Emma L. DaughertyProfessor

Department of Journalism & Mass CommunicationCalifornia State University, Long Beach

Let’s talk. How do you define ethics? Share your thoughts. No right or wrong answers.

◦ What is “ethics”?

◦ What are the characteristics of ethical behavior?

◦ What are the characteristics of unethical behavior?

You are an account coordinator responsible for handling the travel expenses for your team. Your superior is the account supervisor, but one of the account executives is using the company credit card for personal expenses. What do you do?◦ Nothing◦ Confront the person◦ Report it to your superior

You oversee a public relations department, and a new company policy requires that you approve your department’s tax filings. You’re not a numbers person and don’t fully understand the documents you must sign. What do you do?◦ Sign it, and if there are problems, you’ll say you

didn’t understand the document.◦ Ask someone with more knowledge to walk you

through the documents.◦ Sign it, vowing to take an accounting course.

You are an intern at a prestigious public relations firm. You’ve been asked to write a press release about the benefits of a new brand the agency is handling. After doing research, you realize that the brand cannot deliver what is promised by the R&D team. You tell your immediate supervisor, but he insists that you disseminate the false information. What do you do?◦ Write it anyway, using the information provided by R&D.◦ Meet with your immediate supervisor’s superior and

discuss the dilemma with that individual.◦ Refuse to write the release.

You work in a public relations firm at a large company. Each month you get one paid sick day, which does not carry over to the next month. Do you use the paid sick day even when you are not ill?◦ Yes, I use it for whatever I want – a vacation, a

day of rest, a time to do errands.◦ Yes, but only if I have something unavoidable or

unexpectible to handle, such as a sick child at home or a funeral to attend.

◦ No, I use it only if I am so ill I cannot work or may be highly contagious to others.

Aristotle’s Mean “Moral virtue is a fixed quality of the will,

consisting essentially in a middle state…” ◦ Plato advocated four cardinal virtues:

temperance, justice, courage, and wisdom◦ Moderation or temperance◦ Virtuous people develop habits of temperance –

equilibrium and harmony◦ They are of harmonious character through

everyday habit, guided by reason

Middle state is most fair and reasonable option (i.e., the handling of nudity on network television)

Emphasized moderation – the path of equilibrium and harmony – a middle state

  Avoid extremes. ◦ i.e., too much food is unhealthy, too little food is unhealthy  Justice is a mean between indifference and selfish indulgence

of personal interests.  Balance and proportion developed through everyday habit,

guided by reason – not fanatical or eccentric  Report alleged rape – but don’t report name of alleged victim

Confucius’ Golden Mean “Moral virtue is the appropriate location

between two extremes.”◦ Human excellence depends on character, not on

social position◦ Doing nothing vs. exposing everything◦ Reject both extremes

German who wrote Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785) and Critique of Practical Reason (1788)

Categorical means unconditional: without exceptions, without question of extenuating circumstances

Do what’s morally right no matter what.

Follow your conscience.  Truthtelling always right. Lying, cheating, stealing

always wrong.

“Act on that maxim which you will to become a universal law.”◦ Do what’s morally right no matter the

consequences◦ No exceptions, no extenuating circumstances◦ Certain actions – dishonesty, deception – always

wrong◦ Deception in advertising, public relations, and the

press always wrong

“Justice, human dignity and truth are unconditional duties.”

◦ System of ethics commanded by Allah:

justice*

human dignity

truth

Seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

British philosopher and utilitarian John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

Consider consequences of actions – how much harm and benefit would result. Select the action that benefits the most and is least harmful.

Utilitarianism – promoting the greatest good for the greatest number of people – what’s best for the majority?

“Seek the greatest happiness for the aggregate whole.”

◦ Utilitarianism – ethical theory proposed by Mills and Jeremy Bentham that all actions should strive to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

◦ Preventing pain and promoting pleasure only desirable ends, hedonistic

Later utilitarians argued that other values, besides happiness, are worthwhile – friendship, knowledge, health

Decision-making steps: ◦ Calculate possible consequences of various

options◦ Then determine how much harm would result in

the lives of those affected, including you◦ Choose path that maximizes value or minimizes

loss, producing greatest possible balance of good over evil

John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice (1971)

Fairness is fundamental for justice.

Veil of ignorance – asking individuals to step back from real circumstances and view the situation by forgetting about race, class, gender, and similar factors

Negotiating social agreements based on equality behind a veil of ignorance. By doing so, risks are minimized and weaker parties are protected.

A hypothetical social contract is made behind the veil.

“ Justice emerges when negotiating without social differentiations.”

◦ “A Theory of Justice” in 1971

◦ Respect, empathy, fairness

◦ Eliminates arbitrary distinctions; step behind barrier where roles and social differentiations, such as race and gender, are eliminated

◦ Seen as protecting the weaker party and minimizing risks

“Love your neighbor as yourself.”

◦ Agape – Greek word for love; Golden Rule

◦ Giving and forgiving freely and lovingly

◦ Concerned with neighbor’s well being

“The ‘one-caring’ attends to the ‘cared-for’ in thought and deeds.”◦ Love-based ethics: nurturing, caring, affection,

empathy, inclusiveness◦ Carol Gilligan emphasized relationships,

compassion when resolving conflicts◦ Nel Noddings: human care central to moral

decision-making – real care requires actual encounters with specific individuals Feminist scholarship – care ethics

Three central dimensions:◦ Engrossment = one-caring becomes engrossed

in needs of others◦ Motivational displacement = one-caring retains

self-interests but moves beyond them to become empathetic with experiences or views of cared-for

◦ Reciprocity = the cared-for must reciprocate to complete caring relationship (direct response, delight in personal growth)

Dr. Ralph Potter, Harvard Divinity School

Formulated the model of moral reasoning

◦ The Potter Box Definition Values Principles Loyalties

Purpose◦ Forces us to get accurate empirical data ◦ Investigate our values◦ Articulate an appropriate principle

To reach a responsible decision, we must clarify the stakeholders who will be affected by our decision and which stakeholders we feel especially obligated to support.

When analyzing ethical dilemmas, we usually investigate five categories of obligation:

◦ Duty to ourselves◦ Duty to stakeholders (clients, subscribers,

employees, surrounding community, etc.)◦ Duty to our own organization ◦ Duty to professional colleagues◦ Duty to society

1. Which is worse? ◦ hurting someone's feelings by telling the truth◦ telling a lie and protecting their feelings

  2. Which is the worse mistake?

◦ to make exceptions too freely◦ to apply rules too rigidly

3. Which is it worse to be? ◦ unmerciful◦ unfair

4. Which is worse? ◦ stealing something valuable from someone for no good

reason◦ breaking a promise to a friend for no good reason

  5. Which is it better to be?

◦ just and fair◦ sympathetic and feeling

  6. Which is worse?

◦ not helping someone in trouble◦ being unfair to someone by playing favorites

7. In making a decision you rely more on◦ hard facts◦ personal feelings and intuition

8. Your boss orders you to do something that will hurt someone. If you carry out the order, have you actually done anything wrong? ◦ yes◦ no

  9. Which is more important in determining

whether an action is right or wrong? ◦ whether anyone actually gets hurt◦ whether a rule, law, commandment, or moral principle is

broken

1. hurting feelings (c)/telling lies (j) 2. make exceptions (j)/apply rules (c) 3. unmerciful (c)/unfair (j) 4. stealing (j)/breaking promise (c) 5. just (j)/sympathetic (c) 6. not helping (c)/playing favorites (j) 7. facts (j)/feelings (c) 8. yes (c)/no (j) 9. hurt (c)/rule (j)

Ethics of Justice

◦ Based on abstract, impersonal principles Justice Fairness Equality Authority

  Conflict of rights that can be solved by impartial

application of some general principle

Emphasis on moral principles, laws, or policies, which they believe should be applied to all equally

Don’t like to make exceptions based on special circumstances and worry about setting precedents

Impartial vs. impersonal

Could be seen as uncaring, cold, inflexible

  More common with men than women

Traditional management style

Justify decisions according to authority, policies, or other impersonal standards

Attempts to reduce harm or suffering

Focus of decision making = specific individuals involved and particular circumstances of the case

  Solutions tailored to special details to individual cases  Feel constrained by policies without exceptions

◦ Making exceptions does not phase them  Responsive to immediate suffering and harm

Flexible, caring, and subjective

Respond quickly to changing circumstances

Not preoccupied with idea of setting precedents

Reliance on subjectivity and gut can appear as arbitrary

More common with women and individuals who define themselves in terms of their relationships with others

More situational approach to life

Management style that is ◦ sensitive to consequences of decisions for

individuals◦ considers consensus building important◦ wants people to “buy in” rather than simply

following orders

Public relations is the planned effort to influence opinion through good character and responsible performance, based upon mutually satisfactory, two-way communication. Cutlip and Center

Public relations is the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counseling leaders, and implementing programs that serve the organization’s and the public’s interest. World Assembly of Public Relations

Deliberate Planned Socially responsible performance Public interest Two-way communication Management function Conscience of the organization

Disseminating inaccurate or false information

Disclosing client information Hiring and firing practices

◦ Stealing employees◦ Taking accounts from employer◦ Employees offering company information via

social media Intentional billing errors Making undeliverable claims to clients

Poor treatment of local community◦ Polluting environment

Poor treatment of employees◦ Requiring long working hours, unreasonable

demands Poor treatment of customers

◦ Selling harmful product◦ Lying about product benefits◦ Not honoring claims and promises

Lying to company shareholders Salary discrimination Sexual harrasment Home-work balance issues Conflicts of interest

Ivy Lee◦ First to advocate factual and truthful release of

information to the media and saw the need for good corporate policies and performance in order to get favorable opinion

Edward Bernays◦ Believed that good performance properly

publicized gained the public’s favorable opinion and support

Seven Principles of Public Relations Management◦ Tell the truth.

Provide an accurate picture of the company's character, ideals and practices.

◦ Prove it with action. Public perception of an organization is determined 90 percent by what it does and ten percent by what it says.

◦ Listen to the customer.Understand what the public wants and needs. Keep top decision makers and employees informed about public reaction to company products, policies and practices.

Manage for tomorrow. Anticipate public reaction and eliminate practices that create difficulties. Generate goodwill.

◦ Conduct public relations as if the whole company depends on it. Corporate relations is a management function. No corporate strategy should be implemented without considering its impact on the public. The public relations professional is a policy maker.

◦ Realize a company's true character is expressed by its people. The strongest opinions – good or bad – about a company are shaped by the words and deeds of its employees.  As a result, every employee – active or retired – is involved with public relations.  Corporate communications must support each employee's capability to be an honest, knowledgeable ambassador to customers, friends, shareowners and public officials

◦ Remain calm, patient and good-humored. Lay the groundwork for public relations miracles with consistent, calm and reasoned attention to information and contacts. When a crisis arises, remember that cool heads communicate best.  

ADVOCACY◦ We serve the public interest by acting as responsible

advocates for those we represent. We provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.

HONESTY◦ We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth

in advancing the interests of those we represent and in communicating with the public.

EXPERTISE◦ We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge

and experience. We advance the profession through continued professional development, research, and education. We build mutual understanding, credibility, and relationships among a wide array of institutions and audiences.

INDEPENDENCE◦ We provide objective counsel to those we

represent. We are accountable for our actions. LOYALTY

◦ We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest.

FAIRNESS◦ We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors,

peers, vendors, the media, and the general public. We respect all opinions and support the right of free expression.

Protecting and advancing the free flow of accurate and truthful information is essential to serving the public interest and contributing to informed decision making in a democratic society.

Intent:◦ To maintain the integrity of relationships with the media,

government officials, and the public.◦ To aid informed decision-making.

Guidelines:◦ A member shall:

Preserve the integrity of the process of communication. Be honest and accurate in all communications. Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the

practitioner is responsible. Preserve the free flow of unprejudiced information when giving or

receiving gifts by ensuring that gifts are nominal, legal, and infrequent.

Promoting healthy and fair competition among professionals preserves an ethical climate while fostering a robust business environment.

Intent:◦ To promote respect and fair competition among public

relations professionals.◦ To serve the public interest by providing the widest

choice of practitioner options. Guidelines:

◦ A member shall: Follow ethical hiring practices designed to respect free and

open competition without deliberately undermining a competitor.

Preserve intellectual property rights in the marketplace.

Open communication fosters informed decision making in a democratic society.

Intent:◦ To build trust with the public by revealing all information

needed for responsible decision making. Guidelines:

◦ A member shall: Be honest and accurate in all communications. Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which

the member is responsible. Investigate the truthfulness and accuracy of information

released on behalf of those represented. Reveal the sponsors for causes and interests represented. Disclose financial interest (such as stock ownership) in a

client's organization. Avoid deceptive practices.

Client trust requires appropriate protection of confidential and private information.

Intent:◦ To protect the privacy rights of clients, organizations,

and individuals by safeguarding confidential information.

Guidelines:◦ A member shall:

Safeguard the confidences and privacy rights of present, former, and prospective clients and employees.

Protect privileged, confidential, or insider information gained from a client or organization.

Immediately advise an appropriate authority if a member discovers that confidential information is being divulged by an employee of a client company or organization.

Avoiding real, potential or perceived conflicts of interest builds the trust of clients, employers, and the publics.

Intent:◦ To earn trust and mutual respect with clients or employers.◦ To build trust with the public by avoiding or ending situations

that put one's personal or professional interests in conflict with society's interests.

Guidelines:◦ A member shall:

Act in the best interests of the client or employer, even subordinating the member's personal interests.

Avoid actions and circumstances that may appear to compromise good business judgment or create a conflict between personal and professional interests.

Disclose promptly any existing or potential conflict of interest to affected clients or organizations.

Encourage clients and customers to determine if a conflict exists after notifying all affected parties.

Public relations professionals work constantly to strengthen the public's trust in the profession.

Intent:◦ To build respect and credibility with the public for the

profession of public relations.◦ To improve, adapt and expand professional practices.

Guidelines:◦ A member shall:

Acknowledge that there is an obligation to protect and enhance the profession.

Keep informed and educated about practices in the profession to ensure ethical conduct.

Actively pursue personal professional development.

Decline representation of clients or organizations that urge or require actions contrary to this Code.

Accurately define what public relations activities can accomplish.

Counsel subordinates in proper ethical decision making.

Require that subordinates adhere to the ethical requirements of the Code.

Report ethical violations, whether committed by PRSA members or not, to the appropriate authority.

Pause Think about consequences Use theory and knowledge Reflect on actions Know that unethical decision making in

public relations will always escalate into additional problematic situations

Remember the messages of the founders: Ivy Lee, Edward Bernays, Arthur W. Page