “smart” solution, like guided munitions. This kind of innovation is looking at
traditional warfare, improved in order to reduce collateral damages. It is an incremental
41 Boeing is reported to have designed and tested a 10kW, solid-state laser system for the US Army. The truck, completed with the laser system weighs about 17t, but it includes the hardware to track incoming shells and, once the laser is locked-on, the high-power laser incinerates the target. It is designated to defend against rockets, artillery, mortars, and unmanned aerial threats. The Navy has tested similar equipment against small vessels, as well as Air Force tested an airborne version of a laser weapon to destroy ballistic missiles. As of 2013 studies are underway to mount laser anti-missile defences on UCAVs that could fly above the altitude limits of the converted jetliner.
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innovation while the laser weapon will be a radical innovation. Consequently, the guided
munitions will be ready for use in the next future (some is already available) and the laser
guns will be ready not earlier than a decade from now. But, probably the two solutions will
be both present for a long period of time: the laser works in line-of-sight and the guided
munitions can be delivered well beyond the horizon; the laser would be more effective
against flying object, whereas the guided munitions are more effective against terrestrial
targets. Yet laser weapon system include advantages like: immediate effect on target; low
optical detectability; low costs for logistics/maintenance and very low costs per operation;
scalable effects on target / possibility to escalate, very precise, extremely selective; no
collateral damage caused by ammunition; and no procurement, storage or transport of
ammunition. The Italian MoD is financing the CNR-ISTEC and Elettronica SpA as well on
the lasers field. But while Elettronica SpA is focusing on the modulation of (relatively) low-
power lasers to counteract missile with heat search sensors, the CNR is working on device
able to produce high power lasers. This kind of lasers could become in the future cost
effective missile and rockets defence weapons. Indeed as all-electric weapons, lasers will
have deep magazines, and their precise, rapid delivery of energy onto targets will make
them advantageous over kinetic weapons in many instances. The technologies
underpinning the lasers are, basically, the following: automation and controls, power
production, optics, chemical and physical knowledge of the interaction between light and
matter, atmosphere analysis. In particular:
• power supply, because otherwise lasers can be installed only on large ships, large
aircraft and as ground based point defence of locations with large power sources;
• high efficiency laser generators.
Still in that field of weapons, in order to throw projectiles, a new type of gun is under study:
the railgun. It will use electromagnetic force to send a missile at 7-8 times the speed of
sound. When it hits its target, the projectile does its damage with sheer speed. It cannot
have an explosive warhead, reducing the problems of the storage on board: in this
situation there will be no explosive on board: nor for the shell, neither for the propulsion of
it. But it has to be considered that at the moment there are many challenges to face. In
particular, the electromagnetic compatibility on board of a platform heavily depends on
communications and information. Furthermore, the metallurgical technologies will be
addressed, in order to avoid anomalies erosion of the rails.
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As said, nonlethal weapons will be also studied. The war in Iraq and Afghanistan, where it
can be very difficult for troops to distinguish between enemy combatants and the local
population, has highlighted the need for more nonlethal weapons. Troops could use these
tools to temporarily incapacitate adversaries or their equipment without harming nearby
civilians or, at least, without killing them. They also need devices that work at long
distances to halt unknown personnel or vehicles until they can determine if they are a
threat. Nonlethal weapons today can range from rubber bullets and pepper spray to lasers,
high-powered speakers and lights that cause disorientation. These weapons will become
even more important to a military that has taken on roles away from battlefields, providing
humanitarian assistance or support to civilian agencies, as well as conducting emergency
evacuations, crowd control and other peacekeeping missions. In this area, it will be of
paramount importance the cooperation between scientists coming from the classical
technological fields (mechanical, electronic, etc) with scientists coming from other fields
(medicine, psychology, anthropology, etc.).
Finally, from a general perspective, it has to be considered the rising importance of the use
of the electromagnetic spectrum: meaning that through it we achieve the interconnection
between sensors and systems. Both at sensors level, and at higher level as well. It
produces the basis for data fusion and for bringing into play autonomous agents. They will:
• Operate as single units, but also in homogeneous or heterogeneous groups i.e. mixing
aerial vehicles with fix, rotary wings (or tilt-rotor), unmanned surface vehicles (USV),
unmanned underwater vehicles (UUV), unmanned ground vehicles (UGV) with
different types of sensor and communication suites on board, customized according to
operational and environmental needs.
• Be interconnected with high communication performance, in order to exchange
information among themselves and with the system's ground segment
• Be able to create interoperable “federations” integrated in networking infrastructure of
authorities and potentially in general “cloud” infrastructure.
Furthermore, civil and military uses of communications are increasingly intertwined: it
appears inevitable that both military and non-state groups will attack civilian infrastructure
to deny it to their opponents. By the way, for example, satellite-based systems such as
GPS have been jammed as an exercise; and there is some discussion of the systemic
vulnerabilities that result from overreliance on it.
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All rely on the electromagnetic spectrum. In fact, already now a typical command and
control structure is made up of various tactical and strategic radio networks that support
data, voice, and images, and operate over point-to-point links and broadcast. Without
situational awareness and the means to direct forces, the commander is likely to be
ineffective. Thus the Electronic warfare, which is the struggle for control of the
electromagnetic spectrum — to assure that friendly forces can use the spectrum to their
full potential in wartime, while denying that use to enemies, is today and will be in the
future as well of paramount importance, because it essentially involves control of the
electromagnetic spectrum used by satellites, radar, radios, drones and any mobile or
wireless device. There are three basic forms of dealing with it:
• Electronic Support (ES), the detection, localization and identification of hostile emitters
to understand an adversary’s use of the spectrum.
• Electronic Protection (EP), the defensive measures taken to guard equipment against
such attacks.
• Electronic Attack (EA) is the offensive use of electromagnetic energy to deny,
degrade, or disrupt enemy capabilities.
In all above mentioned forms, research will play a central role both in hardware and in
software developments, including the study of mathematical algorithms for extracting
signal from a noisy environment.
F. Logistics
Logistic will be definitely modified from the Additive manufacturing.
Additive manufacturing (because it builds an object by adding ultrathin layers of material
one by one) – another name for 3D printing – is currently under study. Many spare parts
can be thought as created on demand and will be heavily driven from the civilian market42.
Another technology under the eyes of the researcher is the 4D printing, in which the
configuration of internal properties of a 3D-printed part changes over time, in response to
environmental factors such as being exposed to light, water or extreme temperatures. The
42 Both to reduce manufacturing time and cost (like in the In healthcare where additive manufacturing can be used to print transducers, the expensive ceramic probes used in ultrasound machines.) and in delivering time and cost (reduced by the possibility to produce on demand, on time, on site)
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purpose is, for example, to have fabric that respond to light by changing its colour and to
temperature by altering its permeability, and even to an external force by hardening its
structure.
Taking a closer look to the 3D printing, it is clearly not new, but recent advances are
dramatically reshaping the way products are made. Equipment is becoming more precise,
faster and less expensive. New materials include metals, composites, high-performance
plastics and even human tissue. The amount of knowledge being created every day is
growing rapidly. They will definitely play an important role in the future expeditionary
warfare. Expeditionary supply chain or logistics refers to the activities and capabilities
needed to provide operational units in an expeditionary environment with services and
supplies such as fuel, food, water, ammunition, etc. An expeditionary supply chain also
includes responsibilities such as establishment of ports of embarkation and debarkation,
container management, financial management, and inventory and distribution
management.
Aviation industries are already producing parts of engines by printing the part with lasers
rather than casting and welding the metal. Additive manufacturing is already used to make
some niche items, such as medical implants, and to produce plastic prototypes for
engineers and designers. But the decision to mass-produce a critical metal-alloy part to be
used in thousands of jet engines is a significant milestone for the technology. And while 3-
D printing for consumers and small entrepreneurs has received a great deal of publicity, it
is in manufacturing where the technology could have its most significant commercial
impact. The additive process has been chosen both for the flexibility of it (totally computer
controlled) and because it uses less material than conventional techniques. That reduces
production costs and, because it makes the parts lighter, yields significant fuel savings for
airlines. Conventional techniques would require welding many small pieces together, a
labour-intensive process in which a high percentage of the material ends up being
scrapped. Instead, the part can be built from a bed of special material (for example, cobalt-
chromium) powder. Today, a computer-controlled laser shoots pinpoint beams onto the
bed to melt the metal alloy in the desired areas, creating 20 micrometre thick layers one by
one. The process is a faster way to make complex shapes because the machines can run
around the clock. And additive manufacturing in general conserves material because the
printer can handle shapes that eliminate unnecessary bulk and create them without the
typical waste. Additive manufacturing machines work directly from a computer model, so
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people can devise completely new shapes without regard for existing manufacturing
limitations. Engineers are already exploring how to use additive manufacturing with a wider
range of metal alloys, including some materials specifically designed for 3-D printing:
titanium, aluminium, and nickel-chromium alloys. A single part could be made of multiple
alloys, letting designers tailor its material characteristics in a way that’s not possible with
casting. A blade for an engine or turbine, for example, could be made with different
materials so that one end is optimized for strength and the other for heat resistance.
From the military perspective, additive manufacturing will give the possibility of realize
whole basis with a considerable reduction of cost and time and, of course, to manufacture
spare parts on site, on demand, and on time. Considering the fact that the area will be
dramatically addressed from the civilian market, there will be a great possibility of
interaction with it, including the use of devices abroad owned from civilian entities: they will
be adapted to produce military goods by changing the software.
G. Power and Energy
Electronic devices give to western troops a distinct advantage over enemies. But the
batteries to power them add weight that can slow down and potentially injure troops. But,
even looking at unmanned systems (aerial, surface, underwater, etc.), the state of practice
power systems are heavy, bulky, not efficient enough, and cannot function properly in
some extreme environments. The major power subsystems are:
• Power Generation/ Conversion,
• Energy Storage,
• Power Management and Distribution
Power generation/conversion subsystems include solar cells, while energy subsystems
include batteries, regenerative fuel cells and capacitors. Power Management and
Distribution includes power distribution and transmission, regulation, load management
and control (including the graceful degradation).
Looking at the dismounted soldiers, they must carry around a heavy amount of equipment
that includes, among other things, communication devices, weapons, ammunition and
batteries. At the moment, batteries needed to power radios and other electronic gadgets
account for a fifth of the total weight carried by soldiers in theatre. An effort will be done, in
standardizing the batteries, but in a more technological innovation way, it has been already
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studied the possibility to look a t different sources of power. For instance, the movement of
the soldier is a possible starting point to have electrical energy production. Of course it has
to be as little human-energy consuming as possible. One solution under study is to use the
energy loss when walking. As a human walks, the foot is lifted then the sole pressed to the
ground, energy is exerted through muscle contraction and expelled as heat from the sole.
This energy can be gathered for the batteries. The wireless support from a vehicle is
another solution under study. As well as the leaf movement or the sea wave motion, can
be used to feed an energy harvesting subsystem43. These solutions require different skills:
chemical, physical, mathematical (for modelling and simulating), etc.
Examining the unmanned systems and particularly with a “close” future perspective,
biofuel are under investigation. At the moment oil is still cheaper, but as soon as it will
have a comparable price, the strategic dependence from oil producer will turn the balance
in favour of the biofuel.
An advance could come from the Power Management and Distribution subsystem. There
the micro grid will provide the main contribution. The big effort predicted in the civilian
market will produce a spin-off in the military systems, improving the already existing
military approach: ships and large aircraft have been using some kind of micro grids for
decades, because power delivery is a mission-critical function, without which most combat
platforms would fail. Micro grids are small grids, which are packed with technology. They
will provide small groups of consumers with reliable and low-cost power. It is an exciting
area, and some experts define them as disruptive to utilities as Microsoft was to computing
or cell-phones were to the old telephone system. The innovation coming from the civilian
market could be applied for large bases, as well as for improving part of the Power
Management and Distribution subsystem of the troops, of ships, of planes, etc
One trend that keeps popping up is direct current, commonly known as DC. DC is
ubiquitous. For example, solar panels produce only DC power. LED lamps work best with
DC. Many electronic circuits require DC power. If a micro grid has solar panels and DC
loads attached, it might make sense to create a DC backbone, instead of using the
common AC solution. In other words, micro grid can be adapted from every point of view
to optimise energy generation, storage and distribution: voltage, frequency, etc.
43 Energy harvesting is also known as power harvesting or energy scavenging and defined as obtaining power from sources that are available or used for other purposes.
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Depending on the power levels and the duration of use, the power system of choice will
vary, thus requiring a complex suite of technology to be developed or adopted to support
military‘s wide ranging needs. Once more, the knowledge is very important in
understanding what comes from outside the Italian MoD. For example, in Italy is not
allowed the use of nuclear power. However, a private company called Widetronix has built
a nuclear power plant that operates on a tiny semiconductor chip. These solid-state
batteries, called beta-voltaic, harness the energy of decaying radioactive material
embedded on a proprietary semiconductor chip. Power generated from these devices lasts
from days to decades, and it is unaffected by environmental factors. The producers claim
that since these chips emit only beta particles (electrons), they do not present any nuclear
safety concerns. Are they right? The answer can come only from an expert, with the
knowledge in the field and loyal to the Italian government.
H. The post-Digital Innovation Era
The example of electronic games (software first, then hardware, then software again44)
illustrates how the digital revolution and the era after can take different paths from those
identified to date. In fact it is a valid consideration in every field: technological solutions
can also resurface after years remained "dormant". But in the digital domain this is
particularly true for his tumultuous evolution.
There is a great expectation for future improvements of machines and computers, from a
technical point of view. However it’s also important to take a closer look on how machines
and computers are advancing at an exponential rate and what this means for society and
the western economies. It is relevant not just for business, but also for government,
workers, and families. Thus, it can shape the future but also be shaped by certain aspects
of society. In relation to this point, a primary issue to be considered as relative would be
pollution and how this influences our decisions as a society.
We are in an era of wondrous new inventions, ideas, and achievements, that comes
coupled with a drastic reorganization of work, finance, and society. Self-driving cars are
44 Video games were born in the early '60s, as leisure for the researchers involved with the first computers, like the PDP-1. However the commercial success came only transferring the idea to the most common (at the time) analogue systems, in the 70s. After, they returned to being a software product. (Isaacson 2014)
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very interesting, but what impact will this have on jobs (i.e.: taxi drivers and long-haul
truckers)?
A similar situation occurred during the 1920s, when the cinemas moved from video to
video and audio. In a very short time, all of the workers in this particular sector had to
rearrange their lives: piano men and orchestra found themselves jobless within 2 years.
The innovation in the cinemas was an unstoppable event, and resulted in certain groups
within society having to change their livelihood.
Coming back to now, unbelievable advances in some field, like artificial intelligence and
big data, will be upon us almost overnight. Along with these developments comes the
messy chaos that accompanies an economic and societal upheaval that will, some experts
believe, outstrip even the Industrial Revolution in its impact on global society. The
Industrial Revolution of the 18th century is not just the story of steam power, but steam
started it all. More than anything else, it allowed us to overcome the limitations of muscle
power, human and animal, and generate massive amounts of useful energy at will. This
led to factories and mass production, to railways and mass transportation. It led, in other
words, to modern life and for the first time our progress was driven primarily by
technological innovation. The actual progress is also driven from technological innovation:
computers and other digital advances are doing for mental power—the ability to use our
brains to understand and shape our environments—what the steam engine and its
descendants did for muscle power. It could have good or bad outcome. Some experts
believe that the outcome will be automatically good; some do not. Our point is that at least
we have to be aware of the process going on, staring it, if possible and if necessary, in
order to protect Italian citizens and their freedom.
A particular aspect of the digital innovation is the so called “Internet of things“. The
increasing number of simple objects connected is growing and researchers thing that it will
exceed PCs and smartphones in less than a decade, as shown in the figure 18.
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Figure 18. Estimation of the number of PCs, smartphones and things connected to the Internet (billions)
There is something important that can happen when connecting large numbers of things
that are fairly limited. For example, one single dumb chip in each cash register in a store,
linked into a swarm, produces something more than dumb: it is part of real-time buying
patterns that can manage inventory. Similarly, one (dumb) chip that already regulate the
guts of an automobile engine, if put in communication with a central computer, becomes
part of a system that knows the engine’s performance and can smartly cut expensive road
repairs. In the military logistic, this type of information can give better efficiency (less
expensive and/or with a faster response) and more capable in operation.
Any network has two ingredients: nodes and connections. In the grand network we are
now assembling, the size of the nodes is shrinking while the quantity and quality of the
connections are exploding. These two physical realms, the shrinking microcosm of silicon
and the exploding telecoms of connections, form by the way the matrix through which the
new economy of ideas flows and the technological research runs faster.
Anyway, a net has two aspects. First, it is an opportunity, which let us to have something
smart and useful. Second, it has weaknesses, in term of possible risk.
In most industries, digital technologies are transforming physical businesses rather than
annihilating them. Indeed, the fusion of digital and physical innovations, the “digital”45
45 “Digital” is a term used in the management field, with focus on the commerce and on economy, like Harvard Business Review has done
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smartphones
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creates opportunities that most businesses have barely begun to tap. Furthermore it can
be applied also in different context, like the battlefield. As the embedded world meets the
Internet world there will be an increasing number of interacting systems with strong
connectivity utilised in both society and in industry.
The Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), as depicted in figure 19, are integrations of
computation, networking, and physical processes. Embedded computers and networks
monitor and control the physical processes, usually with feedback loops where physical
processes affect computations and vice versa. The economic and societal potential of
such systems is vastly greater than what has been realized, and major investments are
being made worldwide to develop the technology. There are considerable challenges,
particularly because the physical components of such systems introduce safety and
reliability requirements qualitatively different from those in general-purpose computing.
Moreover, the standard abstractions used in computing do not fit the physical parts of the
system well: while the computer world is basically digital while the physical world is mainly
analogical (at least at the dimension of military interest).
Applications of CPS arguably have the potential to dwarf the 20th century IT revolution.
They include defence systems. But also civilian system like: high confidence medical
devices and systems, assisted living, traffic control and safety, advanced automotive
systems, process control, energy conservation, environmental control, avionics,
instrumentation, critical infrastructure control (electric power, water resources, and
communications systems for example), distributed robotics (telepresence, telemedicine),
manufacturing, and smart structures. It is easy to envision new capabilities, such as
distributed micro power generation coupled into the power grid, where timing precision and
security issues loom large. Thus the issue is related to the defence systems directly and
indirectly, considering the fact that actually the defence system are often connected to
civilian systems and this situation will we more pervasive in the future.
Transportation systems could benefit considerably from better embedded intelligence in
vehicles, which could improve safety and efficiency. Indeed, networked autonomous
vehicles could dramatically enhance the effectiveness of our military and could offer
substantially more effective disaster recovery techniques. Networked building control
systems (such as HVAC and lighting) could significantly improve energy efficiency and
demand variability, reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and our greenhouse gas
emissions. In communications, cognitive radio could benefit enormously from distributed
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consensus about available bandwidth and from distributed control technologies. Large
scale services systems leveraging RFID (radio-frequency identification) and other
technologies for tracking of goods and services could acquire the nature of distributed real-
time control systems. Distributed real-time games that integrate sensors and actuators
could change the (relatively passive) nature of on-line social interactions. The positive
economic impact of any one of these applications areas would be enormous as well as the
opportunity given to the military activities. At the same time, they pose threats.
Figure 19. The Cyber-Physical System concept.
In a very simple way, data are not only great for business and for intelligence, but also
exceedingly attractive to hackers. Recent months have shown that even the largest
companies are vulnerable. While the military nets are stronger and better protected, still
they are vulnerable and in absence of releasable information of their failures against
hacker, it is useful to look at this kind of information coming from industry. However, IT
security researchers have difficulty characterizing the threat faced by large companies
today. Industry has led to disparate estimates about the costs of cyberattacks. One
prominent security researcher at Cisco estimated that corporate losses totalled $560
million in 2009. Others say the yearly cost is closer to $1 trillion. Sometimes it is incredible
just how simple a hack can be: Citibank left its credit card customers exposed to a
1001000111001111100001101
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massive a security hole, because a hacker with a legitimate credit card had had simply to
change a few digits in the URL to get complete access to another customer’s information.
Many believe that striking back could be more successful in deterring attacks than just
strengthening the systems designed to shut out attackers. However, what kind of offense
will be technologically possible and, more important, legally allowable is still unclear.46 But
it will be defined not far from today.
One of the main issues of the cyber domain is the fast evolution of the threats. This
situation frustrates often the universities. With the result that many faculty members do not
have real world skills, so they are not teaching how to perform complicated tasks, such as
application on penetration testing, advanced memory forensics or wireless hacker exploit
development. They are more focused on policy. Luckily, it is not entirely this way. The
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia is focused on real world, thanks to the
relationship with the Ministry of Defence and with the Ministry of Internal Affairs, asking for
answer to real problems.
Foreign cyberattacks are reported to stealing priceless intellectual property and crucial
military secrets from companies and from governments around the globe. Negotiations at
political level are not always effective, because the adversary has little interest in cracking
down on hacking. Thus there must be an effort in two main directions: in improving the
defence, raising the cost of the attacks; and in managing the threat of retaliation (as it was
in the nuclear cold war). Both solutions need a strong technological research base. That it
has to be more focused on knowledge and on skills rather than on asset, it is assured from
the high speed of evolution of the cyber domain’s environment.
I. Human science
Healthcare providers know that the vast amounts of data generated by electronic
healthcare represents a rich source of information with great potential for improving patient
care and outcomes, lowering costs, and otherwise shining a light on this national and
global priority.47 In the far future, it’s possible that drug will be fitted taking into account the
DNA of the patient. During the last two years, researchers studied a vaccine based on 46 Fighting Hackers without Sinking to Their Level, MIT Technology Review, July 2012 47 http://www.forbes.com/sites/oracle/2014/03/03/heathcares-next-innovation-the-answer-is-in-the-data/
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DNA rings called plasmids to offer the strongest protection against one of the deadliest
viruses on earth, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes AIDS48. However,
it’s still missing a complete understanding of the Genome and how disease circumvents it.
The interaction with military operations is quite clear: treat and prevent diseases, support
veterans, combat chemical and biological threats (deliberate or unintentional).
Cognitive science has a strongly interdisciplinary: it can be represented as a network of
disciplines and scientific areas that are difficult to precisely define the boundaries. In fact it
includes parts of other domains such as linguistics, philosophy of mind, artificial
intelligence, psychology, neuroscience, anthropology. It was established by the impact that
have the sciences “of the artificial” (cybernetics, information theory, electrical engineering)
on other sciences (psychological, linguistic, philosophical, social); and, more recently, by
the strong evolution and advances in neuroscience. The effort in the cognitive/behaviour
field can be understood in two complementary ways: on one side, in designing a
technology (for targets of any kind) must be taken into account the cognitive and
behavioural compatibility of the individuals, avoiding the introduction of elements of
dissonance or harmful interference to their fundamental interests who wish to preserve
(i.e.,: attention to the impact of technology on the minds and behaviour). On the other side,
to meet their objectives and collective sustainability of various natures (environmental,
economic, and so on) can be important the attention, care and an essential involvement of
cognitive-behavioural aspects in the design of technologies and processes, to be
developed for this purpose (finalize technologies for sustainability objectives involving the
mind and behaviour). As shown by recent studies, the human mind reacts in a predictable
way, within certain limits, and on a statistical basis, to external stimuli. Not only obvious
stimuli, but also stimuli apparently not perceived as such. This feature is the subject of
interest and study by marketing and advertising companies. But not only: through
electronic systems, was successfully tested the use of electrical signals to “mislead“ the
brain, in order to help patients suffering from debilitating vertigo, using signals that trick the
brain to overcome the problems of the disease. Finally, it is not very far away the goal of
using the thought to send information. All these initiatives suggest that the human brain, in
its complexity, will offer numerous technological opportunities in the future. And, on the
48 http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dna-drugs-come-of-age/
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other hand, from the military point of view, it will be important to stay up to date on the
matter: first, because it will allow a better understanding of how to design our own future
weapons and how to defend ourselves from enemy threats; second, because they allow to
better plan the missions and operations, knowing how they would be perceived by our
opponents. Once again, while in the short-term study of the technologies can be listed
(medicine, psychology, sociology, electronics, etc.), in the long run we can only rely on the
technical expertise, knowledge of technological experts we can trust.
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Costruire una solida base tecnologica e mantenerla nel tempo, adeguandola all’evoluzione scientifica, non è facile: richiede attenzione ed impegno, sia nei riguardi delle basi teoriche scientifiche e nella loro comprensione, sia nello sviluppo tecnologico in se stesso. Deve interessare molti attori e considerare vari momenti (genesi, maturazione, obsolescenza) in un “unicum” sinergico estremamente importante per i militari. Infatti, la tecnologia non è né buona né cattiva, in sé. E’ il suo uso che può determinare minacce e opportunità, le quali possono provenire da un qualunque attore operante nell’arena tecnologica.
To build a solid technology base and maintain it over time, adapting to scientific evolution, it is not easy: it requires attention and commitment, both in respect of the scientific theoretical basis and in their understanding, as well in technological development in itself. It must involve many players and must consider various moments (genesis, maturation, obsolescence) in a "unique" synergistic, extremely important for the military. In fact, technology is neither good nor bad in itself. And it is its use that can determine threats and opportunities, which can come from any player working in the technological arena.
A. Science and Technology
The process of science is a way of building knowledge, constructing new ideas that can
illuminate physical phenomena. Those ideas are inherently tentative, but can rely on solid
background knowledge and benefit from the mathematical models. As they cycle through
the process of science again and again and are tested and retested in different ways, they
become laws. Furthermore, through this same iterative process, ideas are modified,
expanded, and combined into more powerful explanations.
Conclusions 5
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And that expanding knowledgebase is useful for civilian applications and for military
applications as well: from designing bridges, to slowing climate change, to increase the
communication capacities, to protect from missiles. Scientific knowledge allows us to
develop new technologies, solve practical problems, and make informed decisions — both
individually and collectively. Vice versa, new technologies make possible the test of new
scientific ideas. The process of science is intertwined with new scientific knowledge, which
may lead to new applications. For example, the discovery of the structure of DNA was a
fundamental breakthrough in biology. It formed the underpinnings of research that would
ultimately lead to a wide variety of practical applications, including DNA fingerprinting,
tests for genetic diseases and, in future, design of genetic based drugs. And, new
technological advances may lead to new scientific discoveries. For example, developing
DNA copying and sequencing technologies has led to important breakthroughs in many
areas of biology, especially in the reconstruction of the evolutionary relationships among
organisms and will be in future the way to produce genetic based drugs. From a military
perspective, DNA knowledge is important both in preventing bio-threats and in forensic
analysis and responsibility assessment.
Actual knowledge is based on accepted theories. They have been thoroughly tested, are
supported by multiple evidences, and have proved useful in technological exploitations.
However, science is always a work in progress, and even theories change. The classical
mechanics, which in the 1600s was created from Isaac Newton, constructed a theory that,
with a simple set of mathematical equations, could explain the movement of objects both
in space and on Earth. In the 20th century, special relativity was preferred because it
explained more phenomena: it accounted for what was known about the movement of
large objects and helped explain new observations relating to electricity and magnetism.
Even special relativity was superseded by another theory: General relativity. It helped
explain everything that special relativity did, as well as our observations of gravitational
forces. The next theory shall consider also the interactions between extremely tiny
particles (which the theory of quantum mechanics addresses). All the theories described
above worked and work: classical mechanics, by the way, is still what engineers use to
design airplanes, ships and bridges, since it is so accurate in explaining how large (i.e.,
macroscopic) and slow (i.e., substantially slower than light) objects interact. But, in order to
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understand how matters interact with energy (for example in lasers technologies or in the
next generation of computers) it is important to stay up to date.
B. Synergy
The technologies do not simply shape the society and neither the society writes easily the
course of the technological transformation, since factors, including timing, creativity and
enterprising initiative, intervene in the trial of scientific discovery, technological innovation
and social application, so that the final result depends on a complex interactive standard.
In a synergetic way, education, research, production and use are present in the
technological evolution. While the technologies of the information advance, the gears,
persons and technologies, go altering their objectives and originating an endless cycle of
renewal.
In addition to knowledge investments, knowledge distribution through formal and informal
networks is essential to economic performance and, in particular, to military needs. In both
cases, knowledge is increasingly being codified and transmitted through computer and
communications networks in the emerging “information society”. Also required is tacit
knowledge, including the skills to use and adapt codified knowledge, which underlines the
importance of continuous learning by individuals and organizations. In the knowledge-
based economy, innovation is driven by the interaction of researchers with producers and
with users in the exchange of both codified and tacit knowledge; this interactive model has
replaced the old linear model of innovation. In general, the understanding of what is
happening in the knowledge-based economy is constrained by the extent and quality of
the available knowledge-related indicators: traditional national accounts frameworks are
not offering convincing explanations, basically because there is a lack in the measurement
of immaterial assets. Better indicators are needed of knowledge stocks and flows,
particularly relating to the diffusion of information technologies, including the development
and skilling of human capital.
In any case, the science system, essentially public research laboratories and institutes of
higher education, carries out key functions in the knowledge-based economy, including
knowledge production, transmission and transfer. But the configuration of national
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innovation systems, which consist of the flows and relationships among industry,
government and academia in the development of science and technology, is an important
economic determinant. In Italy, research institutes and academia increasingly have
industrial partners for financial as well as innovative purposes, although it is not easy to
combine this with their essential role in more generic research and education.
C. Military aspects
Though the impact of technology is often clearly positive (e.g., it's hard to argue with the
benefits of a longer life expectation), in some cases the payoffs are less clear. It's
important to remember that science builds knowledge about the world, but that people
decide how that knowledge should be used. For example, science helped us understand
that much of an atom's mass is in its dense nucleus, which stores enormous amounts of
energy that can be released by breaking up the nucleus. That knowledge itself is neutral,
but people have chosen to apply it in energy49, medicine50, defence51. So scientific
knowledge allows new technologies to be built, and those technologies, in turn, impact
society at many levels. For example, the advent of atomic weapons has influenced the
way that World War II ended, its aftermath, and the power plays between nations right up
until today. Thus, understanding (and shaping?) the Science and Technology route is
important for the Defence. Being part of the knowledge will reduce the present and the
future risks for the Nations: which is the mission of the Ministry of Defence.
It is useful both in the symmetrical warfare and in the asymmetrical warfare. Indeed, it
offers tools for reducing risks to our forces and can give them tools to beat the counterpart.
And, in some situation, can provide some relevant intelligence information: it allows to
verify, from a scientific point of view, if the alleged effort done from the counterpart can
49 The understanding of this basic atomic structure has been used as the basis of nuclear power plants, which don’t rely on non-renewable, polluting fossil fuels. 50 The same understanding of the atomic structure has also been used in many modern medical applications: in radiation therapy for cancer and in medical imaging. 51 During World War II, that knowledge also pushed scientists and politicians in to the fact that atomic energy could be used to make weapons. The Cold War was also basically played on the retaliation of the nuclear threat
121
stem in actual result or are just misleading intelligence information: the destruction of the
Peenemunde plant during the Second World War gave an enormous advantage to the
Allies (see Chapter 3); but it was based on a scientific and technological assessment of
the information gathered from the Intelligence Service.
Therefore, it is important, for the Ministry of Defence, to have a scientific and technological
knowledge on the cutting edge. However, it is impossible to have this kind of knowledge
inside the organization of the Ministry of Defence. Thus it fosters research (military
research and dual use as well), in order to achieve the mentioned kind of knowledge, but
also – and more effectively – creating a network of institution and people, with a link based
on mutual trust. In Italy, many universities and the CNR are part of the above mentioned
network. But they are not the only players. Major companies, small and medium
enterprises, other public and private research centres, all play an important role in
supporting the Ministry of Defence in its mission as a “living network” where some new
players come in and some old players go away. But, more important, this type of network
has to be fed: not only in financial terms, but also in terms of strategic vision, of
commitment, of enthusiasm. By the way, many are the interaction between this Italian
defence research network and similar international entities: it is increasing nowadays,
creating thus challenges to the links based on mutual trust. It pushes in the direction of a
mutual trust based on shared values rather than on mutual trust based on fear of possible
retaliation.
Looking on a long term horizon, it is very hard to be successful in predicting the
technological trajectories. The point is that skill and knowledge are of paramount
importance: both in the short term as well as in the long term analysis and assessment.
Meaning that, approaching the time that we now consider “the long term”, skill and
knowledge guarantee a dynamic and successful approach to the analysis and
assessment, because fast reacting and adapting to the emerging ideas and technological
solutions, thus, reducing the risk.
D. Technological Forecast
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What are the future technological trajectories forecasted from the Italian defence research
network? Considering both internal and external factors52, at the moment it seems that
probably they will be the following:
• Innovative Advanced Materials, which can cover a broad area of innovation.
• Advanced Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, including autonomous systems.
• New weapons and sensors, particularly in a holistic approach.
• Logistic, with solutions aimed at a time and cost reduction.
• Power and Energy, as a underpinning elements
• Post-Digital Innovation solutions, looking at the Internet of things and at the Cyber-
Physical Systems
• The Human science approach, as a cross-cutting element and a possible lever.
Finally, policies and strategies need to be periodically updated to track technology
advances and evolving market conditions. It can be done only with a solid base of
knowledge. It calls, therefore, for a strong relationship between defence, industry and
academia.
In addition, especially in Italy, decisions have to be taken using a comprehensive
compliance regime, since noncompliance issues not only result in a failure to meet policy
goals, but also can produce a loss of confidence in the reliability of the defence programs.
52 Globalization and fast improvement of the communication technologies as well as of the computation technologies; the rising attention to the environment, the cultural asymmetries, the financial setting and the ageing societies; objective limitations come basically from the human body itself and from environment (temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.)
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PARTE
SPECIALISTICA / DI SUPPORTO / BIBLIOGRAFICA
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Appendix 1 – List of CNR institutes (Source: http://www.cnr.it/istituti/Istituti.html; 26/02/2015)
Name Base Notes
Centro di responsabilità di attività scientifica IDAIC (IDAIC)
Firenze Cultural heritage. The subjects of the protection of the environment through rational exercise of agriculture, food security and agricultural legislation have been and are the object of special attention by IDAIC.
Istituto Nanoscienze (NANO) Pisa Materials and devices. The Institute of Nanoscience consists of three former INFM centres: NEST in Pisa, NNL in Lecce, and S3 in Modena. The primary mission of the Institute is the fundamental study and the manipulation of systems at the nanometre scale. The research activities of the institute include the synthesis and the fabrication of nanostructures and devices, the experimental and computational-theoretical study of their properties and functionality, and of their interfaces with the meso and microscopic scale, and their integration in complex functional systems. The acquired knowledge is used to elaborate multidisciplinary applications in several fields, in particular energy and atmosphere, nano (bio) technologies, nano-medicine, also through the development of technologies and prototypes of industrial interest, and, in some fields, of pre-production. The Institute contributes also to the communication and the education in the Nanoscience.
Istituto Nazionale per Studi ed Esperienze di Architettura Navale (INSEAN)
Roma Energy and Transport Conducts basic research in the main disciplines of naval architecture and marine engineering, with applications, among others, to the safe maritime transport and the reduction of risks to the ship and crew. Many research topics are aimed at areas of interest of the integrated European maritime policy: eco-sustainable transport, sea transport safety, innovative technologies for the shipbuilding industry, sustainable exploitation of the sea. Take part in several research projects funded or co-funded by national and international institutions (civilian and military) and is involved in various consultancy activities towards industrial partners.
Istituto dei materiali per l'elettronica ed il magnetismo (IMEM)
Parma Production systems Within the best CNR tradition, IMEM interprets an interdisciplinary vision and a research practice in material science, complementing
125
Name Base Notes
refined growth synthesis and characterization methods with theoretical modelling and device prototyping aiming at exploring and demonstrating functional properties, applications and technological perspectives. The Institute envisions a tight interplay between curiosity driven basic and applied science with technological research, addressing and focusing more and more the activity and interactions towards materials, processes and devices for energetics, sensing and bioelectronics. Major activities deal with investigating and tailoring properties of materials of new generation including: semiconductors, magnetic and superconducting materials systems and devices; nanostructures; nanostructures on metallic surfaces; semiconductor quantum dots (QDot); oxides nanostructures, molecular and hybrid materials engineered at different length scales; nanostructures and functionalization processes for bioelectronics, nanomedicine and sensing devices.
Istituto dei sistemi complessi (ISC) Roma Materials and devices. Study of the complex systems with particular reference to their interdisciplinary applications in physics, chemistry, biology and theory of the information. Theoretical models, application and analysis of real systems. Critical, glassy, fractal and turbulent systems. Genetic and neural networks. Critical auto-organization. Control and analysis of nonlinear dynamics. Complex, random, glassy and porous granular materials. Processes of formation and characterization. Heterogeneous catalysis. New superconducting materials. Mesoscopic systems and complex aspects of the nanostructures. Accurate analysis of the random materials through spectroscopic methodologies using light, neutrons and X-rays.
Istituto di Acustica e Sensoristica "Orso Mario Corbino" (IDASC)
Roma Production system Focused on studies of propagation of elastic waves and vibrations in solids and their interaction with the anthropogenic and natural environment, developing devices with micro and nano technologies, sensors of chemical and physical variables, methods and tools for acoustics and marine acoustic metrology, diagnostics and modelling of acoustic environments and structures.
Istituto di Biologia Cellulare e Neurobiologia (IBCN)
Roma Science of life. Genotype-phenotype correlations including behavioural studies, mouse genetics and
126
Name Base Notes
animal modelling to study to study mechanisms inducing neurodegenerative, muscular, metabolic, inflammatory and cancerous pathologies. Study of molecular and cell mechanisms involved in biological process regulations, like neural and muscular development and differentiation, cell cycle, cell proliferation and neoplastic transformation. Production, storage, dissemination and primary phenotyping of murine mutants, models of human diseases.
Istituto di Biologia, Medicina Molecolare e NanoBiotecnologie (IBMN)
Roma Molecular design. Study of the chemical and functional proteins and nucleic acids; characterization of their mechanisms of action in complex networks. Molecular mechanisms underlying fundamental biological processes such as die division, proliferation and cell death, differentiation and development. Design and synthesis of new molecules for therapeutic applications; development of methodologies for functionalization for the transport targeted drug.
Istituto di Bioscienze e Biorisorse (IBBR) Bari Agriculture and food. The IBBR mission aims at two related goals: 1. To increase our knowledge on basic biology, mainly focusing on the genetic basis and molecular mechanisms underlying functioning, adaptation, reproduction, evolution and environmental relationships of biological systems. 2. To safeguard and sustainable management of bio-resources in the agricultural, agro-food and environmental fields for human health promotion, in particular by developing applications aimed at the improvement and appraisal of agro-food, forest and environmental productions, and at the prevention of human diseases.
Istituto di Farmacologia Traslazionale (IFT)
Roma Medicine. The research activity of the Institute of Translational Pharmacology (IFT) is directed to study the onset mechanisms of human diseases, with particular reference to cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, infectious and inflammatory diseases. The mission of the Institute is devoted to develop innovative diagnostic and therapeutic strategies and transfer the results into clinical practice. Specific expertise include: “drug discovery, design and delivery”; pharmacogenomics and regulatory aspects of drugs; study of therapeutic compounds and biotechnological tools to be used in regenerative medicine and in therapeutic field; study of innovative biomarkers for the diagnosis, prevention and
127
Name Base Notes
treatment of the diseases, genotyping study and service for transplantation and degenerative diseases.
Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica (IRGB)
Cagliari Medicine. Identification of genetic determinants, including modifying genes, of mono- and multifactorial diseases in the Sardinian population. Large scale gene and proteomic expression - in human and murine model - for the understanding of pathogenic mechanisms responsible for mono- and multifactorial diseases
Istituto di Ricerca su Innovazione e Servizi per lo Sviluppo (IRISS)
Napoli Cultural Identity. Study of service activities and their interdependences with other sectors of the economy, in particular: Business services. Logistics services and freight transport. Management of tourist and cultural heritage industries.
Istituto di Ricerca sulla Crescita Economica Sostenibile (IRCRES)
Torino Cultural Identity. Evolution of the Italian and European industrial system. Organization and sustainability of large systems of contemporary societies. Socio-economic analysis of environmental issues. The cross-cutting themes are: Technological innovation and Evaluation of public policies.
Istituto di Studi sul Mediterraneo Antico (ISMA)
Roma Cultural Heritage. The ISMA carries out interdisciplinary research of historical, archaeological and epigraphic-philological covering a wide geographical area and a wide time span: its activities relate to the ancient civilizations of the Near East and the Mediterranean (Aegean area Etruscan-Italic and Phoenician, Classical Age and late antiquity), covering a period from the fourth millennium BC up to the first centuries of our era. The methods of historical research are complemented by archeometry and computer science, with the aim of creating innovative solutions advanced also applicable to historical sources, the archaeological and epigraphic-linguistic ones. Born in 2013 from the merger of the Institute of Studies on Civilization Italic and Ancient Mediterranean (ISCIMA) and the Institute of Studies on Civilization Aegean and Near East (ICEVO), the Institute has close collaborations with local authorities, Superintendents , Museums and other national institutions and with research institutions and institutions of many foreign countries European and non-European.
Istituto di analisi dei sistemi ed informatica "Antonio Ruberti" (IASI)
Roma ICT. The mission of the Institute is: (a) to develop
128
Name Base Notes
mathematical and logic methods for modelling, optimizing, and controlling complex natural and artificial systems; the focus is on biomedical, information, transportation, communication, service, and environmental systems; (b) to carry out experimental studies on these systems. Scientific contributions are given to the fields of Biomathematics. Physiopathology, Metabolism, and Immunology. Theoretical Computer Science. Operations Research. Knowledge Based Systems. System and Control Theory and Computational Biology.
Istituto di biochimica delle proteine (IBP) Napoli Science of life. The focus of the Institute is on the impact that the basic knowledge of protein structure-function relationships, molecular mechanisms of evolutionary adaptation to extreme environments, and biocatalysis has on molecular and cell biology, microbiology, proteomics, allergenomics, nutraceuticals, immunology, nanomedicine and biotechnologies. The development of advanced biosensing, microscopy technology and nanotechnologies as well as the collaboration with industrial partners in areas of the pharmacology of cancer, rare diseases and of new platforms for drug delivery have also become essential aspects of the developments undertaken by the IBP. Emphasis is also given to training programs and technology transfer.
Istituto di biofisica (IBF) Genova Materials and devices. Structure, dynamics and organisation of biomolecules - Molecular mechanisms in membrane processes - Photo-induced processes in biomolecules and cells - Structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus - Modelling of organization and dynamics of complex systems - Sea circulation and productivity: dynamics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) - Lagoon and transitional water quality: cellular response to environmental contaminants - Mathematical methods in physics
Istituto di bioimmagini e fisiologia molecolare (IBFM)
Milano Medicine. The activities of the Institute are the following: Production and use of bio-images for neurophysiologic, clinical neuroscience, and cognitive researches, oncology and researches on the cardiac muscle. Research on physiology and physiopathology of the muscular work and of the cardiac muscle.
Istituto di biologia agro-ambientale e forestale (IBAF)
Terni Earth and Environment. The research fields of the Institute are: Interaction between plant species and
129
Name Base Notes
environment. Effects of anthropic intervention on ecological equilibrium. Biological and evolutionary processes and mechanisms in plants in relation to the environment. Eco-physiologic mechanisms and productivity of agrarian and forest plants.
Istituto di biologia e biotecnologia agraria (IBBA)
Milano Agriculture and Food. The research fields of the Institute are: Gene identification for functional characterization of animals, plants and microorganisms of agrarian interest and study of their chromosome localization, physiologic expression and function. Processes controlling growth, differentiation, and acquisition-maintenance of functional, metabolic, and productive characteristics of plants, also related to external environment and the introduction of genetic modifications. Functional interactions between microorganisms and plants: molecular mechanisms, effects on biodiversity, environmental impact evaluation. Study of the biological-reproductive and genetic structure, and of the evolution of domestic animal population for the preservation of its germ plasm through in vivo, in vitro and in silica models. Development of technologies and biotechnologies of agrarian and industrial interest, including the improvement of non-food crop plants for bioenergy and molecular techniques for gene sequence engineering suited to the production of metabolites and proteins. Bioinformatics for the analysis of molecular and quantitative data relating to animal, plant and microbial species. Information systems for agricultural research
Istituto di biomedicina e di immunologia molecolare "Alberto Monroy" (IBIM)
Palermo Medicine. The activities of the Institute are the following: Molecular, cellular and morphological studies on the first stages of the embryonic development and of the mechanisms involved in differentiation and in the degenerative processes of eukaryotic cells. Molecular studies on the proteins involved in immunological disorders, particularly in allergic reactions. Synthesis and characterization of bioactive molecules. Physiopathology and clinics of the cardio-respiratory system and the control of the respiratory function during wakefulness, sleeping, and controlled physical activity with particular reference to intensive therapy and semi-intensive therapy devoted to respiratory insufficiency. Biology and clinic of broncho-pulmonary pathology from obstructive causes, interstitial infiltration and neoplasia.
130
Name Base Notes
Tissue compatibility in organ transplants and analysis of experimental transplant models; bio-effects of magnetic fields on the immune system. Epidemiology, physiopathology and clinic of renal insufficiency and arterial hypertension.
Istituto di bio-membrane e bioenergetica (IBBE)
Bari Science of Life. The activities of the Institute are the following: Bioenergetics: functional and proteomic genomics. Bio-membranes and transport. Cell physiopathology. Biochemistry of informational macromolecules in growth and ageing.
Istituto di biometeorologia (IBIMET) Firenze Agriculture and Food. The research fields of the Institute are: Evaluation of global changes impact on agriculture and forests, man and his health, territory and landscape; Development of models for innovation and optimization of agro-forest systems; Climate and weather interaction with product quality and rational use of climatic resources; Weather and seasonal forecasting in agriculture; crop monitoring systems, harvest and product quality forecasting systems. Analysis and implementation of methodologies for territory sustainable management and enhancement of natural, anthropic and historical-cultural resources. Study of strategies for prevention and fighting of natural ecosystems risks.
Istituto di biostrutture e bioimmagini (IBB) Napoli Medicine. The research fields of the Institute are: Biochemical technologies and bio-structures; Biochemical technologies oriented at diagnostics by images; Technologies of diagnostics by images and radiotherapy; Diagnostics by images and radiotherapy
Istituto di calcolo e reti ad alte prestazioni (ICAR)
Cosenza ICT. Warehousing and mining of large data sets and knowledge representation and discovery; - Cognitive agent systems for robotics and for the intelligent delivery of sensory data and advanced services; - Intelligent services for computational grids and peer-to-peer systems; - Pervasive computational grids for high performance computing; - Highly immersive virtual reality systems and advanced algorithms for image analysis; - E-health methodologies, systems, and applications; - Service-oriented multi-multimedia content management and integration; - Evolutionary Computing methodologies and tools and their application to modelling and optimization in Complex Systems; - Intelligent data analysis for comprehensive security; - Machine learning models and techniques for bioinformatics; -
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Advanced algorithms and architectures for bioinformatics; - Systems and applications for cultural heritage management.
Istituto di chimica biomolecolare (ICB) Napoli Molecular Design. a) Isolation, chemical synthesis, molecular characterization, structure-activity relationship, and molecular design of biologically active molecules. b) Innovative chemical methods in synthesis, biosynthesis, purification, and characterization of biologically active molecules. c) Chemistry, biochemistry, and microbiology in application development of biomasses and of compounds of interest in biotechnology and ecology. d) Identification of molecular targets and characterization of markers of biological interest
Istituto di chimica dei composti organo metallici (ICCOM)
Firenze Molecular Design. The research fields where ICCOM researchers concentrate their activity deal with the development of the following research areas: a) new sustainable chemical processes with high efficiency and selectivity following the optimization of known stoichiometric and catalytic processes and the design and development of new processes. b) Application of electro-catalysis in the field of Energy related topics, particularly dealing with fuel cells technology and hydrogen production c) Chemistry and technology of hydrogen: production, storage and use through fuel cells d) Organic and organometallic compounds for the developments of third generation photovoltaic devices e) Chemistry and technology for the valorisation, the capture and the sequestration of carbon dioxide (CCS) f) Organic, Inorganic and hybrid polymeric materials with functional properties. Synthesis and post functionalization g) Advanced analytical techniques for the environment, life sciences and the preservation of artistic and cultural artefacts h) Design and developments of highly specialised scientific instruments i) Experimental and theoretical methods to rationalize the relationships between structure and reactivity and structure and bulk functional properties of chemical compounds and materials
Istituto di chimica del riconoscimento molecolare (ICRM)
Milano Molecular Design. Mission: For events of molecular recognition to occur, molecules have to be involved in interactions (establishing bonds) and in exchange of “information” (insuring the selectivity of these bonds). ICRM research activities are mainly focused on the study of principles and forces that regulate and
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determine bio-specificity and bio-recognition at a molecular level. This approach requires a multidisciplinary expertise in chemistry (organic, bio-organic, analytical and computational chemistry) and in biochemistry. In these areas, ICRM researchers are confronted by issues of basic research, such as mechanisms of biological regulation, ligand-receptor or substrate-enzyme interactions, folding and dynamics of peptides and proteins. Moreover, more applicative aspects of chemistry and biochemistry are investigated, exploiting chemical and biotechnological methodologies for the production, characterization and analysis of compounds of chemical, pharmaceutical, food, and biomedical interest as well as for the valorisation of waste materials in accordance to the modern concept of “bio-refinery”. The research fields of ICRM are: Biomolecules (bioactive natural substances and synthesis of compounds of biological interest); Industrial biotechnology (bioconversions and analytical methodologies); Mechanisms of bio-regulation (molecular bases of biological regulation and experimental and theoretical studies of molecular recognition). Key-words describing the activity of ICRM scientists are bioactive natural compounds, bio-catalysis, structural biochemistry, bioinformatics, proteomics, and analytical microsystems.
Istituto di cibernetica "Edoardo Caianiello" (ICIB)
Napoli Materials and Devices. The research fields of the Institute are: Physics and technology of quantum devices and of laser-matter interaction: studies on macroscopic quantum systems, both superconductors and optical or optoelectronic, and interaction between radiation and condensed matter. Biological mechanisms, and representation natural and artificial models, description and classification in visual and cognitive processes. Symbolic computation methodologies for the development of collaborative information systems. Interdisciplinary studies of molecular and cellular basis of interneuron communication in pathological and physiological conditions, modelling and experimental studies of the synaptic function and of the higher nervous functions
Istituto di cristallografia (IC) Bari Molecular Design The Research Fields of the Institute are: Development of crystallographic methodologies and crystallography of materials; development of methods of crystallographic computing; study of
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substances with anti-microbial and anticancer properties; crystallographic study of proteins, nucleic acids.
Istituto di elettronica e di ingegneria dell'informazione e delle telecomunicazioni (IEIIT)
Torino ICT. IEIIT carries out advanced scientific and technological research in the area of Information Engineering covering fields of telecommunications, computer and systems engineering, applied electromagnetics, electronics, control, robotics and bioengineering. The activities of IEIIT are based on experience and know-how developed by its staff over more than 40 years of scientific activity in the ICT domain. Many of them are carried out in cooperation with national and international research institutions and universities, within the framework of scientific programs and projects supported by national and international agencies, public and private organizations and medium and large enterprises.
Istituto di fisica applicata "Nello Carrara" (IFAC)
Firenze Materials and Devices. The research fields of the Institute are: Methodologies and applications of electromagnetic waves, optics, quantum electronics, and interactions between radiation and matter; Structure of matter; Applied spectroscopy; Optoelectronics and photonics; Laser and applications; Electromagnetism; Optical Sensors and observation methodologies; Information processing
Istituto di fisica del plasma "Piero Caldirola" (IFP)
Milano Energy and Transport The research activities of the Institute are the following: Physics and technology of plasmas and of controlled thermonuclear fusion; Analysis of materials for thermonuclear reactors; Technological applications of plasmas; Theoretical physics of plasmas and of controlled thermonuclear fusion; High power radio-frequency heating of magnetized plasmas; Study of advanced Tokamak regimes. Magneto-hydrodynamics and stability of plasmas.
Istituto di fisiologia clinica (IFC) Pisa Medicine. The activities of the Institute are the following: Physiopathology and clinics (medical and surgical) of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases including the study of systemic, neuroendocrine and metabolic factors, and so on, involved in such pathologies. Molecular medicine, clinical biology, and clinical biochemistry devoted to the study of biological systems and relevant pathologies. Technologies -engineering, physic, chemical, computer- and modelling devoted to
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researches on clinical and experimental physiology, and to the relevant diagnosis and treatment. Clinical and environmental epidemiology, population registers, and researches on health services
Istituto di fotonica e nanotecnologie (IFN) Milano Materials and Devices The research fields of the Institute are: - Devices for photonics, optoelectronics and electronics - Laser sources - New materials and characterization techniques - Nanotechnologies, micro- and nano-fabrications - Ultrafast photonics from infrared to X rays - Development and applications of quantum cascade lasers, fibre lasers and laser sensors - Spectroscopic and optical instrumentations from infrared to X rays
Istituto di genetica e biofisica "Adriano Buzzati Traverso" (IGB)
Napoli Science of Life The research fields of the Institute can be grouped into three broad categories: 1) Disease mechanisms and human genetics; 2) Developmental and stem cell biology; 3) Molecular and genetic approaches to fundamental biology. Researchers use a broad variety of experimental systems, from primary and engineered cell lines to mouse, C.elegans, fish, Drosophila, yeast, plants, etc.
Istituto di genetica molecolare (IGM) Pavia Medicine The research fields of the Institute are: genetic, molecular and biochemical investigations on mechanisms of control of gene expression and proliferation of human cells particularly in pathological conditions (cancer, hereditary diseases, aging, viral infection); Development of biomolecules with anti-proliferative and/or antiviral activity; Identification of disease genes, genetic and functional analysis of pathological mutations; Development of new methodologies for analytical cytology; applications to biomedical diagnostics and to the study of differentiation and the maintaining of the differentiated state; Analysis of genetic structure and human population evolution; mathematical models of evolution; algorithms for the analysis of macromolecular sequences
Istituto di geologia ambientale e geoingegneria (IGAG)
Roma Earth and Environment. The Institute’s main mission is to study and understand geological, natural, and human processes and practices interacting with and influencing the human environment, activities, and life. Strategic research topics are: (1) Earth’s past and recent-present evolution as a key to envisage and plan the sustainable development of the human environment; (2) natural and anthropic hazards; (3) natural resources; (4) global and local environmental
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changes; (5) man-environment interactions. Istituto di geoscienze e georisorse (IGG) Pisa Earth and Environment.
The research work conducted by the Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources is aimed at study of the geological processes affecting the Earth system through geodynamic, geochemical, and geophysical studies, as well as the characterization of geological materials. The Institute conduct studies on the natural resources for sustainable development, analysis and mitigation of the geological hazards, global changes, geothermal energy and geological sequestration of greenhouse gases.
Istituto di informatica e telematica (IIT) Pisa ICT The Institute of Informatics and Telematics of CNR carries out activities of research, assessment, technology transfer and training in the field of Information and Communication Technologies and of Computational Sciences. The rapid growth of Internet, its services and applications, is unrelenting and opens up new and fascinating scenarios of still unexplored research and development. Internet is ever more widespread and pervasive also in new applications such as Smart Cities and Communities, constantly enhancing its strategic role for the social, cultural and economic growth of the whole of humanity. Within this context, IIT is naturally at the forefront and has its sights set on the Future Internet, with consolidated know-how in algorithmic and in areas of research and development, such as the "Internet of things" and "Internet of services". These range from high speed, mobile and pervasive networks, to issues of security and privacy, to innovative web technologies, but which also include new ICT aspects concerning the Internet Governance.
Istituto di linguistica computazionale "Antonio Zampolli" (ILC)
Pisa Cultural Identity. The research fields of the Institute are: Models and methods for natural language processing, and mono- and multilingual application prototypes. Design of international standards and development of computational language resources. Design and implementation of architectures and infrastructures for language resources and language technologies. Computational methods and tools for humanistic research, particularly in linguistic, literary, and philological disciplines, and in lexicography
Istituto di matematica applicata e tecnologie informatiche (IMATI)
Pavia ICT The mission of the Istituto di Matematica
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Applicata e Tecnologie Informatiche E. Magenes del CNR is to provide the infrastructure and knowledge for the development and spreading of computational mathematics in science, engineering and information technologies.
Istituto di metodologie chimiche (IMC) Roma Molecular Design. Development of advanced methodologies and chemical procedures in important scientific fields (green chemistry, food, environment, biological molecules and pharmaceuticals, cultural heritages), increasing the basic knowledge and the possible applications using the following chemical methodologies: - Radiochemical methodologies and radiation chemistry - Chromatographic, electrophoretic and gas-chromatographic methodologies - Mass spectrometric methodologies - Nuclear magnetic resonance methodologies - Reaction mechanisms methodologies.
Istituto di metodologie inorganiche e dei plasmi (IMIP)
Bari Materials and Devices. Plasma Modelling; Plasma and Laser - Plasma Diagnostics and Spectroscopy; Materials Science
Istituto di metodologie per l'analisi ambientale (IMAA)
Potenza Earth and Environment. The research fields of the Institute are: Earth observations from ground, aircraft, and satellite aimed at the study of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and their interactions in meteo-climatic applications and risk forecasting, prevention, and mitigation; Chemical-physical characterization of soil and subsoil; Monitoring, anthropic pressure, and management of agricultural and natural resources; Development of new environmental monitoring techniques based on the integration of chemical-physical, biological, and geological methods in situ and in remote sensing; Integrated methodologies for environmental planning
Istituto di neuroscienze (IN) Pisa Medicine The research fields of the Institute are: Molecular, cellular, physiological, and pharmacological study of the nervous and neuromuscular systems; Study of bio-medically relevant membrane phenomena; Studies on biological basis of mental processes and brain aging.
Istituto di ricerca per la protezione idrogeologica (IRPI)
Perugia Earth and Environment Our mission is to design and execute scientific research and technological development in the fields of natural hazards with emphasis on geo-hydrological hazards, environmental protection, and the sustainable use of geo-
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resources. We carry out our mission by operating at different geographical and temporal scales, and in different climatic, physiographic and geological zones. Our main goals include: [+] to produce new knowledge on potentially hazardous natural phenomena, chiefly geo-hydrological hazards, and their interactions with the natural and human environments, [+] to develop technologies, innovative services & products useful to the definition, prediction and mitigation of geo-hydrological risks, to land planning and to the sustainable and effective management of geo-environmental resources. [+] to conduct research and technological development (R&D) activities in the vast field of natural hazards and the protection of land and environmental. [+] to perform scientific and technological consulting for public authorities and private business. IRPI performs outreach activates, including training and dissemination, on geo-hydrological hazards and their consequences.
Istituto di ricerca sui sistemi giudiziari (IRSIG)
Bologna Cultural Identity 1. Governance of judicial systems. Research projects are based on comparative analyses of: judicial governance institutions (such as judicial councils and ministries of justice), judicial and prosecutorial roles, professional qualifications of judges and public prosecutors, defence lawyers, codes of judicial conduct of judges and public prosecutors, and extra-judicial activities of judges and public prosecutors. 2. Organization and technological innovation in judicial administration. Research efforts here mainly concern the role and the application of information and communication technology in the judicial system, methods for evaluating the administration of justice, the overall “quality” of the judicial system, the management of courts and the public prosecutor’s office, delay reduction programmes, the functioning and the implementation of European policies such as the European Arrest Warrant, the design and development of judicial reforms and innovation processes. 3. Organization and working of juvenile justice systems and restorative justice. This research area includes different projects concerning juvenile delinquency and criminal proceedings, probation in the juvenile justice system, victim-offender mediation and restorative justice, forensic interviews with children and juveniles (victims and/or witnesses), and a survey on Italian juvenile lay
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judges. Istituto di ricerca sulle acque (IRSA) Roma Earth and Environment.
The research fields of the Institute are: Management of water resources; Water quality; Water treatment.
Istituto di ricerche sulla combustione (IRC)
Napoli Energy and Transport The Institute of Research on Combustion carries out research in areas of strategic importance for the national level of innovation, with implications on several fields: energy, industry, safety, environment, new materials. Activities, carried out at both theoretical and experimental level, aim to the develop combustion processes with low environmental impact and to develop new technologies for electric and thermal energy production, thermo-valorisation of wastes, biomass and alternative fuels. Within this framework studies are dedicated also to the development of advanced techniques of characterization of fossil fuels, combustible mixtures derived from the transformation of fossil fuels, particulate and gaseous pollutants produced by combustion. This activity includes also the measurement of parameters relevant to industrial risk assessment such as flammability and explosion limits. The general scope is the progressive upgrade of already available combustion technologies in terms of environmental friendliness and the development of innovative alternative technologies able to optimize the energetic efficiency and minimize the environmental impact of combustion in terms of emission of pollutants as well as of greenhouse gases
Istituto di ricerche sulla popolazione e le politiche sociali (IRPPS)
Roma Cultural Identity IRPPS is an Interdisciplinary Research Institute that conducts studies on demographic and migration issues, welfare systems and social policies, on policies regarding science, technology and higher education, on the relations between science and society, as well as on the creation of, access to and dissemination of knowledge and information technology. It groups together analyses and theoretical and empirical studies, facilitating collaboration among different disciplinary frontiers, to form three main research lines: Study of the relations between population trends and social and economic development Study of the social dynamics and policies in welfare systems Study of changes in society linked to the spread of knowledge and information technology
Istituto di scienza dell'alimentazione (ISA) Avellino Agriculture and Food.
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The activities of the Institute are the following: Composition and dietary qualities of the elements. Evaluation of the effects of diet on human health. Characterization and valorisation of the traditional Mediterranean diet food. Genomics, proteomics, and bioinformatics in food science.
Istituto di scienza e tecnologia dei materiali ceramici (ISTEC)
Ravenna Molecular Design. Currently, ISTEC, belonging to the CNR Department of Chemical Science and Materials Technology, is the only CNR structure in Italy with long-term research programs on the whole range of ceramic materials. The Institute's activities, consistent with the mission of the National Research Council of Italy, deal with: research and initiatives to support high level scientific activity, technological innovation, teaching and training, exploitation and dissemination of results. Research activities are directed to innovation in materials and processes in response to the emerging needs of industry, science and culture, in the various fields of application. Topics range from the basic study and characterization of powders and materials, to the development and innovation of production processes. The aim of the studies is the control of properties and performance of devices using ceramic process control and engineering of materials for specific applications. Through the development of new processes, including nanotechnology, new materials are developed and engineered and new solutions are proposed to innovate traditional products and also to provide them with new functions and new performances. MISSIONS: 1)Research activity, with reference to the following major areas: Ceramics for High-technology Industrial Applications, Innovation in materials for building and constructions, Functionalization of Surfaces by Nano-ceramics, Biomaterials for Nano-medicine and Regenerative Medicine, Ceramics for Energy and Environment, Ceramics for mechatronics and electro-mechanical applications, Restoration and Conservation of Cultural Heritage. 2) Education and Training: ISTEC is involved initiatives in higher education, collaboration and support for teaching and training at all levels. 3) Technology transfer and valorisation of the results to assist industries 4) International collaborations and relations
Istituto di scienza e tecnologie dell'informazione "Alessandro Faedo" (ISTI)
Pisa ICT Wireless heterogeneous networks; New technologies for electronic mail systems; User
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interfaces and home automation for ubiquitous interactive services; Knowledge discovery and data mining; Digital libraries; Spatial information in the knowledge society; Component-based architectures for complex and reliable systems; Advanced technologies, systems and services for grid computing; Evaluation of software intensive systems; Methods and tools to design software-intensive, complex systems; Processing and integration of multisource signals and images; 3D Visualization and Human-Computer Interaction; Mathematical models and numerical methods for flight dynamics and solid mechanics; Sensors and signal processing for risk assessment of structures; Innovative technologies for digital access to cultural heritage.
Istituto di scienze dell'atmosfera e del clima (ISAC)
Bologna Earth and Environment The research fields of the Institute are: Meteorology and its applications; Climate variability, changes and forecast ability; Atmosphere structure and composition; Earth observations
Istituto di scienze delle produzioni alimentari (ISPA)
Bari Agriculture and Food The research fields of the Institute are: •Production of food with improved organoleptic and nutritional properties; •Development of innovative processes devoted to the achievement of primary and secondary products in agro-industry; •Identification of risk factors for food safety and development of safer products by monitoring and elimination of potentially toxic components.
Istituto di scienze e tecnologie della cognizione (ISTC)
Roma Cultural Identity. The research fields of the Institute are: Cognitive, communicative, and linguistic processes: acquisition, processing, deficit, multimodality, communication technologies; Theory, analysis and technology of spoken language and linguistic variability; Cognitive development, learning and socialization in children and in non-human primates; Artificial intelligence, artificial life, artificial societies; Knowledge technologies, neural networks, autonomous robotics; Semantic technologies, Web of data, future Internet; Social cognition: behaviours, motivations, transmission, and cultural processes; Decision and cooperation technologies; Environment quality, health, and society: prevention, education, integration, handicap, technologies design
Istituto di scienze e tecnologie molecolari (ISTM)
Milano Molecular Design
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The research fields of the Institute are: Theoretical and experimental modelling of molecular systems and nano-systems; Design, synthesis and characterization of precursors and functional molecules; Technological applications in fine chemistry, materials for information/telecommunication and cultural heritage
Istituto di scienze marine (ISMAR) Venezia Earth and Environment ISMAR conducts research in polar, oceanic and Mediterranean regions, focusing on the following themes: - the evolution of oceans and their continental margins, studying submarine volcanoes, faults and slides and their potential impacts onshore - the influence of climate change on oceanic circulation, acidification, bio-geochemical cycles and marine productivity - submarine habitats and ecology, and the increasing pollution of coastal and deep-sea environments - the evolution of fish stocks with a view to keeping commercial fishing within sustainable limits and improving aquaculture practices - natural and anthropogenic factors impacting economically and socially on coastal systems from pre-history to the industrial epoch.
Istituto di scienze neurologiche (ISN) Cosenza Medicine The research fields of the Institute are: Clinical physiopathology and therapy of nervous systems diseases with particular attention to hereditary neurological diseases; Clinical, neurophysiological, and neuropathological diagnosis of nervous system diseases; Diagnostics by images and nuclear medicine applied to the diagnosis and the study of the nervous system diseases; Genetics, biochemistry, immunology, and pharmacology applied to the diagnosis and the study of the nervous system diseases. Development of biotechnologies to study the diseases of the nervous system
Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea (ISEM)
Cagliari Cultural Identity The activities of the Institute are the following: Historical, institutional, and social relations among the States of the Mediterranean Europe. Research, study, and publishing of historical and archival, documental and literary sources, relevant to the States of the Mediterranean Europe, Italy in particular. Man-land relationship in the Mediterranean Europe: lines of communication, naval history and techniques. History of circulation of people, trade, and conflicts between cultures and religions in the Mediterranean area
Istituto di struttura della materia (ISM) Roma Materials and Devices
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The Institute performs cutting-edge research in an interdisciplinary field between physics, chemistry and materials science. Its activities find applications in areas such as energy, environment, biological systems, electronic and magnetic devices, and cultural heritage. The institute’s activities range from theoretical modelling to development of prototypal devices. This is achieved via the study of the processes, the preparation and functionalization of materials, and the characterization of their structural and electronic properties with novel instrumentation and methodologies.
Istituto di studi giuridici internazionali (ISGI)
Roma Cultural Identity International law, international organization, United Nations law, integration law, unification of law - International environment law and cooperation for sustainable development - Formation and evolution of international customary norms - Fundamental rights and international protection of human rights - Space law, telecommunication and information technology law - Bioethics and biotechnology law.
Istituto di studi sui sistemi intelligenti per l'automazione (ISSIA)
Bari Production Systems The research fields of the Institute are: robotics aimed at achieving intelligent machines able to perceive and act autonomously in poorly and uncertain real environments. Automation to increase performance, productivity, and security of complex systems. Signal and image processing in integrated hardware and software systems for the acquisition and treatment of multispectral, multi-temporal and multiplatform information. Systems based on soft-computing techniques for measurement and support to decisions in complex applications
Istituto di studi sui sistemi regionali federali e sulle autonomie "Massimo Severo Giannini" (ISSIRFA)
Roma Cultural Identity The mission of the Institute is to increase the knowledge on regionalism, federalism and local autonomies at the national, European and international level. These issues are faced in multidisciplinary terms and in comparative ways, in the light of the profiles of public law, economics and finance and political science. The Institute aims also at the transfer of knowledge in favour of Institutions at different levels and the close collaboration with universities and other scientific institutions both Italian and foreign.
Istituto di studi sulle società del mediterraneo (ISSM)
Napoli Cultural Identity ITAE develops and promotes innovative energy technologies and processes with low
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environmental impact through the use of fossil and renewable energy sources. The activity is finalized to the development of Fuel Cells; development of electrochemical storage energy systems; production and storage of hydrogen also by photo decomposition of water; direct use of solar energy via photovoltaic cells, innovative adsorption heat pumps/chillers for air conditioning; production of alternative fuels for automotive application and hydrogen production by transformation of organic and industrial wastes
Istituto di tecnologie avanzate per l'energia "Nicola Giordano" (ITAE)
Messina Energy and Transport ITAE develops and promotes innovative energy technologies and processes with low environmental impact through the use of fossil and renewable energy sources. The activity is finalized to the development of Fuel Cells; development of electrochemical storage energy systems; production and storage of hydrogen also by photo decomposition of water; direct use of solar energy via photovoltaic cells, innovative adsorption heat pumps/chillers for air conditioning; production of alternative fuels for automotive application and hydrogen production by transformation of organic and industrial wastes
Istituto di tecnologie biomediche (ITB) Milano Medicine. The research fields of the Institute are the following: - Human Genome, Medical genomics, Degenerative diseases, Proteomics and nanotechnologies, molecular oncology, stem cell/cancer stem cell research, Biochemistry of metalloproteinase, Bioinformatics and comparative genomics, Immunobiology and cellular differentiation, Epidemiology and medical informatics, Bioinformatics and System Biology for health.
Istituto di tecnologie industriali e automazione (ITIA)
Milano Production Systems The research fields of the Institute are: Strategic studies and development of new configurations of products, processes, intelligent systems and related instruments, design and management methodologies for the competitiveness and the sustainability of enterprises.
Istituto di teoria e tecniche dell'informazione giuridica (ITTIG)
Firenze Cultural Identity The activities of the Institute are the following: Methods and techniques for legal documentation and realization of legal and administrative computer systems. Methods and techniques for the analysis, realization, and evaluation of legal documentation (normative, judicial and administrative) computer aided. Formal models for the
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organization of legal knowledge. Technologies for the didactics and the evaluation of the learning of law. Legal problems related to the use of information and communication technologies. Legal problems relevant to the use of information and communication technologies. Documentation on great legal systems with particular reference to the continental legal systems and their basing on the Roman Law
Istituto gas ionizzati (IGI) Padova Energy and Transport The activities of the Institute are the following: Engineering and physics studies and researches on controlled thermonuclear fusion. Development of the RFX project. Experimentation on RFX machine. Modelling, theory, and diagnostics of magnetically confined plasmas. Technological developments relevant to the machine and to its supply and control systems - Development of the PRIMA Project for the realization of the Neutral Beam Test Facility (NBTF) for the test and development of the neutral beam injection system for plasma heating in ITER.
Istituto motori (IM) Napoli Energy and Transport The research fields of the Institute are: Propulsion and its environmental impact with particular reference to engines, fuels, and chemical-physical phenomena particularly those connected with: Thermo-fluid dynamics of internal combustion engines. Engine technology. Fuel-engine interaction. Vehicle-engine-environment interaction. Energetic systems for propulsion. Reliability of propulsive systems
Istituto nazionale di ottica (INO) Firenze Materials and Devices The current National Institute of Optics (INO) has been working for over eighty years in the Optics sector, in the broadest definition of the same, and has updated its fields of activity in line with the huge innovations that have characterized this sector over the last century. The activities are divided into the following programmes: pure and applied research, technological transfer, consultancy for public institutions and businesses. These are accompanied by SIT (Italian Calibration Service) metrology services and testing, again for public institutions and businesses, and training activities
Istituto officina dei materiali (IOM) Trieste Materials and Devices It carries out interdisciplinary research based on knowledge of the physical properties of materials and complex systems at the atomic
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scale and their capabilities. Its activities include: - design, numerical simulation, synthesis and advanced analysis of molecular systems, nano-structured materials and prototype devices of interest in the fields of energy, bio-medicine, nanotechnology and manufacturing with atomic precision. - Use of the sources of synchrotron radiation and neutron for structural analysis, energetic, and dynamic, materials and complex systems and their nano-structuring - development of advanced instrumentation and methods for the use of synchrotron radiation sources and neutron - development and implementation of new computational methods and numerical algorithms for the study of materials and molecular systems.
Istituto opera del vocabolario italiano (OVI)
Firenze Cultural Identity The research fields of the Institute are: Elaboration of an historical dictionary of the Italian language; Editing of a dictionary of the ancient Italian language ("Thesaurus of the Italian Language from the Origin) and the relevant electronic databank; Editing of the historical dictionary up to present days; Continual updating of the dictionary, keeping pace with philological and linguistic developments; Production of computer procedures for lexicography and linguistics.
Istituto per i Polimeri, Compositi e Biomateriali (IPCB)
Napoli Molecular Design IPCB/CT research activities are divided into two macro lines established within the CNR department of molecular design: Development and characterization of natural and synthetic biodegradable polymeric materials. Glycomics and proteomics for the research of biomarkers for the diagnosis and the therapy of congenital, tumor and inflammatory diseases.
Istituto per i beni archeologici e monumentali (IBAM)
Catania Cultural Heritage The research activities, by statute, are focused on: • Methodologies for the analysis of settlements, landscape and environment and transformations of landscapes in ancient and Medieval times; • Multidisciplinary studies in archaeology, in a Mediterranean perspective, with particular reference to southern Italy and Sicily; • Methodologies aimed at understanding, diagnosis and intervention for the preservation, restoration and communication of archaeological heritage (sites and monuments) in the Mediterranean
Istituto per i processi chimico-fisici (IPCF) Messina Materials and Devices
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Interdisciplinary research activity on chemical-physical systems exhibiting collective dynamics processes on mesoscopic scale resulting in auto-aggregation and auto-organization phenomena. These systems, commonly indicated as soft matter, include supramolecular structures, liquid crystals, colloids, disordered and mesoscopic systems, nanoparticle composites, biological and bio-mimetics systems and interfaces. These activities include: self-assembly studies, surface interactions, relaxation and transport phenomena; design and realization of materials (also multiphase) at a different complexity order with (mechanical, thermal, optical, magnetic, electrical) specific properties; theoretical and computational approaches and modelling; development of new experimental methodologies.
Istituto per i sistemi agricoli e forestali del mediterraneo (ISAFoM)
Napoli Agriculture and Food The research fields of the Institute are: Study and analysis of the physical, chemical, and biological processes determining the functioning and the dynamics of the agrarian and forestry ecosystems. Development of technical solutions for the improvement of the production processes, of the total quality of products, and to raise the functionality of woods basing upon the knowledge of the previous item. Development of methods and tools to transfer the studied solutions to the territory, due to the spatial variability of factors determining the aptitude to use. Development and application of advanced research methods as numeric simulation models, decision support systems and remote sensing
Istituto per il lessico intellettuale europeo e storia delle idee (ILIESI)
Roma Cultural Identity The research areas of the institute are: History of intellectual terminology in the European languages and in its relationships with the Mediterranean Greek, Latin, Hebraic and Arab tradition; History of ideas and linguistic signs, from classical times to the modern era; Production of critical texts and studies, lexical examinations, agreements and lexicons; Development of computing methodologies for textual analyses
Istituto per il rilevamento elettromagnetico dell'ambiente (IREA)
Napoli ICT The activities of the Institute are the following: Active microwave remote sensing. Biological effects of electromagnetic fields and medical electromagnetic diagnostics. Sensors and dedicated electronic systems for remote sensing and electromagnetic diagnostics. Passive remote sensing in optics.
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Methodologies for automatic interpretation and integration in GIS. GPS and geo-referencing
Istituto per il sistema produzione animale in ambiente Mediterraneo (ISPAAM)
Napoli Agriculture and Food The activities of the Institute are the following: Forage production and environmental sustainability. Animal system and biological sustainability. Biodiversity and genetic improvement. Quality of productions. Optimization models and economic sustainability. Training and operational transfer
Istituto per l'ambiente marino costiero (IAMC)
Napoli Earth and Environment The Institute’s mission is to conducts interdisciplinary research on coastal areas, with primary emphasis on Southern Italy and the Mediterranean, and aligns its research along six main scientific themes: Biodiversity and ecology of coastal, deep and polar marine systems, Sustainable use of biological resources Aquaculture, Marine Geology and Geophysics, Operational oceanography, Biogeochemistry and environmental geochemistry. Observational activities include analysis, monitoring and modelling of distribution processes of both inorganic and organic micro-pollutants; study and application of chemical, physical and biological remediation techniques. Results are applied towards the development of innovative approaches and technological systems intended for the management of coastal zones, including advisory services to help policymakers, public companies, industry, and citizens to effectively manage and conserve coastal and marine resources.
Istituto per l'endocrinologia e l'oncologia "Gaetano Salvatore" (IEOS)
Napoli Science of Life Mechanisms of cellular and molecular regulation underlying proliferation, differentiation and neoplastic transformation; - Identification of genes essential to differentiation and growth of thyroid cells; - Study of genetic diseases and/or acquired diseases involved in the regulation of endocrine function or metabolism; - Generation of animal models to study cancer and endocrine pathologies
Istituto per l'energetica e le interfasi (IENI) Padova Molecular Design The research fields of the Institute are: molecular systems, inorganic materials and metals, materials and processes for energetics, electrochemical materials and processes; Modelling, synthesis and chemical-physical characterization of new materials; Surfaces and interphases; Determination of thermal quantity of surface and bulk.
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Name Base Notes
Istituto per la Protezione Sostenibile delle Piante (IPSP)
Torino Agriculture and Food. •identification and characterization of the causative agents of biotic and abiotic stresses in plants and development of innovative strategies for sustainable plant protection; •characterization of plant interactions with pests, antagonists and symbionts through a multidisciplinary approach; •genetic, epigenetic and molecular approaches to study the biodiversity of the microorganisms that support and protect plants; •study and development of products and processes for the early identification of pests, natural antagonists and symbiotic microorganisms; •green technologies for the recovery of agroforestry systems from infectious agents and for the control of pests; •identification of the effects of the major biotic, environmental, and genetic factors on the definition of the main quality characteristics of local typical food chains
Istituto per la conservazione e valorizzazione dei beni culturali (ICVBC)
Firenze Cultural Heritage The activities of the Institute are the following: Characterization and definition of the material forming art works. Experimentation of new technologies and materials for the conservation of the cultural heritage. Development of innovative design criteria and realization of preservation interventions. Development of innovative plans for the enhancement of the cultural heritage
Istituto per la dinamica dei processi ambientali (IDPA)
Venezia Earth and Environment The research fields of the Institute are the following: Methodologies for the study and representation of the environment. Environment and evolution of environmental systems
Istituto per la microelettronica e microsistemi (IMM)
Catania Materials and Devices. The research fields of the Institute are: 1. Materials and processes for Microelectronics; 2. Sensors and Microsystems; 3. Optoelectronics and Photovoltaics; 4. Development of new characterization techniques
Istituto per la sintesi organica e la fotoreattività (ISOF)
Bologna Molecular Design. The research fields of the Institute are: Development of new products and processes with particular reference to innovative methodologies in organic synthesis, spectroscopic characterization, and theoretical models elaboration and in the study of reactivity; study of the behaviour of complex
149
Name Base Notes
molecular systems (supramolecular systems and new materials) and bio-organic processes.
Istituto per la storia del pensiero filosofico e scientifico moderno (ISPF)
Napoli Cultural Identity History of Italian and European Scientific Thought in Modern Age, with particular highlight on its relationship to contemporary thought. History of philosophical and scientific thought with particular highlight on Modern Age. Methodology of analysis and textual criticism of philosophical and scientific texts.
Istituto per la tecnologia delle membrane (ITM)
Cosenza Molecular Design The activities of the Institute are the following: Preparation and transportation phenomena in inorganic, polymeric, and biological membranes. Catalytic membranes and membrane reactors. Synthesis of organic materials and their transport properties. Membrane molecular operation and integration processes of productive and biomedical interest.
Istituto per la valorizzazione del legno e delle specie arboree (IVALSA)
Firenze Agriculture and Food The Institute is active in the following areas: Characterization, selection and propagation of tree species and biodiversity preservation. Valorisation and protection of the agro-forest environment. Quality improvement of timber production in forests and plantations including biomass exploitation. Promotion of wood technology and civil industrial uses of timber
Istituto per le applicazioni del calcolo "Mauro Picone" (IAC)
Roma ICT Development of highly advanced mathematical, statistical and computational models and methods to solve, in a mostly interdisciplinary context, problems with strong relevance to science, society and industry
Istituto per le macchine agricole e movimento terra (IMAMOTER)
Ferrara Production Systems. The activities of the Institute are the following: Innovation of fluid power components and systems. Non-structured robotics and mechatronics. Numeric and experimental analysis of structures and fluid fields. Monitoring and control of noise emitted from complex sources. Characterization and reduction of structural noise and vibrations. Design of machines and relevant subsystems. Mechanisation of cultures and their environmental impact. Certification, standards and testing of agricultural and earthmoving machines.
Istituto per le tecnologie applicate ai beni culturali (ITABC)
Roma Cultural Heritage. The activities of the Institute are the following: Territorial information systems and statistical methods applied to cultural heritage; re-construction and contextualization of
150
Name Base Notes
archaeological landscape through GIS, remote sensing, virtual reality and multimedia. High resolution geological and geophysical methodologies devoted to the characterization of geological sites and historical manufactured articles. Cataloguing, analysis, and study of ancient coins and monetary treasures. Research and analysis methodologies on manufactured articles, with particular reference to metallic ones. Multidisciplinary studies for the analysis, the documentation, the evaluation, the restoration, the conservation, and the valorisation of the built heritage. The 14C and amino-acid racemization dating methods for archaeological and geological finds.
Istituto per le tecnologie della costruzione (ITC)
Milano Production Systems The research fields of the Institute are: New or traditional materials used in an innovative way and innovative technological solutions; New methodologies and tools for the performance evaluation of components, systems, and constructions; Evaluation and improvement of the use, safety and quality of the built environment and infrastructures; Air-conditioning, heating, refrigeration and technological plants in construction; Innovative computer-based methods and tools to support design, execution and management phases of building; Systems for the management and dissemination of scientific and technical information in the sector; Research activity and services, with high scientific and technological content, jointly carried out with national and international organizations and technical-scientific networks.
Istituto per le tecnologie didattiche (ITD) Genova Cultural Identity The research fields of the Institute are: •Teaching/learning processes and systems dedicated to their realization. •Innovative solutions for educational and training problems based upon a systemic approach to design, management, and assessment of learning environments. •Information and communication technologies as important elements in determining new educational needs and as resources for teaching/learning.
Istituto per lo studio degli ecosistemi (ISE)
Pallanza Verbania
Earth and Environment The research fields of the Institute are: Limnology and ecophysiology of aquatic ecosystems; Ecology of population; Evolutionary biology, biodiversity, and nature conservation; Macro- and micro-pollutants; Integrated biological control; Soil ecosystem,
151
Name Base Notes
control and recovery of soil quality
Istituto per lo studio dei materiali nanostrutturati (ISMN)
Roma Molecular Design Research fields: Primary research fields of the Institute are: Development of innovative nanostructured materials and systems for sustainable development, health and Converging Technologies; Development of innovative methodologies of synthesis and deposition; Chemical-physical characterization of materials; Study, modification and functionalization of surfaces and interfaces
Istituto per lo studio delle macromolecole (ISMAC)
Milano Molecular Design. The research fields of the Institute are: Polymerization catalysis, synthesis, and polymer modification for the "sustainable development"; Improvement and development of polymeric materials of natural origin and biocompatible; Polymeric materials for advanced technologies; Biological macromolecules: chemical-physic, modelling and biotechnological applications
Istituto sull'inquinamento atmosferico (IIA) Roma Earth and Environment Air pollution in urban, remote and industrial environments, including polar regions; pollutant cycles over varying scales and how they will change in a changing climate; development of analytical methodologies for the laboratory and field campaigns (including ship and aircraft borne instrumentation); Regional and global observatory systems and networks; Legislation relating to air pollution and industrial risks; Interoperable systems and technologies for geospatial data and information
Istituto superconduttori, materiali innovativi e dispositivi (SPIN)
Genova Materials and Devices Advanced research in the field of superconducting materials and other materials for electronic devices and for power, conducting experimental and theoretical studies and developing micro and nano electronic devices and superconducting oxides and innovative devices based on organic and nanostructured materials
152
Appendix 2 – Technology Readiness Level (TRL) (Source: http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2014_2015/annexes/h2020-wp1415-annex-g-trl_en.pdf ; 10/03/2015)
TRL 1 basic principles observed
TRL 2 technology concept formulated
TRL 3 experimental proof of concept
TRL 4 technology validated in lab
TRL 5 technology validated in relevant environment
TRL 6 technology demonstrated in relevant environment
TRL 7 system prototype demonstration in operational
environment
TRL 8 system complete and qualified
TRL 9 actual system proven in operational environment
153
Appendix 3 – List of Figures and Tables Table 1 List of technology examples and their applications ............................................................. 9
Table 2. KETs in the EU................................................................................................................ 11
Table 3 Technologies of interest for the situational awareness. ..................................................... 12
Figure 1 Typical diagram of Performance vs. time: a technology is born, has a maturity, and dies
when it is obsolete, meaning that no improvements in performance are recognized, yet while time
passing. ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 4 Time for doubling performance in the computer technology discipline.............................. 20
Figure 2. An example of the increasing performance of a technology based on different sub-
technologies, emerging and dying during the years. Growth in performance of hard-disks in the
computer industry based on different types of heads ...................................................................... 21
Figure 3. Classical block diagram of radar with a super-heterodyne receiver. .............................. 24
Table 5. From idea to innovation. Imagine the use of electricity to produce light is not enough to
get innovation: design a light bulb, produce it, and connect it to the grid ...................................... 25
Figure 4 Scheme of the gun-type nuclear weapon called “little boy”............................................. 34
Figure 5. A hand axe of the Neolithic and an actual mouse for personal computer. Both have been
designed having in mind the dimension of the holder (the human hand) ........................................ 39
Figure 6. Correlations of technological research in Italy .............................................................. 42
Figure 7. The international structure of Italian research within Europe. ....................................... 44
Figure 8. CNR-ISTEC ceramic zirconium boride (UHTC) bolt. ..................................................... 50
Figure 9. CNR-INSEAN Laboratory. ............................................................................................. 51
Figure 10, Italian MoD overview .................................................................................................. 56
Figure 11 From Research to development and service in the Italian MoD responsabilities ........... 57
Figure 12. Italian Secretariat General of Defence and National Armaments Directorate
(Segredifesa) staff organization ..................................................................................................... 58
Figure 13. STEPS Project: Regione Piemonte, TAS-I, university, SME ......................................... 62
Figure 14. From the idea to the exploitation, which means innovation, in terms of Company
revenue and GDP growth .............................................................................................................. 78
Figure 15. While in the short term the main focus could be on technologies, in order to manage the
challenges of the long period it is more important to focus on skill and expertise. ......................... 83
Figure 16. Science and Technology influence each other creating an increasing knowledgebase .. 83
154
Figure 17. The robots do not have the limitations of protective garments ...................................... 96
Figure 18. Estimation of the number of PCs, smartphones and things connected to the Internet
(billions) ..................................................................................................................................... 111
Figure 19. The Cyber-Physical System concept. .......................................................................... 113
All figures created by F.Scialla. Exemption are figures 2, 5, 8, 9, 13, 17, 18 (The Net) All tables created by F.Scialla. Table 2, 3, 4 and 5 are adapted from the Net
155
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160
NOTA SUL Ce.Mi.S.S. e NOTA SULL’AUTORE
Ce.Mi.S.S.53
Il Centro Militare di Studi Strategici (Ce.Mi.S.S.) è l'Organismo che gestisce, nell'ambito e
per conto del Ministero della Difesa, la ricerca su temi di carattere strategico.
Costituito nel 1987 con Decreto del Ministro della Difesa, il Ce.Mi.S.S. svolge la propria
opera valendosi si esperti civili e militari, italiani ed esteri, in piena libertà di espressione di
pensiero.
Quanto contenuto negli studi pubblicati riflette quindi esclusivamente l'opinione del
Ricercatore e non quella del Ministero della Difesa.
Francesco SCIALLA
CAPT (Navy) Francesco SCIALLA is the National Armaments
Director Representative to the European Union. He led the Office
for Research Strategy, Plans and Programs of the Italian General
Secretariat of Defence and National Armaments Directorate from
2011 to 2014. He has been member of various national and
international committees (e.g.: the NATO Science and Technology
Board, the European Defence Agency Research and Technology
Points of Contacts Network, and the European Commission
Seventh Framework Programme Security Committee) and
professor of Electronic Warfare.
CAPT Scialla joined the Navy in 1982 and received a Master of Science degree in
Electrical Engineering from the University of Pisa and a postgraduate degree in
International Strategic and Military Studies from the Joint Services Staff College and the
LUISS University in Rome. He served seven years as Chief Engineer aboard the First and
Second corvettes squadron, the Espero frigate, and the Garibaldi aircraft carrier. His shore
tours have included the Navy Yard in La Spezia and the General Directorate of Naval
Armaments (NAVARM) in Rome. 53 http://www.difesa.it/SMD_/CASD/IM/CeMiSS/Pagine/default.aspx
