Emotions

Emotions

Introduction

Most people have little problem recognizing and identifying when they are having an emotion.

However, emotion is one of the most difficult concepts in Psychology to define.

In fact, emotion is such a difficult concept to define adequately that there are at least 90 different definitions of emotions in the scientific literature.

A useful definition is a relatively brief episode of synchronized evaluative physiological, behavioural, and subjective responses.

Therefore, inpsychology,philosophy, and their many subsets, emotionis the generic term forsubjective,consciousexperience that is characterized primarily bypsycho-physiologicalexpressions, biological reactions, andmental states.

Emotion is often associated and consideredreciprocally influential with mood,temperament,personality,disposition, andmotivation.

Also emotions are influenced byhormones and neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin or cortisol.Emotion is often the driving force behindmotivation, positive or negative.

In the book "Psychology", Schacter defines emotion as a "positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity."

The term emotion usually is distinguished from feelings, mood, and affect.

1. Feeling: the subjective experience associated with an emotion.

2. Mood: an emotional state that is general and extended in time.

3. Affect: encompasses feelings and mood and categories of emotion (e.g., positive or negative affect).

Emotion functions to: 1. Increase, decrease, or regulate arousal 2. Direct perception and attention 3. Influence learning and memory 4. Organize and motivate behaviour 5. Communicate with others

Thephysiologyof emotion is closely linked toarousalof thenervous systemwith various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions.

Although those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking,cognitionis an important aspect of emotion, particularly the interpretation of events.

For example, the experience of fear usually occurs in response to a threat.

The cognition of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is an integral component to the subsequent interpretation and labelling of that arousal as an emotional state.

Emotion is also linked to behavioural tendency.

Neuroscience of Emotions

Brain Mechanisms -:

Many interrelated brain structures are involved in the recognition and experience of various emotions, often loosely defined as the limbic system (Calder, Burton, Miller, Young, & Akamatsu, 2001).

- Several subcortical structures are important in emotion. a. Damage to the amygdala impairs recognition and expression of fear, anger, and happiness. b. Damage to the basal ganglia impairs recognition and expression of disgust.

- Several areas of the cortex also are important in emotion, including the prefrontal cortex, posterior cortex, and insula.

Functions of Cerebral Hemispheres

- Right hemispherea. High activity is associated with depression and flexion (avoidant) motions.b. More active than left hemisphere during displays of many emotions.c. Damage often leaves individuals emotionally indifferent and unable to read many emotions.

- Left hemispherea. More active than right during smiling, positive emotions, and extension (approach) motions.b. Relatively low activity in the left frontal lobe is associated with depression.

- Two theoriesa. Right-hemisphere theory: Right hemisphere dominant in all emotional processing.b. Valence theory: Right hemisphere dominant for negative emotions; left dominant for positive emotions.

Neuro-endocrinal Systems - The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system controls stress hormones that facilitate short-term coping with emotional events. - Hypothalamus: Brain region that regulates hormonal functions via the pituitary gland.

- Pituitary gland: Master gland that receives messages from hypothalamus and relays signals to endocrine glands to regulate hormones.

- Adrenal glands: Located atop the kidneys; top part (adrenal cortex) responds to signals from pituitary by releasing stress hormones such as cortisol into the blood.

The Autonomic Nervous System - controls responses to cognitive and environmental stimuli that give rise to emotional responses

The sympathetic nervous system releases norepinephrine onto peripheral targets (i.e., organs, glands, or muscles) to prepare the body for vigorous activity (e.g., increased respiration, sweating, and heartbeat).

The parasympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine onto peripheral targets (i.e., organs, glands, or muscles) to relax the body after the activity is over (e.g., slows heartbeat).Components of EmotionInScherer'scomponents processing model of emotion,five crucial elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes.

Cognitive appraisal:provides an evaluation of events and objects

Bodily symptoms:thephysiologicalcomponent of emotional experience

Action tendencies:amotivationalcomponent for the preparation and direction of motor responses.

Expression:facialandvocalexpression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions.

Feelings:the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred.

Types of Emotions

Basic Emotions - Basic Emotions are the unlearned feelings (emotions) that are felt by everyone.

According to Ekman, people have a few basic emotions, analogous to the elements of chemistry. According to a competing view by Plutchik, emotional feelings occur along two or more continuous dimensions, such as pleasure vs. displeasure and activity vs. inactivity.

Among those who accept the idea of basic emotions, this list of such emotions is widely agreed to include anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Other candidates for the status of basic emotion include contempt and amusement.

Expression and recognition emerge early in life but continue to develop through adolescence (Herba, Landau, Russell, Ecker, & Philllips, 2006).

Two Dimensions of Emotions

Self-conscious and social emotions - Includes emotions such as shame, guilt, contempt, pride, envy, and empathy.

These emotions fully develop later than basic emotions because they depend on landmarks in cognitive development, such as a sense of self and theory of mind.

Refined emotion - A new concept for aspects of emotional experience that require higher mental processes, such as higher order awareness (Frijda & Sundararajan, 2007).

Basic and self-conscious emotions are refined through an abstract, overall sense of things (harmony) or the active search for harmony and heightened emotional experience (savouring).

Refined emotions have minimal outward expressions

Theories of EmotionJames-Lange TheoryThe James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event causes physiological arousal first and then we interpret this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we experience emotion. If the arousal is not noticed or is not given any thought, then we will not experience any emotion based on this event.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. You notice these physiological changes and interpret them as your body'spreparation for a fearful situation. You then experience fear.

Cannon-Bard TheoryThe Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience physiological arousal and emotional at the same time, but gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward behavior.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. At the same time as these physiological changes occur you also experience the emotion of fear.

Schachter-Singer TheoryAccording to this theory, an event causes physiological arousal first. You must then identify a reason for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon noticing this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by yourself. This behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of fear.

Lazarus Theory

Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience an emotion.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you think it may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear.

Facial Feedback TheoryAccording to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the experience of changes in our facial muscles. In other words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness. When we frown, we then experience sadness. it is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our brains and provide the basis of our emotions. Just as there are an unlimited number of muscle configurations in our face, so to are there a seemingly unlimited number of emotions.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and your eyes widen, your teeth clench and your brain interprets these facial changes as the expression of fear. Therefore you experience the emotion of fear.

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