Empires_Imperial_States_and_Colonial_Soc.pdf

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httpslidepdfcomreaderfullempiresimperialstatesandcolonialsocpdf 123

This is a digital offfprint for restricted use only | copy 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV

Concise Encyclopediaof Comparative Sociology

Edited by

Masamichi Sasaki

Jack Goldstone

Ekkart Zimmermann

Stephen K Sanderson

LEIDEN bull BOSTON983090983088983089983092




CONTENTS

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

List of Contributors xv

List of Tables and Figures xvii

PART ONE

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN COMPARING SOCIETIES

983089 Comparing Societies around the World 983091

Henry Teune

983090 Comparing Societies across Sizes and Scales 983089983090

Mattei Dogan

983091 Comparing Societies Qualitative Methods 983090983089

Julian Go

983092 Comparing Societies Quantitative Methods 983091983088

Peter Ph Mohler

PART TWO

COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL SOCIOLOGY

983089 Ancient Civilizations 983092983093

SN Eisenstadt

983090 Empires Imperial States and Colonial Societies 983093983096

George Steinmetz

983091 Modern Societies 983095983093

John A Hall

983092 The Diverse Uses of Digital Formations 983096983097

Saskia Sassen

PART THREE

COMPARING INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL STRUCTURES

983089 Population Structures 983089983088983091

Arland Thornton

983090 Social Inequality and Mobility 983089983089983091

Sandra Buchholz and Hans-Peter Blossfeld

983091 State Structures 983089983090983089

Victor Nee and Michael Siemon



vi 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155


983092 Parties and Party Systems 983089983090983096

Thomas Saalfeld and Margret Hornsteiner

983093 Economic Systems Comparative Historical Method in Economic Sociology 983089983091983094

Andrew Savchenko

983094 Multi-Ethnic Societies 983089983092983092

Ralph D Grillo

983095 The Sociology of Religion 983089983093983092

William DrsquoAntonio and Anthony J Pogorelc

983096 Corporations and Commerce 983089983094983091

Harland Prechel

983097 The Metropolis 983089983095983092 Anthony M Orum

983089983088 Voluntary Organizations and Civil Society 983089983096983090

Joonmo Son

983089983089 Family Systems in Comparative Perspective 983089983097983088

Stephen K Sanderson

983089983090 Gender and Society 983089983097983097

Harriet Bradley

983089983091 Professions 983090983088983097

Joseph C Hermanowicz and David R Johnson

983089983092 Social Welfare Systems 983090983089983095

James Midgley

983089983093 The Sociology of Language A Return Visit 983090983090983094

Joshua A Fishman

983089983094 Comparative Sociology of Education 983090983091983094 David P Baker

983089983095 Mass Media 983090983092983091

Willam A Gamson

983089983096 Mass Culture 983090983093983090

Mike Featherstone

983089983097 Comparative Military Organization 983090983094983090

Michelle Sandhofff and David R Segal

983090983088 The Social Organization of Science and Technology 983090983095983090

Wenda K Bauchspies

983090983089 Cross-National Public Opinion Research 983090983096983089

Tom W Smith



983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 vii


PART FOUR

COMPARING SOCIAL PROCESSES

983089 Economic Development and Growth 983090983097983091

Erich Weede

983090 The Emergence of Nation-States 983091983089983089

Hendrik Spruyt

983091 The Development of Nationalism and Citizenship 983091983090983089

Veljko Vujačić

983092 Modernization and Globalization 983091983091983089

Robert M Marsh

983093 Democratization 983091983092983090 Luis Roniger

983094 Political Socialization and Values 983091983093983090

Henk Vinken

983095 Voting Behavior and Public Opinion 983091983094983088

Harald Schoen

983096 Communication in the Internet Age 983091983095983088

Karen A Cerulo

983097 Demography and Migration 983091983095983097

Jack A Goldstone

983089983088 Crime Imprisonment and Social Control 983091983096983095

Bill McCarthy

983089983089 Social Problems 983091983097983094

Robert Heiner

983089983090 Social Deviance 983092983088983090

Steve Hall

983089983091 Social Movements and Collective Behavior 983092983089983088

Mario Diani

983089983092 Terrorism 983092983089983096

Michel Wieviorka

983089983093 Hazards and Disasters 983092983090983095

Kathleen Tierney

983089983094 Internal Wars and Revolution 983092983091983095

Ekkart Zimmermann

983089983095 International War 983092983092983097

Jack S Levy



viii 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155


983089983096 Ecology and Environment 983092983093983095

Andrew K Jorgenson Riley E Dunlap and Brett Clark

983089983097 Leisure and Consumption 983092983094983093

Robert A Stebbins

983090983088 Small Groups Networks and Social Interaction 983092983095983092

Linda D Molm

983090983089 Emotions and Social Life 983092983096983090

Jonathan H Turner

983090983090 Trust 983092983097983090

Piotr Sztompka

983090983091 Collective Memory 983092983097983097 Amy Corning and Howard Schuman

PART FIVE

COMPARING NATION-STATES AND WORLD REGIONS

983089 Asian Sociology in an Era of Globalization (with Emphasis on Japan China and Korea) 983093983089983089

Masamichi Sasaki

983090 European Societies 983093983090983092William Outhwaite

983091 American Society 983093983092983088

Claude S Fischer and Benjamin Moodie

983092 Latin American Societies 983093983093983095

Miguel Angel Centeno

983093 The Middle East and North Africa 983093983095983092

Glenn E Robinson

983094 Sub-Saharan Africa in Contemporary Perspective 983093983097983091

Danielle Resnick and Nicolas van de Walle

PART SIX

BIOGRAPHIES OF EXEMPLARY COMPARATIVE SOCIOLOGISTS

Perry Anderson 983094983089983091

Giovanni Arrighi 983094983089983092Daniel Bell 983094983089983093

Reinhard Bendix 983094983089983095

Albert J Bergesen 983094983089983096

Rae Lesser Blumberg 983094983089983097



983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 ix


Fernand Braudel 983094983090983089

Christopher Chase-Dunn 983094983090983090

Daniel Chirot 983094983090983091

Randall Collins 983094983090983093

Mattei Dogan 983094983090983094

Emile Durkheim 983094983090983095SN Eisenstadt 983094983090983097

Jack A Goldstone 983094983091983088

Johan Goudsblom 983094983091983090

Andre Gunder Frank 983094983091983091

Thomas D Hall 983094983091983092

Geert Hofstede 983094983091983093

Alex Inkeles 983094983091983093

Edgar Kiser 983094983091983095

Melvin L Kohn 983094983091983096

Krishan Kumar 983094983092983088Gerhard Lenski 983094983092983088

Seymour Martin Lipset 983094983092983090

Michael Mann 983094983092983091

Robert M Marsh 983094983092983093

Karl Marx 983094983092983095

William H McNeill 983094983092983097

Barrington Moore Jr 983094983093983088

Charles Ragin 983094983093983090

Dietrich Rueschemeyer 983094983093983091

Stephen K Sanderson 983094983093983092

Theda Skocpol 983094983093983093

Pitirim Sorokin 983094983093983094

Herbert Spencer 983094983093983096

Charles Tilly 983094983094983088

Pierre van den Berghe 983094983094983089

Immanuel Wallerstein 983094983094983090

Max Weber 983094983094983092

Edward Westermarck 983094983094983093

Karl August Wittfogel 983094983094983095

Name Index 983094983095983089Subject Index 983094983095983091




Empires Imperial States and Colonial Societies

George Steinmetz

of empires Let me brie10486781048684y clarify these four terms

ldquoForms of empirerdquo refers to the ways sociologistshave de9831421048681ned empires colonies and related phe-nomena The word ldquotrajectoriesrdquo points to the ways sociologists have described the develop-mental paths of empires As we will see theoriesof ldquoalternativerdquo or ldquomultiplerdquo modernities havelargely replaced unlinear views of societies as mov-ing along a universal common path from tribe tostate to empire or from tradition to modernity As for ldquodeterminantsrdquo of empire I indentify four

major intellectual developments Early sociologi-cal theories tended to seek a single primary sourceof imperial politics (but see Weber 1891) whereascontemporary historical sociologists typicallyemphasize overdetermined conjunctural andmulticausal patterns of causality Second earliertheories emphasized political military or eco-nomic causal mechanisms whereas current workalso attends to ideological linguistic psychic andcultural processes Third earlier theories of empiretended to be ldquometrocentricrdquo locating causal pri-macy in the core Imperial theorists subsequentlytwisted the stick in the opposite direction empha-sizing the eff9831421048681cacy of the periphery (Robinson1986) Most recently analysts have integratedthese excentric and metrocentric optics analyz-ing imperial systems as complex overdeterminedtotalities in which cores shape peripheries and vice-versa and in which ldquo9831421048681eldsrdquo such as the colo-nial state (Steinmetz 2008a) and colonial science(Bourdieu 1993) may be located entirely within

the core or periphery or may instead span difffer-ent imperial spaces (Steinmetz 2012a) The fourthdevelopment is the gradual shift in political andhistorical sociology from a focus on states to afocus on empires States continue to play vari-ous roles within these wider imperial entities butempires have their own speci9831421048681c characteristicsand cannot simply be treated as large states

Scientific history cannot be described as asingle straight line but its story should still

be told diachronically My discussion is bro-ken up into four periods each of which cor-responds to important global changes inimperial practice and developments in socio-logical analyzes of empires This mode ofpresentation is not meant to suggest any nec-

The genealogy of sociological research on empires

imperial states and colonial societies is a hiddenone in several respects The most general reasonfor this invisibility is disciplinary amnesia thatis sociologyrsquos general lack of serious interest inits own past except for occasional references toa handful of the 9831421048681eldrsquos ldquofounding fathersrdquo Thereis inadequate knowledge of earlier work in thisarea even among current sociological specialistsin empire (myself included until very recently)Sociologists nowadays attribute theories of colo-

nial syncretism and transculturation to culturalanthropology or literary criticism for exampleeven though these theories were pioneered partlyby sociologists (see below) Connell (1997 1535)argues that sociologists turned inward en masse toward questions of ldquosocial diffference and socialdisorder within the metropolerdquo after the First World War but a more detailed investigation 9831421048681nds thatsociologists have analyzed advised and criticizedempires throughout the entire history of the dis-cipline that is since the 19th century983089 Of coursethere have been shifts in emphasis and argumen-tation over time and across national 9831421048681elds Soci-ologists in the USA and France largely lost interestin ancient empires though this was less true ofGerman and Italian sociologists (Santoro 2013) Ingeneral there was more interest in empire amongFrench German and Italian sociologists duringthe interwar and immediate post-1945 periodsthan in Britain or the United States while there ismore imperial interest among US based sociolo-

gists today I will not be able to map out these geo-graphical shifts here much less explain them (butsee Steinmetz 2013b) I will try to reconstruct inbroad strokes the major theoretical contributionsto the analysis of empires by sociologists during thepast 180 years Given sociologistsrsquo growing interestin colonialism imperialism postcolonialism andempire (Steinmetz 2008b Boatcă and Spohn 2010Reuter and Villa 2010) it seems a good moment toreconstruct this hidden intellectual genealogy

What follows then is not a simply an intel-lectual history intended to honor sociologicalancestors but an overview of resources for futureresearch I am especially interested in exploring the ways sociologists have analyzed the forms devel-

opmental trajectories determinants and efffects



983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59


essary relationship between scientific andimperial historical developments each of whichis relatively autonomous from the other Soci-ologistsrsquo interest in empire has often beenextremely independent of immediate geopoli-

tics For example German sociologists becamemore not less interested in colonialism after World War I even though Germany had lostits colonies and stood little chance of regainingthem (Steinmetz 2009) A diachronic approachis necessary however in order to track pat-terns of reciprocal causality between imperialand sociological practice and the play of amne-sia and intellectual accumulation within socialscience A historical approach can restore to

sociology a sense of its own accomplishmentsand of the ideas that may continue to haunt thediscipline even unconsciously

Empire Imperialism Colonialism and the State

The overarching concept in all discussions ofimperialism and colonialism is ldquoempirerdquo Anempire can be de9831421048681ned minimally as a relation-ship ldquoof political control imposed by some politi-cal societies over the efffective sovereignty ofother political societiesrdquo (Doyle 1986 19 Eisen-stadt 2010 xxiindashxxiii) The word empire or impe-

rium initially referred to large agrarian politicalorganizations formed by conquest (Koebner 19551961 Goldstone and Haldon 2010 18) Ancientempires typically combined restless expansionand militarism with mechanisms aimed at sta-bilizing the conquered by offfering them peaceand prosperity in exchange for subjection andtribute (Pagden 2003) One result of the endless waves of territorial conquest and political incor-

poration in the ancient world was that empires were multicultural or cosmopolitan althoughsome empiresrsquo conquered populations were inte-grated into the core culture to a greater extentthan others Although Rome was the prototype983090historians extended the idea of empire to suchdiverse polities as Mesopotamian Akkad Achae-menid Persia and China from the Qin to theQing Dynasty

The word ldquoimperialismrdquo was originally coined

in the 19th century to decry Napoleonrsquos despoticmilitarism but by the end of the century it wasbeing used to describe the behavior of empiresat all times and places In the 20th century theconcept of imperialism was transformed froma polemical into a scienti9831421048681c concept with two

main de9831421048681nitions On the one hand imperial-ism referred to all effforts by a state to increaseits power and territory through conquest (Salz1931) A second de9831421048681nition associated with Marx-ists and JA Hobson (1965) cast imperialism as

an aggressive quest for economic investmentopportunities raw materials or sources of cheaplabor According to leading contemporary histo-rians imperialism is a form of political controlof foreign lands that does not necessarily entailconquest occupation or permanent foreign ruleIt is best seen as ldquoa more comprehensive conceptrdquothan colonialism since empires may understandcolonies ldquonot just [as] ends in themselves butalso [as] pawns in global power gamesrdquo (Oster-

hammel 2005 21ndash22)The keyword ldquocolonialismrdquo is based on the Latin verb colere (meaning to inhabit till cultivate carefor) and colonization still often has these conno-tations and does not necessarily entail politicalconquest Modern colonialism is distinguishedfrom colonization in that it does involve politi-cal conquest but it does not necessarily involvesettlement in conquered territories In contrastto imperialism colonialism always involves theseizure of sovereignty and long-term foreign ruleover the annexed space Modern colonial rule isalso organized around assumptions of racial orcivilizational hierarchy that are enforced throughlaw and administrative policy These off9831421048681cialinequalities prevent most colonized subjects fromattaining rights and citizenship status equal tothe colonizers (Chatterjee 1993 Steinmetz 2007218ndash39)

The 9831421048681nal keyword is ldquothe staterdquo States 9831421048681gure atfour main points in the sociology of empire First

there is always a state at the core of every empire(Schmitt 1991 67) with the possible exception ofsome ancient empires that were ldquoin almost per-petual campaigning motionrdquo (Mann 1986 145)Second colonizers smash extant native politiesor refunction them to create their own colonial

states Third colonizers often rely on indirectrule through diminished native states Finallyempire-possessing states may devolve into statessimpliciter as with the dismantling of the Austro-

Hungarian and Ottoman empires after World War I conversely states may grow into or acquireempires States are thus the coordinating cen-ters peripheral extrusions and building blocks ofempires and sometimes the endpoints of empiresrsquohistorical narratives



60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162


Five Periods of Sociological Research on

Empires 1830ndash1890

Proto-Sociologists as Colonial Analysts Critics

and Policymakers

Auguste Comte and Alexis de Tocqueville rep-resent two poles in the disciplinersquos permanentstruggle between critics and supporters of empireComte used evidence from contemporaneousnon-western cultures as proxies for earlier stagesof European development like many later soci-ologists but he was no supporter of colonialismComte argued that early-modern colonialismldquoopened new opportunities for the warrior spiritby land and seardquo thereby prolonging ldquothe military

and theological reacutegimerdquo and delaying ldquothe timeof the 9831421048681nal reorganizationrdquo (Comte 1830ndash1842 vol 6 128ndash29) Those countries in which inves-tors became ldquopersonally interestedrdquo in overseascolonies experienced an increase in ldquoretrogradethought and social immobilityrdquo (Ibid 720)

Tocqueville (2001 78) also warned against thecreation of a large class of military heroes return-ing home from colonial wars and assuming ldquodis-torted proportions in the public imaginationrdquo But while some readers of Tocquevillersquos Democracy in

America have been led to believe that its authorrejected ldquoevery system of rule by outsiders no mat-ter how benevolentrdquo (Berlin 1965 204) this was farfrom the case Tocqueville wrote several reportsfor the French Parliament on the new Algeriancolony In 1842 he insisted that France could notabandon the colony without signaling its ownldquodeclinerdquo and ldquofalling to the second rankrdquo The Alge-rians he wrote must be fought ldquowith the utmost violence and in the Turkish manner that is to say

by killing everything we meetrdquo and employing ldquoallmeans of desolating these tribesrdquo (2001 59 70ndash71)Tocqueville rejected the social evolutionary viewin favor of a theory of unbridgeable cultural difffer-ence arguing against the possible fusion of Arabsand French into ldquoa single peoplerdquo (2001 25 111) Hisanti-evolutionary stance pointed toward colonialnative policies of ldquoindirect rulerdquo Tocqueville alsoinsisted that securing French control of Algeria would require a sizable settler community Fol-

lowing the example of the Roman empire thesesettlements should be smaller copies of the coremetropolitan city and should be scattered throughthe colony

Karl Marx offfered an in10486781048684uential account ofthe sources of European global expansion and

the efffects of colonial rule on the colonies Anti-imperialist critics of Marx have focused on hisoccasional articles for the New York Post in which he described colonialism as clearing awaythe cobwebs of Oriental despotism and feudal-

ism and allowing capitalism to take root (Marx1969) But Marxrsquos more serious writing on empireis contained in Capital volume one Here Marxargued that capital accumulation is an inherentlyexpansive process leading to the ldquoentanglementof all peoples in the net of the world market and with this the growth of the international charac-ter of the capitalist regimerdquo (1976 929) Marx alsoargued that ldquothe chief moments of primitive accu-mulationrdquo were linked to ldquothe discovery of gold

and silver in America the extirpation enslave-ment and entombment in mines of the indigenouspopulation of that continent and the conversionof Africa into a preserve for the commercial hunt-ing of blackskinsrdquo Marx suggested that colonial-ism played a ldquopreponderant rolerdquo in the period ofmanufacture but that its importance receded inthe era of machinofacture (Marx 1976 915 918)He died in 1883 however just as the second waveof overseas colonization was beginning Marxrsquosanalysis of imperialism as global expansion primi-tive accumulation and extreme exploitation waspicked up by many later Marxists

Gumplowicz and the Origins of the Militarist

Theory of the Formation of States and Empires

A signal contribution to the analysis of empire was made by the Polish-Austrian sociologist Lud- wig Gumplowicz (1838ndash1909) Some commenta-tors have misleadingly described Gumplowiczas a proponent of 19th century race theory a

Social Darwinist or even a forerunner of fascism(Johnston 1972 323ndash26 Lukaacutecs 1981 691) In factGumplowicz criticized analyzes of society as a bio-logical organism insisting that the ldquolaws of sociallife were not reducible to biological factorsbut constituted a 9831421048681eld of investigation sui gen-

erisrdquo (Weiler 2007 2039) Gumplowicz describedhuman history as an eternal ldquorace strugglerdquo ( Ras-

senkampf ) but he de9831421048681ned ldquoracerdquo [ Rasse] not as anatural phenomenon but as a ldquosocial product the

result of social developmentrdquo (Gumplowicz 1879254) Warfare was not determined by some priorracial categories but imposed a racial format onstruggles between warring groups (Gumplowicz1883 194) Social classes in western countries thusldquobehave[d] toward one another as races carrying



983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61


out a social race strugglerdquo (Gumplowicz 1909196ndash97 note 1) Warfare and domination were theldquocompellingrdquo ( zwingende) ldquopivotrdquo of the historicalprocess (Gumplowicz 1883 194 218) The culmina-tion of the process of ldquoalmost uninterrupted war-

farerdquo is the creation of states which tend to growever larger (Gumplowicz 1883 176) Sociologistssuch as Tilly (1975 73ndash76 1990) Collins (1978 26)and Mann (1986) have followed Gumplowicz inarguing that states are driven to expand through warfare

Reading Gumplowicz symptomatically we canalso extract some useful ideas for distinguishingbetween modern states empires and overseascolonies Territorial political organizations that

originate in conquest have to deal with ethnic orcultural heterogeneity Gumplowicz distinguishedbetween states in which ldquoa more or less general cul-ture has covered up the originally heterogeneouscomponent partsrdquo and states ldquowith a lsquonationallymore mixedrsquo populationrdquo like the Austro-Hungar-ian empire (Gumplowicz 1883 206) This secondset of ldquomixedrdquo states was characterized by the factldquothat the heterogeneous ethnic components relateto one another in a condition of super- and subor-dination that is in a relationship of dominationrdquo( Herrschaftsverhaumlltnis Gumplowicz 1883 206)



The second period began with the partitioning of Africa and ended with the collapse of the Otto-man Russian German and Austrian empiresThis period saw the emergence of sociology as anacademic 9831421048681eld the creation of the 9831421048681rst universitychairs in sociology and the founding of sociologi-

cal associations and departments Key 9831421048681gures ineach of the national sociological 9831421048681elds contributedto the study of empire before World War I (Con-nell 1998 Steinmetz 2013a)

Sociologists and Practical Imperial Policy

Social scientists only rarely played a direct role inimperial policymaking before 1918 with the nota-ble exceptions of Tocqueville and John Stuart Mill(Tunick 2006) Nonetheless metropolitan social

scientists re10486781048684ected extensively on imperial andcolonial policy and their ethnographic portraits ofnon-western cultures profoundly shaped colonialnative policymaking (Steinmetz 2002 2003b 2007Goh 2005) In his own study of colonialism Schaumlf-10486781048684e distinguished between what he called ldquopassive

colonizationrdquo meaning the activities undertakenby missionaries traders and explorers in the cen-turies leading up to formal colonial annexation of Africa in the 1880s and ldquoactive political coloniza-tionrdquo (Schaumlff10486781048684e 1887 126) Alfred Vierkandt who

held the 9831421048681rst Sociology chair at Berlin Universitypublished a study of the categories that guidedGerman colonial native policy Kulturvoumllker and

Naturvoumllker or ldquocultural and natural peoplesrdquo(Vierkandt 1896) Max Weberrsquos hyper-imperialistpolitical views were directed toward support forGermanyrsquos projection of power on a world stageand not toward overseas colonialism (Mommsen1984) Weber (1891) wrote his habilitation thesison the formation and devolution of the Roman

Empire His brother Alfred argued that Germancapitalists could pro9831421048681t handily by doing businessin other countriesrsquo empires and did not even needGerman colonies (A Weber 1904) During World War I Max and Alfred Weber strongly supportedFriedrich Naumannrsquos (1915) plan for achievingindirect hegemony over Mitteleuropa a projectin which ldquoGermany would respect the freedomof the smaller nations and renounce annexationrdquocreating a ldquotransnational federation of states ledby lsquoleading nationsrsquordquo (A Weber quoted in Demm1990 207 209) The Dutch sociologist Sebald Stein-metz (1903) analyzed indigenous ldquocustomary lawrdquoin European colonies Patrick Geddes who before1950 was the most frequently cited sociologist inthe pages of the British Sociological Review (Halsey2004 174) devised a theory of imperial urbanismand a practical approach to ameliorative colonialurban planning (Geddes 1917 1918) German sociol-ogist Robert Michels explained Italyrsquos turn towardcolonial aggression with reference to population

pressure national pride and the ldquonatural instinctfor political expansionrdquo (Michels 1912 470 495)

The Comparative Sociological Method

Evolutionary Social Theory and Imperialism

Emile Durkheimrsquos circle was closely connectedto colonialism as analytic object research set-ting and data source Durkheim used informationon non-western and colonized peoples gatheredby European travelers missionaries and colo-

nial off9831421048681cials to build his evolutionary theoryNineteenth century sociologists assumed thattheir nascent discipline should seek general lawsalong the lines of the imagined natural sciences According to Pareto (1893 677) ldquoit is by com-paring civilized with savage society that modern



62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162


sociologists have been able to lay the basis fora new sciencerdquo Russian sociologist Maksim Kova-levsky compared the various peoples of the Rus-sian empire viewing them as exemplars of thediffferent temporalities of a universal process of

social evolution (Semyonov et al 2013) Although sociologists nowadays disparage the-

ories of social evolution as empirically feeble andpolitically conservative these approaches werenot always reactionary in their own era In thecontext of Third Republic France after the Drey-fus Afffair Durkheimrsquos evolutionary analysis sug-gested a common humanity in all cultures from Australian Aborigines to contemporary French-men Evolutionary sociology offfered a critique

of ldquosuperstitions and errorsrdquo by suggesting thatbackwards Russia would one day converge withliberal western societies according to sociologistEvgenii de Roberti (Resis 1970 226) Evolutionarytheories of the state and society were revived after1945 under the guise of modernization theory andagain this framework was partially progressive inits rejection of European colonialismmdashalthoughit simultaneously laid the intellectual groundworkfor the global American empire (Gilman 2003) Anti-evolutionary perspectives which see civili-zations as developing along difffering paths werealready discussed in the 18th century and Roman-tic eras (Herder 1784) and have reemerged peri-odically since then

Imperialism as a Function of Capitalism and as

the Ruin of Democracy

The most famous contribution from this periodis Hobsonrsquos Imperialism (1902) Hobson was amember of the editorial committee of Sociologi-

cal Papers attended meetings of the British Socio-logical Society and published in journals such as

American Journal of Sociology Hobson exercised ahuge in10486781048684uence on all later discussions of imperial-ism by rede9831421048681ning it as a primarily economic phe-nomenon This perspective was carried forwardby Hilferding Luxemburg Bukharin Lenin and ahost of other Marxists Hobson argued that impe-rialism was driven by capital overaccumulationunderconsumption and the search for new mar-

kets and investment outlets Imperialism markeda repudiation of free trade Imperialism did notbene9831421048681t capitalism as a whole but only sectionalinterests especially 9831421048681nance Imperialism couldbe eliminated by redistributing wealth domesti-

cally and raising consumption levels Hobson alsocontinued to re9831421048681ne his views during the interwar period and he concluded later that ldquopower-politics furnish the largest volume of imperialistenergy though narrow economic considerations

mainly determine its concrete applicationrdquo (Hob-son 1926 192ndash93)

The second half of Hobsonrsquos great book focusedon imperialismrsquos efffects which Hobson saw as cat-astrophic The sources of the ldquoincomes expendedin the Home Counties and other large districts ofSouthern Britainrdquo he wrote ldquowere in large mea-sure wrung from the enforced toil of vast multi-tudes of black brown or yellow natives by artsnot difffering essentially from those which sup-

ported in idleness and luxury imperial Romerdquo(Hobson 1965 151) Politically the trend in thecolonies was toward ldquounfreedomrdquo and ldquoBritish des-potismrdquo except with regard to the white settlers(Hobson 1965 151) Turning to the homeland Hob-son argued that imperialism struck ldquoat the veryroot of popular liberty and ordinary civic virtuesrdquoin Britain and checked ldquothe very course of civili-zationrdquo (Hobson 1965 133 162) Governments useldquoforeign wars and the glamour of empire-makingin order to bemuse the popular mind and divertrising resentment against domestic abusesrdquo (Hob-son 1965 142) Imperialism overawes the citizenryldquoby continual suggestions of unknown and incal-culable gains and perils the sober processes ofdomestic policyrdquo (Hobson 1965 147ndash48) Jingoisticideology cemented a hegemonic bloc that united various social classes in support of empire (Hob-son 1901) Empire degraded daily life in the metro-pole through the cultivation of a military habit ofmind that ldquoun9831421048681ts a man for civil liferdquo by training

him to become ldquoa perfect killerrdquo (Hobson 1965133ndash34) British children were taught a ldquolsquogeocen-tricrsquo view of the moral universerdquo and their play-time was turned ldquointo the routine of military drillrdquo(Hobson 1965 217)

Hobsonrsquos argument that ldquoautocratic govern-ment in imperial politics naturally reacts upondomestic governmentrdquo (1965 146ndash47) was echoedby his sociologist colleagues Leonard Hobhouse(1902) and Herbert Spencer (1902 157ndash88) and by

a number of other British Radicals and Liberals(Porter 1968) This argument also anticipated dis-cussions of the re10486781048684ux of empire into metropolitanculture and Arendtrsquos (1950) theory of imperialismas pre9831421048681guring totalitarianism



983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63


Hintze Weber and the Non-economistic

Explanation of Ancient Empires and Modern

Imperialism

Resistance to the economistic narrowing of impe-rialism set in quickly among German social sci-

entists An alternative account was proposed byOtto Hintze (1907) who insisted on imperialismrsquosinherently political character and distinguishedbetween ldquoancient imperialismrdquo and ldquomodern impe-rialismrdquo The former was oriented toward politicalexpansion and world domination and based on aldquorelatively closed civilizationrdquo one ldquothat refusesthe right to exist of everything foreign that cannotbe assimilatedrdquo (Hintze 1970) Modern imperial-ism by contrast seeks a balance among the great

powers Napoleon sought to create a ldquogreat fed-erative systemrdquo of empires rather than acceptingBritish global domination After 1815 a liberal eraof free trade and industrialism ldquoseemed to replacethe era of mercantilism and militarismrdquo Towardthe end of the century however Britain beganto reorganize its colonial empire in the face ofmounting challenges to its global power The goalof present-day imperialism was not a single worldempire Hinze concluded but a system of smaller world empires co-existing side-by-side This reso-nated with contemporary discussions of ldquoImperialFederationrdquo (eg Hobson 1965 328ndash55)

In his habilitation thesis Weber analyzedRomersquos expansion as a process of conquest andcolonization Weber identi9831421048681ed a movement awayfrom a compact contained state toward a far-10486781048684ung empire of conquests and a decentralizedscattered structure of manorial power withinItaly The impetus for Roman expansion wasboth political and economic ldquoRome provided for

her landless citizens (cives proletarii ) the peas-antryrsquos offfspringrdquo through ldquodistributions of landand colonial foundationsrdquo (Weber 1998b 307)The inhabitants were treated diffferently in eachof the ldquocitizen coloniesrdquo sometimes being ldquosimplyincorporated into the ranks of the colonistsrdquo else- where being ldquoreduced to the status of common-ersrdquo or to some other unequal status (Weber 201046ndash47) Weberrsquos account of Romersquos decline paidequal attention to core and periphery centraliz-

ing and decentralizing impulses There was a shiftin the political center of gravity from the cities tothe countryside and a move from a predominantlycommercial economy to a static subsistence-oriented ldquonatural economyrdquo Over time the slav-ery-based rural estate became an autarchic ldquooikosrdquo

that was ldquoindependent of marketsrdquo and satis9831421048681edits own consumption needs (Weber 1998b 3592010 151) Whereas ldquothe basis of Roman publicadministrationrdquo had earlier been located in thecities the rural estates came to be ldquoremoved from

urban jurisdictionrdquo and ldquogreat numbers of ruralproperties started to appear alongside the cit-ies as administrative unitsrdquo The large landownersgained a ldquonew prominence in the policies of theLater Roman Empirerdquo (Weber 1998 401 360) Thecentral state was increasingly organized along ldquoanatural economy basisrdquo with the 9831421048681scus ldquoproduc-ing as much as possible what it neededrdquo and rely-ing on tribute and in kind payments (Weber 1998405) The Roman cities ldquocrumbledrdquo and ldquocame to

rest on [the rural manors]rdquo like ldquoleechesrdquo (Weber2010 164 166) Weberrsquos discussion of imperialism in Economy

and Society paid more attention to the economis-tic approach noting that ldquoone might be inclined tobelieve that the formation as well as the expansionof Great Power structures is always and primarilydetermined economicallyrdquo (Weber 1978 913) Capi-talism he argued had shifted from a generally paci-9831421048681st orientation to an aggressively imperialist stanceBut while ldquothe economic importance of trade wasnot altogether absentrdquo in the formation of empires Weber insisted that other motives had played theirpart in a process that ldquodoes not always follow theroutes of export traderdquo (Weber 1978 914ndash915) Geo-political expansion was driven by concerns derivingfrom the ldquorealm of lsquohonorrsquordquo or the quest for ldquopres-tige of powerrdquo (Weber 1978 910) And while theexpansive drive might be reinforced by capitalistinterests it was also true that ldquothe evolution of cap-italism may be strangled by the manner in which

a uni9831421048681ed political structure is administratedrdquomdashasin the late Roman Empire (Weber 1978 915) Echo-ing Ibn Khaldunrsquos (1967 128ndash29) theory of imperialoverstretch and Alfred Weberrsquos analysis of the eco-nomic irrationality of colonialism (A Weber 1904) Weber suggested that ldquocountries little burdened bymilitary expenses often experience a strongereconomic expansion that do some of the GreatPowersrdquo (Weber 1978 901)

Five Periods of Sociological Research onEmpires 1918ndash1945

The third period saw the consolidation of colonialrule in Africa and Asia and the rise of anticolo-nial movements At the beginning of this period

1048678983145n-de-siegravecle discourses of cultural pessimism and



64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162


degeneration combined with the collapse of thetraditional land empires to reinvigorate ancienttheories of imperial cycles A number of Germansociologists proposed non-economic explanationsof imperialism Ethno-sociologists theorized colo-

nial cultural syncretism or hybridity and antico-lonial resistance Some social scientists discussedthe emergence of a new form of empire involvinggeospatial spheres of in10486781048684uence without territorialannexation And after 1940 social scientists begananalyzing Nazism as an empire

Discourses of Degeneration and the Cyclical Rise

and Fall of Empires

The period around World War I saw a resurgence

of ancient theories of imperial cycles WesternEmpires have been shadowed since Virgil andPolybius by anxiety about their inevitable demise(Hell 2009 forthcoming) These arguments gaineda new urgency at the end of the 19th century withtheories of cultural degeneration One of the mostin10486781048684uential statements of imperial decline wasSpenglerrsquos (1920ndash1922) Decline of the West a wide-ranging narrative of the rise and fall of civiliza-tions and their crystallization as empires in their9831421048681nal degenerate phase

Sociological Accounts of Imperialism as Power

Politics

At least one leading sociologist of the WeimarRepublic Franz Oppenheimer accepted theMarxist argument about the capitalist roots ofimperialism Oppenheimer also followed Gumplo- wicz however in arguing that the state is a ldquosocialinstitution that is forced by a victorious group ofmen on a defeated group with the sole purpose

of regulating the dominion of the former over thelatter and securing itself against revolt from withinand attacks from abroadrdquo (1919 10) This was auniversal theory ldquoall States of world-history haveto run the same course or gauntlet torn by thesame class-struggles through the same stages ofdevelopment following the same inexorable lawsrdquo(1944 551) Oppenheimer argued that ldquoprimitivegiant empiresrdquo which were assemblages of evenmore primitive conquest states typically collapsed

back into a ldquopile of individual statesrdquo (1926 584)The 9831421048681nal volume of Oppenheimerrsquos System der

Soziologie described colonialism as a continuationof a ldquopolitics of plunderrdquo (1935 1292) Capitalismin ldquoits highest stagerdquo was essentially ldquoimperialistrdquo(1926 788) Wages in the capitalist countries were

too low to ensure that workers could ldquobuy backtheir productsrdquo so capitalists were driven to seekforeign markets and to seek surplus pro9831421048681ts from theldquoproletarians of foreign countriesrdquo (1926 789ndash90)

The second generation of European sociologists

tended to reject economistic accounts of colo-nialism and empire Austrian economist JosephSchumpeter who moved to Bonn University in1925 (and to Harvard in 1932) published an in10486781048684u-ential essay on imperialism in 1919 in Max Weberrsquos

Archiv fur Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik Schumpeter de9831421048681ned imperialism as the ldquoobject-less disposition on the part of a state to unlimitedforcible expansionrdquo (1951 6) He traced the ldquobirthand life of imperialismrdquo not to capitalist economic

motives but to the atavistic drives of the declin-ing former aristocratic ruling class and to appealsto the deeper ldquoinstincts that carry over from thelife habits of the dim pastrdquo the ldquoinstinctive urge todominationrdquo (1951 7 12) Imperialism was there-fore ldquobest illustrated by examples from antiquityrdquo(1951 23) Against Hobson and Lenin Schumpeterinsisted that ldquothe bourgeois is unwarlikerdquo and thatimperialism could ldquonever been have evolved bythe lsquoinner logicrsquo of capitalism itselfrdquo (1951 96ndash97)Marxist accounts were part of a broader rational-ist disavowal of the irrational primitive humanurge to dominate

Schumpeterrsquos arguments were seconded byFrankfurt University sociologist Walter Sulz-bach (1926) who distinguished ldquosharply betweenthe political elite and the business leaders andstipulate[d] antagonistic interests of the twordquo andargued that ldquothe imperialism of modern capital-ist countries can be regarded as an out-10486781048684ow ofthe policies of military and political leaders who

pretending to represent the vital national inter-ests of their peoples are using entrepreneurs and

foreign investors as pawns in order to justify theirpolicy of aggressionrdquo (Hoselitz 1951 363) Nation-alist fervor rather than capitalism was the sourceof imperialism (Sulzbach 1929) Sulzbach contin-ued to argue that the bourgeoisie ldquoeverywheredefended disarmament and agreement betweennationsrdquo and that ldquoreally big capitalistsrdquo had verylittle interest in territorial expansionrdquo (1959 158

210) Along similar lines Arthur Salz (1931) de9831421048681nedimperialism politically as an efffort to expandstate power through territorial conquest Imperi-alism existed before capitalism Salz argued andcapitalist accumulation was often peaceful andnon-statist



983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65


French sociologist Georges Davy a member ofthe original group around Durkheim also rejectedthe economic approach to empire in his book

From Tribe to Empire Social Organization among

Primitives and in the Ancient East coauthored

with Egyptologist Alexandre Moret They relied onDurkheimrsquos theory of totemism to make sense ofthe centralization and monopolization of powerin ancient Egypt adding a symbolic dimensionto discussions that had hitherto focused almostexclusively on politics and economics (Moret andDavy 1926) Their central argument according tohistorian Henri Berr (1926 xix xxiv) was that ldquotheenlargement of societies is accomplished by vio-lencerdquo and that ldquoimperialismrdquo was itself ldquoinspired

by the will to growthrsquomdasha brutal willrdquo

Theories of Colonial Transculturation Mimicry

and Anticolonial Resistance

Theories of colonial hybridity syncretism andtransculturation might not seem central to the his-tory of sociology if one limited onersquos vision to thepast twenty years when these discussions havebeen dominated by postcolonial critics and cul-tural anthropologists The pioneers of these theo-ries however included Marcel Maussrsquo studentssome of whom de9831421048681ned themselves as sociologistssuch as Reneacute Maunier Maurice Leenhardt andRoger Bastide

More and more researchers became interestedin processes of colonial transculturation andstopped looking for pristine untouched nativecultures The background for this shift is complexColonial governments had been intensely con-cerned with the dangers of the partial assimilationof colonized subject populations during the 19th

century Concern about code-switching and cul-tural ldquoillegibilityrdquo was a central motive behind thecolonial statersquos focus on ldquonative policyrdquo whose aim was to urge the colonized to adhere to a stableuniform de9831421048681nition of their own culture (Steinmetz2003b 2007) Some social scientists oriented theirresearch speci9831421048681cally toward the colonial statersquosproject of eliminating cultural instability and provided a portrait of a coherent ldquotraditionalrdquo culturethat native policy could then seek to reinforce

As a result heteronomous colonial social scien-tists looked for ldquopurerdquo natives More autonomoussocial scientists were also interested in unassimi-lated natives either as evidence for theories ofevolutionary development (Durkheim) or for aes-thetic primitivist reasons (eg in the Collegravege de

sociologie Moebius 2006) But by the time ClaudeLeacutevi-Strauss published Tristes Tropiques the 9831421048681gureof the idealized ldquonoble savagerdquo no longer seemedplausible Leacutevi-Strauss could only allude wistfullyto his ldquogreat disappointmentrdquo in the Amazonian

Indians who were ldquoless unspoiled than [he] hadhopedrdquo and whose culture seemed to him ldquoa com-promiserdquo entirely lacking in ldquopoetryrdquo (Leacutevi-Strauss1997 154 172)

One of the 9831421048681rst sociological analysts of colo-nial transculturation and resistance was MauriceLeenhardt who interpreted the messianic ldquoEthio-pianrdquo church movement in Southern Africa as aform of subaltern resistance through appropria-tion of the colonizerrsquos culture (Leenhardt 1902)

Leenhardt subsequently situated New Caledonianculture within a historical narrative of colonial-ism Following an initial period of expropriationand cultural decimation the French colony hadbecome a syncretic society Transculturation ranin both directions between the Europeans andMelanisians in a process Leenhardt called a ldquo jeu

des transfertsrdquo (ldquoplay of [cultural] transfersrdquo Leen-hardt 1953 213) Jacques Soustelle studied theMexican Otomi Indians who ldquowere not so muchrenouncing their old beliefs as incorporating theminto a new body of faith and ritualrdquo forging a ldquoHis-pano-Indian and Christiano-pagan syncretismrdquo ina veritable ldquochoc de civilisationsrdquo (Soustelle 1937253 1971 121 137) Reneacute Maunier conceptualizedcolonization as a ldquosocial factrdquo involving ldquocontactrdquobetween two ldquohitherto separatedrdquo societies ([1932]1949 5ndash6) Maunier discussed the reciprocal imi-tation between colonizer and colonized adum-brating a theory of colonial mimicry or ldquomixiteacute rdquoFor Maunier mixing included not just the ldquofusionrdquo

or ldquoracial and social blending of the two groupsrdquobut also the ldquoconversion of the conqueror by theconqueredrdquo (1949 124 535) Maunier was one ofthe 9831421048681rst to notice that French colonialism hadldquoorganized the spacerdquo of Algerian anticolonialnationalism (Henry 1989 143)

American and German social scientists cameto similar conclusions about cultural mixing Rob-ert Park (1919 1928) analyzed American culturalhybridization Gilberto Freyre a student of Boas

and the founder of Brazilian sociology analyzedBrazil as a ldquohybrid societyrdquo (Freyre [1933] 1946)Melville Herskovits who published widely insociology journals developed theories of ldquoaccul-turationrdquo under conditions of colonial slavery andargued that the mixing of European and African



66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162


traditions was a ldquofundamental mechanism inthe acculturative process undergone by New World Negroesrdquo (Herskovits 1941 184ndash85 19371938) Eventually Herskovits substituted the ideaof ldquoreinterpretationrdquo for ldquosyncretismrdquo de9831421048681ning the

former as ldquocultural borrowingrdquo that permits ldquoapeople to retain the inner meanings of tradition-ally sanctioned modes of behavior while adopt-ing new outer institutional formsrdquo (Herskovitsand Herskovits 1947 vi) German ethnosociologistRichard Thurnwald analyzed the ldquocrisisrdquo in nativelife that had been precipitated by sustained con-tact with the colonizerrsquos culture and technology(Thurnwald 1931ndash1935 1 21ndash22) In 1936 Thurn- wald discussed the ldquocrisis of imperialismrdquo and the

emergence of African anticolonialism and arguedthat ldquothe lsquohybrisrsquo the overbearing insolence of thedominant stratumrdquo in the colonies ldquoinescapablyleads to its nemesisrdquo in the guise of ldquoa new gen-eration of natives has grown up which has beeneducated in schools by Europeans in ways ofthought that are European and in using devicesintroduced by Europeansrdquo (1936 80 84)

Nazi Germany and the USA as Empires

After 1918 it was noticed that emerging empiresrelied on indirect and informal control of periph-eries rather than conquest and permanent occu-pation Arthur Salz discussed the highly ldquoelasticrdquoform of American imperialism in Latin America which ldquoleaves its victims with the appearance ofpolitical autonomy and is satis9831421048681ed with a minimalamount of political violencerdquo (1923 569) Langhans(1924) diagnosed an emerging pattern of informalUS dominance in Latin America in which ldquothemore powerful (ruling) state [imposes] a protec-

tive relationship over the weaker (protected) statethat is in many respects the equivalent of annexa-tion while carefully avoiding the appearance ofbeing the actual ruler of the area it dominatesrdquoHans Gerth and C Wright Mills in a book writtenduring World War II described American impe-rialism similarly as a model in which ldquoone powermay seek to expand its military area of control byestablishing naval and air bases abroad withoutassuming overt political responsibilityrdquo over ldquofor-

eign political bodiesrdquo (1953 205)Many of the same ideas were used to theorizeNazi Germany as empire Maunier (1943 141) com-pared US hegemony over the western hemisphere with German plans to dominate Central EuropeNeumannrsquos Behemoth (2009 130ndash218) compared

Hitlerrsquos foreign policy to the US Monroe Doctrineand sketched a theory of imperial ldquogreat spacesrdquoNeumann noted that empires often eschew con-quest in favor of something ldquomidway betweenin10486781048684uence and outright dominationrdquo (2009 136)

ldquoGeo-jurisprudencerdquo he wrote was reformulatingldquointernational law in terms of vassals dependen-cies protectorates and federations worked outon geopolitical principlesrdquo (2009 151) Neumannrsquoschief example of this doctrine was Carl Schmitt who developed his theory of the political Gross-

raum after 1933 (Schmitt 1991 Hell 2009) Membersof Karl Haushoferrsquos geopolitical school also elabo-rated theories of political ldquogreat spacesrdquo (Ebeling1994 Murphy 1997 Steinmetz 2012b)



After 1945 sociology was refounded in Europe and American sociology dominated the global socio-logical 9831421048681eld Modernization theory emerged in the1950s and was subsequently challenged by theo-ries of dependency underdevelopment modesof production and the capitalist world-systemand more recently by multicausal historical ana-lyzes of empires (Mann 1986 2003) Social scien-tists from the former colonies became increasinglyprominent in discussions of colonialism (eg Abdel-Malek 1971 Hermassi 1972 Alavi 1981 Chat-terjee 1993 Mamdani 1996 B Magubane 1996Z Magubane 2003 Goh 2007)

Modernization Theory and Neo-Marxist Responses

After 1945 modernization theory was closelyarticulated with American foreign policy whichrejected European colonialism in favor of a view

of all cultures as equally suited for democracycapitalism and the American way of life (Williams1959 Sulzbach 1963 Louis and Robinson 1993)Modernization theory subsequently came underattack as imperialist and neocolonialist (Mazrui1968) Marxists began analyzing the exploitationof the global peripheries through mechanisms likeunequal exchange which obviated the need fordirect colonial rule (Frank 1969)

The Historical Sociology of Colonialism 1945ndash1970 A new historical sociology of colonialism emergedin the 1950s and 1960s in France and its coloniesGeorges Balandier (1951 1955a) analyzed colo-nialism as a unique overdetermined social for-mation and compared the difffering responses to



983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67


colonialism by the Gabonese Fang and theBakongo of the French Congo The Fang hadbecome ldquounemployed conquerorsrdquo lacking anycentral leadership while the Bakongo had beeninvolved in the slave trade and were more rooted

in their territory more hierarchical and betteracquainted with other tribes The French gov-ernment attempted to curtail the prominence ofBakongo in the colonial administration during the1930s but ended up strengthening the modernistelitersquos anticolonialism which 9831421048681lled ldquothe lsquopolitical voidrsquo that resulted from the diminished authorityof the traditional chiefsrdquo (Balandier 1955a 354ndash55)In his second doctoral thesis Balandier focused onBakongo urbanites who had resettled in Brazza-

ville He found that they did not abandon theirtraditional culture or connections to rural coun-trymen and that they developed a ldquoprecociousawareness of the inferiority created by the colo-nial situationrdquo (Balandier 1955b 388) Balandierrsquoscolleague and co-author Paul Mercier rejectedlinear developmental models and emphasizedthe ldquomultiple determinants sometimes in contra-diction with one anotherrdquo in the development ofcolonial societies (1954 65 57) Cultural practicesldquothat seem to be lsquotraditionalrsquo in [colonized] soci-eties actually represented lsquoresponsesrsquo to relativelyrecent lsquochallengesrsquordquo (1966 168 note 1) Merciercriticized the application of western concepts likesocial class and nationalism to African societies(Mercier 1965a 1965b) A 9831421048681nal example of the newhistorical sociology of colonialism came from theFrench sociologist Ėric de Dampierre who com-bined decades of participant observation withresearch in the French colonial archives to makesense of the transformations French colonialism

brought to three Bandia kingdoms of the Central African Republic (Dampierre 1972)

In Sociologie de lrsquoAlgeacuterie Pierre Bourdieudescribed the Kabyle as a historical society thathad been continuously reshaped by episodes ofconquest by Arabs and Europeans (1958 16) Dis-cussing Algeriarsquos Arab speakers he argued thatfew societies ldquopose the problem of the relationsbetween sociology and history more sharplyrdquosince they had ldquosufffered the most directly and

the most profoundly from the shock of coloniza-tionrdquo (1958 60) In the bookrsquos second edition heincluded a discussion of French land annexationsand settlements which produced a ldquotabula rasaof a civilization that could no longer be discussedexcept in the past tenserdquo (Bourdieu 1961a 125 107ndash

118) Bourdieu insisted on the ldquospecial form this war acquired because of its being waged in thisunique situationrdquo namely a colonial one (1961a28ndash29) Bourdieu and Sayad examined the radi-cal transformation efffected by colonial uprooting

resettlement and war (1964)Theorists of the ldquoarticulation of modes of

productionrdquo argued that colonialism typicallycombined capitalist and noncapitalist modesof production in ways that lowered the costs ofreproducing labor power and yielded higher prof-its (Coquery-Vidrovitch 1969 1988 Wolpe 1980) Alavi (1981) labeled this combined formation aldquocolonial mode of productionrdquo Despite the the-oryrsquos residual economic reductionism and func-

tionalism it was more open to the complexity anduniqueness of historical processes and events thanearlier Marxist approaches

The ldquoperipheralistrdquo or ldquoexcentricrdquo approach toimperial history stressed the causal importance ofresistance and collaboration by the colonized indetermining the shape and likelihood of Europeancolonial rule (Robinson 1972 1986) Collaborationis connected to the reinforcement of traditionalsocial structures in the colonies (Robinson 1986272 280)


Empires 1970ndashPresent

The period since 1970 has been marked by thecrisis of American hegemony the collapse of theSoviet empire and the exacerbation since the turnof the century of American military imperialismIn the early 1970s there was a brief uptick in his-torical sociological studies of imperialism whilethe period since 2000 has seen a wave of inter-

est among sociologists worldwide in colonialismempire and the possibility of a ldquopostcolonial soci-ologyrdquo (Steinmetz 2006 Connell 2007 Reuter and Villa 2010)

The Historical Sociology of Empire 1970ndashPresent

The historical sociology of empire has drawn on various elements of the literature sketched aboveand has been correspondingly heterogenous Oneset of approaches is broadly Marxist Hermassi

(1972) emphasized the efffect on nationalist move-ments in North Africa of the difffering length ofcolonial occupation the class identities of colo-nial rulers the character of native policies andthe strength of the precolonial autochthonousstate Mamdani (1996) built on the articulation of



68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162


modes of production framework to analyze South African Apartheid arguing that ldquoindirect rulerdquo ledto ldquodecentralized despotismrdquo ldquocustomary lawrdquo andldquotribalizationrdquo The urban zones by contrast wereeconomically capitalist and were ruled directly

with Africans being excluded from civil freedomsHere racialization rather than tribalization ruledthe day

An alternative Marxisant approach was devel-oped by Immanuel Wallerstein After writing dur-ing the 1960s mainly as an Africanist Wallersteinbegan to ask why postcolonial Africa was failingeconomically and politically (Wallerstein 1971) Wallerstein argued that there are two kinds of world-systems or inter-societal divisions of labor

ldquoworld-empiresrdquo with a single political authorityand ldquoworld-economiesrdquo organized politically asa plurality of competing sovereign nation-states(Wallerstein 2004 57 1979 5) The capitalist worldeconomy initially treated Africa as an ldquoexter-nal areardquo Starting around 1750 Africa became aldquoperipheryrdquo providing slaves to the core After 1800ldquothe slave trade was gradually abolishedrdquo facilitat-ing ldquothe reconversion of [African] production tocash croppingrdquo and preparing the continent forthe ldquoimposition of colonial administrationrdquo whichldquomade it possible to establish [European] primacyrdquoin African ldquoeconomic transactionsrdquo (Wallerstein1986 [1970] 14ndash16) World system theory explainsthe historical ebb and 10486781048684ow of colonial annexa-tions and decolonizations in terms of shifts inhegemony within the global core If a hegemondominates the core economically and politically itenforces free trade and eschews colonialism but when there is no hegemon each core state erectsprotectionist barriers and seeks exclusive access to

markets and raw materials in the periphery oftenby setting up colonies (Bergesen and Schoenberg1980)

Another set of interventions is broadly institu-tionalist In Bandits and Bureaucrats (1994) KarenBarkey showed how endemic banditry challengedthe Ottoman state and how that state managedits relations with these former mercenary soldiersthrough deals and patronage In Empire of Difffer-

ence (2008) Barkey developed a ldquohub and spokerdquo

model of the Ottoman approach to rule In anempire shaped like a rimless wheel (Moytl 2001)the cultures located at the end of each ldquospokerdquo areconnected only to the core but not to one anotherexplaining the empirersquos ability to persist for sucha long time Steinmetz (2005) argued against the

Wallersteinian theory that great powers usuallypursue a mixture of imperialist and colonialiststrategies For example during the 18th centurythe Austrian Empire treated the Austrian Nether-lands in an imperialist manner as a pawn in a

future game of ldquoterritorial barterrdquo while treatingHungary as a colony whose best lands were redis-tributed ldquoto foreigners mostly German noblesrdquo(Kann 1974 89 74) American foreign policy atthe end of the 19th century reveals a combinationof imperial technologies with formal colonialismin the Philippines Puerto Rico and the Paci9831421048681cislands and a non-colonial approach to China (theldquoOpen Doorrdquo policy) and Latin America (the Mon-roe Doctrine)

Another set of approaches is broadly cultural-ist Writing inspired by Said (1978) has empha-sized the impact of European representations ofthe non-West on colonial and imperial activitiesMitchell (1988) argues that a generic Europeanmodern consciousness was replicated in the self-modernization of 19th-century Egypt and otherparts of the Near East Steinmetz (2003b 2007) andGoh (2005 2007) show that precolonial archives ofethnographic images and texts codetermined sub-sequent colonial native policies Go (2008) looks atthe ways the American colonial project of ldquodemo-cratic tutelagerdquo in Puerto Rico and the Philippines was reinterpreted by colonized elites

More recently colonial historians have drawnon Pierre Bourdieursquos theory of social 9831421048681elds If themetropolitan state is analyzed as a bureaucratic9831421048681eld as Bourdieu (1996) suggested overseas colo-nial states may represent a distinct type of 9831421048681eldcharacterized by competition for speci9831421048681c forms ofsymbolic capital and by particular forms of relative

autonomy from the metropolitan state and other9831421048681elds in the colony (Steinmetz 2008) Colony andmetropole are also linked via transnational 9831421048681eldsof science (Steinmetz forthcoming)

The most comprehensive approach to empirehas been developed by Michael Mann who exam-ines the impact of ideological economic militaryand political sources of social power and tracesthe ways events and higher-order formations ofpower result from accidents contradictions and

non-universal patterns (1986 503) Mann rejectsapproaches that see military political and culturalimperialism as emanations of economic imperial-ism He draws on Marx and Hobson for his theoryof the pro9831421048681tability of empire on historical soci-ologist Wolfram Eberhard (1965) for his notion of



983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69


world time (Mann 1986 30) on Weber for his his-toricist methodology of contingent multicausality(Mann 1993 55) and on militarist theories of thestate for his analysis of empiresrsquo coercive power(Gumplowicz Oppenheimer) Statesrsquo territorial

boundaries according to Mann ldquogive rise toan area of regulated interstate relationsrdquo whichtake two formsmdashldquohegemonic empirerdquo and ldquomul-tistate civilizationrdquo (Mann 1986 27) The expan-sion of empires is driven by warfare conquestand the ldquocagingrdquo of populations Mann distin-guishes between ldquoempires of dominationrdquo whichlack both a true core and extensive control overthe entire territory and ldquoterritorial empiresrdquo of which Rome is the only true European example

(Mann 1986 338) Mann rejects any notion ofa general evolutionary path and treats the his-torical development of empires as a dialectic ofstrategy and counter-tendencies At the mostgeneral level there is a dialectic of centralizationand decentralization a cycling between empiresand ldquomulti-power-actor civilizationrdquo The multi-power-actor civilization may in turn ldquogenerate itsown antithetical interstitial forcerdquo leading to anew round of empire-formation (Mann 1986 161167 537) Empires generate four additional con-tradictions ldquounconsciouslyrdquo or ldquounintentionallyrdquo(Mann 1986 363 537) (1) between particularismand universalism (2) between projects of culturaluniformity and cultural diversity or ldquocosmopoli-tanismrdquo(3) between hierarchical organization andegalitarianism and (4) between drawing a sharpline against external ldquobarbariansrdquo and a civilizingorientation toward barbarians

In the second volume of The Sources of Social

Power Mann implied that the modern world is a

world of states rather than empires He deals withEuropean overseas colonialism only peripherallythere In his more recent work however Manndraws on his earlier framework to analyze contem-porary US geopolitics as imperial He emphasizesthe multiple sources of social power and theircontradictions Mann argues that the Americanneo-liberal 10486781048684oating dollar offfensive that beganduring the 1970s and the military imperialism thathas intensi9831421048681ed since the late 1990s were pushed

by diffferent interest groups with diffferent motiva-tions and had very diffferent consequences (Mann2008) Moreover the imperialist expression ofeach of the social power sources gives rise to con-tradictions undermining the overall eff9831421048681cacy ofempire For example the United States outguns

its rivals militarily but its overseas interventionsspawn guerrillas terrorists and weapons of massdestruction in rogue states (Mann 2003 29ndash45)US economic protectionism and neo-liberalismproduce ldquopolitical turmoil and anti-Americanismrdquo

(2003 70)

Conclusion

Perhaps the most general lesson is that the stateis not necessarily or even typically the dominantform of political organization The ldquohistorical soci-ology of the staterdquo needs to be articulated with theldquohistorical sociology of empiresrdquo And indeed asthis chapter has shown sociologists have been writing about the forms trajectories efffects and

determinants of empires throughout the disci-plinersquos history With respect to ldquotypologiesrdquo ofempire Hintze and Weber distinguished betweenancient empires and modern imperialism andMann distinguished between empires of domina-tion and territorial empires Hintze Hobson andSchmitt considered the alternative possibility asystem of multiple coexisting empires Colonialism was distinguished from ancient empires and mod-ern imperialism in terms of the permanent seizureof foreign sovereignty by the conqueror and theimplementation of a ldquorule of colonial diffferencerdquo Various theorists identi9831421048681ed the emergence in the20th century of an ldquoinformalrdquo approach to empirethat leaves the dominated state in local hands while infringing on its sovereignty in less continu-ous or obvious ways

Sociologists also offfered difffering accounts ofthe ldquodevelopmental trajectories and efffectsrdquo ofempires Gumplowicz and his followers claimedthat warfare led to the centralization of political

power and the ldquoagglomeration of states into largerunitsrdquo Arendt identi9831421048681ed a passage from overseasimperialism to continental totalitarianism Other writers focused on cycles of empire or hegemony Writers from Ibn Khaldun to Kennedy (1987)analyzed imperial overreach and decline ComteHobson and others argued that empire empow-ered militarization and despotism in the impe-rialist countries Theories of imperial blowbacksee imperial interventions returning to haunt the

core Karl Marx argued that colonial exploitationparadoxically paves the way for the developmentof capitalism and modernity in the colony Latertheorists thematized the ldquodevelopment of under-developmentrdquo and ldquodependencyrdquo Another groupof writers from Herder to Eisenstadt (2002) have



70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162


described civilizations as moving along separatepaths rather than being arranged along a progres-sive linear scale

This chapter also reviewed a number ofldquoexplanatoryrdquo theories of the forms and trajecto-

ries of empire Broadly economic theories traceimperialism to capitalist interests including theneed for new markets investment opportunitiessources of cheaper labor power and sites for newrounds of primitive accumulation Broadly politi-

cal theories emphasize a general tendency toward warfare and expansion and the creation of ldquogreatspacesrdquo Theorists of ldquosocial imperialismrdquo trace the ways in which empire is used to integrate massesand classes within the imperial core Broadly soci-

ological theories of empire emphasize four maincausal processes (1) an atavistic urge to domi-nation rooted in the class habits of older socialstrata (2) patterns of collaboration and resistanceand other social-structural features of the periph-eries as determinants of imperialism (3) networkstructures (4) the colonial state as a Bourdieusianldquo9831421048681eld of competitionrdquo for 9831421048681eld-speci9831421048681c symboliccapital Theories of cultural forces driving empireemphasize the impact of dreams of conquestracism and Orientalism and precolonial ethno-graphic representations of the colonized

These political economic cultural and socialmechanisms should not be understood as mutu-ally exclusive The most recent historical sociolog-ical work on empires like the earlier analysis byMax Weber has rejected any idea of transhistori-cal general laws in favor of a historicist strategythat identi9831421048681es contextual patterns and contingentconcatenations of mechanisms as the sources ofimperial strategies and forms Future research

should remain open to comparison but as Gold-stone (1991 40) argues it should not emulatea poorly understood form of natural scienceComparisons can be carried out ldquoacross mecha-nismsrdquo (Steinmetz 2004) not just across empiricalldquoeventsrdquo Such ldquomechanism tracingrdquo can explorethe difffering ways in which a single mechanism works in diverse contexts Comparison may alsobe used to ldquofocus on what is of central impor-tance in a society despite all analogies and use

the similarities of two societies to highlight thespeci9831421048681c individuality of eachrdquo (Weber 1998 341) With these more historicist forms of comparisonin hand social scientists should be well equippedto push imperial analysis in new directions

Notes

1 On the periodization of sociology as a university9831421048681eld see Goudsblom and Heilbron (2004) on criteriafor including authors within an academic 9831421048681eld seeSteinmetz (2009) The overwhelming majority of think-ers discussed in this chapter were (inter alia) sociolo-

gists according to this ldquosociologicalrdquo de9831421048681nition of thediscipline2 The noun imperium originally signi9831421048681ed the power

to command and punish speci9831421048681cally the power ofprinces magistrates and off9831421048681cials (Weber 1978 650839)

Bibliography

Abdel-Malek Anouar (ed) 1971 Sociologie de lrsquoimpeacuteria-lisme Paris Editions Anthropos

Alavi Hamza 1981 ldquoStructure of Colonial Social For-mationsrdquo Economic and Political Weekly 16(10ndash12)

475ndash486 Arendt Hannah 1950 [1958] The Origins of Totalitaria-nism New York World Publishing Co

Balandier Georges 1951 ldquoLa situation coloniale appro-che theacuteoriquerdquo Cahiers internationaux de sociologie 1144ndash79

mdashmdashmdash 1955a Sociologie actuelle de lrsquoAfrique noiredynamique des changements sociaux en Afrique cen-trale Paris Presses universitaires de France

mdashmdashmdash 1955b Sociologie des Brazzavilles noires Paris A Colin

Barkey Karen 1994 Bandits and Bureaucrats The Otto-man Route to State Centralization Ithaca NY Cornell

University PressBarkey Karen 2008 Empire of Diffference The Ottomansin Comparative Perspective Cambridge UK Cam-bridge University Press

Bergesen Albert and Ronald Schoenberg 1980 ldquoLong Waves of Colonial Expansion and ContractionrdquoPp 231ndash277 In Albert Bergesen (ed) Studies of the

Modern World-System New York Academic PressBerlin Isaiah 1965 ldquoThe Thought of de Tocquevillerdquo

History 50(169) 199ndash206Berr Henri 1926 ldquoForewordrdquo Pp ixndashxxx In Alexandre

Moret and Georges Davy From Tribe to Empire New York Knopf

Boatcă Manuela and Willfried Spohn (eds) 2010 Glo-bal Multiple and Peripheral Modernities MuumlnchenRainer Hampp Verlag

Bourdieu Pierre 1958 Sociologie de lrsquoAlgeacuterie 1st editionParis PUF

mdashmdashmdash 1961a Sociologie de lrsquoAlgeacuterie 2nd edition ParisPUF

mdashmdashmdash 1961b ldquoReacutevolution dans la revolutionrdquo Esprit 127ndash40

mdashmdashmdash 1975 [1993] ldquoFor a Sociology of Sociologistsrdquo Pp49ndash53 In P Bourdieu Sociology in Question LondonSage

mdashmdashmdash 1996 The State Nobility Elite Schools in the Field

of Power Stanford Stanford University PressBourdieu Pierre and Abdelmalek Sayad 1964 Le deacuteraci-nement Paris Eacuteditions de Minuit

Chatterjee Partha 1993 The Nation and Its FragmentsPrinceton NJ Princeton University Press

Collins Randall 1978 ldquoSome Principles of Long-TermSocial Change The Territorial Power of Statesrdquo



983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71


Research in Social Movements Con983142licts and Change 11ndash34

Comte Auguste 1830ndash1842 Cours de philosophie posi-tive 6 Vols Paris Bachelier

Connell RW 1997 ldquoWhy is Classical Theory Classicalrdquo American Journal of Sociology 102(6) 1511ndash1557

Connell Raewyn 2007 Southern Theory The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science CambridgePolity

Coquery-Vidrovitch Catherine 1969 ldquoRecherches sur unmode de production africainerdquo La Penseacutee 14461ndash78

mdashmdashmdash 1988 Africa Endurance and Change South of theSahara Berkeley University of California Press

Dampierre Eric de 1967 Un ancien royaume Bandia du Haut-Oubangui Paris Plon

Demm Eberhard 1990 Ein Liberaler in Kaiserreich und Republik der politische Weg Alfred Webers bis 1920Boppard am Rhein H Boldt

Doyle Michael W 1986 Empires Ithaca NY Cornell

University PressEbeling Frank 1994 Geopolitik Karl Haushofer undseine Raumwissenschaft 1919ndash1945 Berlin Akademie Verlag

Eberhard Wolfram 1965 Conquerors and Rulers Social Forces in Medieval China 2nd edition Leiden EJ Brill

Eisenstadt SN (ed) 2002 Multiple Modernities NewBrunswick Transaction Publishers

mdashmdashmdash 1963 [2010] The Political Systems of EmpiresLondon Free Press of Glencoe

Frank Andre Gunder 1969 Capitalism and Underdeve-lopment in Latin America New York Monthly ReviewPress

Freyre Gilberto 1933 [1946] The Masters and the Slaves A Study in the Development of Brazilian CivilizationNew York Knopf

Geddes Patrick 1917 Ideas at War London Williamsand Norgate

mdashmdashmdash 1918 Town Planning towards City Development A Report to the Durbar of Indore 2 Vols IndoreHolkar State Printing Press

Gerth Hans and C Wright Mills 1953 Character andSocial Structure The Psychology of Social InstitutionsNew York Harcourt Brace

Gilman Nils 2003 Mandarins of the Future Moderni- zation Theory in Cold War America Baltimore JohnsHopkins University Press

Go Julian 2008 American Empire and the Politics of Meaning Elite Political Cultures in the Philippines and Puerto Rico during US Colonialism Durham DukeUniversity Press

Goh Daniel 2005 ldquoEthnographic Empire ImperialCulture and Colonial State Formation in Malaya andthe Philippines 1880ndash1940rdquo (PhD dissertation Uni- versity of Michigan)

mdashmdashmdash ldquoStates of Ethnography Colonialism Resistanceand Cultural Transcription in Malaya and the Philip-pines 1890sndash1930srdquo Comparative Studies in Societyand History 49(1) 109ndash42

Goldstone Jack A 1991 Revolution and Rebellion in the Eary Modern World Berkeley University of CaliforniaPress

Goldstone Jack A and John E Haldon 2010 ldquoAncientStates Empires and Exploitationrdquo Pp 3ndash29 In IanMorris and Walter Scheidel (eds) The Dynamics of

Ancient Empires Oxford Oxford University Press

Goudsblom J and J Heilbron 2004 ldquoSociology Historyofrdquo Pp 14 574ndash14 580 In Neil J Smelser and Paul BBaltes (eds) International Encyclopedia of the Socialamp Behavioral Sciences Amsterdam Elsevier

Gumplowicz Ludwig 1879 Das Recht der Nationalitauml-ten und Sprachen in Oesterreich-Ungarn Innsbruck

Wagnerrsquosche Universitaumlts-Buchhandlungmdashmdashmdash 1883 Der Rassenkampf Sociologische Unter-suchungen Innsbruck Wagnerrsquosche Universitaumlts-Buchhandlung

mdashmdashmdash 1905 Geschichte der Staatstheorien Innsbruck Wagnerrsquosche Universitaumlts-Buchhandlung

mdashmdashmdash 1909 Der Rassenkampf Sociologische Untersu-chungen 2nd edition Innsbruck Wagnerrsquosche Uni- versitaumlts-Buchhandlung

mdashmdashmdash 1910 Sozialphilosophie im Umriss Innbruck Wagnerrsquosche Universitaumlts-Buchhandlung

Halsey AH 2004 A History of Sociology in BritainScience Literature and Society Oxford Oxford Uni-

versity PressHell Julia (Forthcoming) Ruin Gazing European Empi-res the Third Reich and the Fall of Rome ChicagoUniversity of Chicago Press

mdashmdashmdash 2009 ldquoKatechon Carl Schmittrsquos Imperial Theo-logy and the Ruins of the Futurerdquo Germanic Review 86283ndash326

Henry Jean-Robert 1989 ldquoApproches ethnologiques dudroit musulmanrdquo Pp 133ndash171 In M Flory and J-RHenry (eds) Lrsquoenseignement du droit musulmanParis CNRS

Herder Johann Gottfried [1784] 1985 Ideen zur Philo-sophie der Geschichte der Menschheit Wiesbaden

Fourier VerlagHermassi Elbaki 1972 Leadership and National Develo- pment in North Africa A Comparative Study BerkeleyUniversity of California Press

Herskovits Melville J and Frances S Herskovits 1947[1964] Trinidad Village New York Octogon Books

Herskovits Melville 1941 The Myth of the Negro Past New York Harper

Hintze Otto 1907 [1970] ldquoImperialismus und Welt-politikrdquo Pp 457ndash469 In Gesammelte Abhandlun-

gen vol 1 3rd edition Goumlttingen Vandenhoeck ampRuprecht

Hobhouse LT 1902 ldquoDemocracy and Imperialismrdquo TheSpeaker 5 (January 18) 443ndash445

Hobson JA 1901 The Psychology of Jingoism LondonGrant Richards

mdashmdashmdash 1926 Free Thought in the Social Sciences New York Macmillan

mdashmdashmdash 1902 [1965] Imperialism A Study Ann ArborUniversity of Michigan Press

Hoselitz Bert F 1951 Review of Imperialism and SocialClasses by Joseph Schumpeter Journal of Political

Economy 59(4) 360ndash363Ibn Khaldun 1967 The Muqaddimah An Introduction to

History Princeton NJ Princeton University PressInstitute for Government Research 1928 The Problem

of Indian Adminstration Baltimore Johns HopkinsPress

Johnston William M 1972 The Austrian Mind An Intel-lectual and Social History 1848ndash1938 Berkeley Univer-sity of California Press

Kann Robert A 1974 A History of the Habsburg Empire1526ndash1918 Berkeley University of California Press



72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162


Kennedy Paul M 1987 The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Con983142lict from1500 to 2000 New York Random House

Koebner Richard 1955 ldquoFrom Imperium to EmpirerdquoScripta Hierosolymitana 2119ndash175

mdashmdashmdash 1961 Empire Cambridge UK Cambridge Uni-

versity PressLanghans Manfred 1924 ldquoRechtliche und tatsaumlchlicheMachtbereiche der Grossmaumlchte nach dem Wel-tkriegerdquo Petermanns Mitteilungen 70(1ndash2) 1ndash7

Leenhardt Maurice [1902] 1976 Le mouvement eacutethio- pien au sud de lrsquoAfrique de 1896 agrave 1899 Paris Acadeacute-mie des sciences drsquooutre-mer

mdashmdashmdash 1953 Gens de la grande terre 2nd edition ParisGallimard

Louis William Roger and Ronald Robinson 1993 ldquoTheImperialism of Decolonizationrdquo Journal of Imperialand Commonwealth History 22(3) 462ndash511

Lukaacutecs Gyoumlrgy 1981 The Destruction of Reason Atlantic

Highlands NJ Humanities PressMagubane Bernard 1996 The Making of a Racist State British Imperialism and the Union of South Africa1875ndash1910 Trenton NJ Africa World Press

Magubane Zine 2003 Bringing the Empire Home RaceClass and Gender in Britain and Colonial South AfricaChicago University of Chicago Press

Mamdani Mahmood 1996 Citizen and Subject Contem- porary Africa and the Legacy of Colonialism Prince-ton NJ Princeton University Press

Mann Michael 1986 The Sources of Social Power Vol 1 A History of Power from the Beginning to AD 1760Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

mdashmdashmdash 1993 The Sources of Social Power Vol 2 The Riseof Classes and Nation-States 1760ndash1914 CambridgeUK Cambridge University Press

mdashmdashmdash 2003 Incoherent Empire New York Versomdashmdashmdash 2008 ldquoImpeacuterialisme eacuteconomique et impeacuteria-

lisme militaire ameacutericains Un renforcement mutuelrdquo Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 171(2)21ndash39

Marx Karl 1967 Capital A Critique of Political Economy Vol 3 New York International Publishers

mdashmdashmdash 1969 Karl Marx on Colonialism and Moderniza-tion Schlomo Avineri (ed) Garden City NY AnchorBooks

mdashmdashmdash 1976 Capital A Critique of Political Economy Vol 1 New York Random House

Maunier Reneacute 1949 The Sociology of Colonies Vol 1London Routledge and Kegan Paul

mdashmdashmdash 1943 Lrsquoempire franccedilais Propos et projets ParisSirey

Mazrui Ali A 1968 ldquoFrom Social Darwinism to CurrentTheories of Modernization A Tradition of AnalysisrdquoWorld Politics 21(1) 69ndash83

Mercier Paul 1954 ldquoAspects des problegravemes de strati9831421048681-cation sociale dans lrsquoOuest Africainrdquo Cahiers interna-tionaux de sociologie 1747ndash65

mdashmdashmdash 1965a ldquoLes classes sociales et les changementspolitiques reacutecents en Afrique noirerdquo Cahiers interna-tionaux de sociologie 38 (NS 12) 143ndash154

mdashmdashmdash 1965b ldquoOn the Meaning of lsquoTribalismrsquo in Black Africardquo Pp 483ndash501 In Pierre L Van den Berghe(ed) Africa Social Problems of Change and Con983142lict San Francisco Chandler

mdashmdashmdash 1966 Histoire de lrsquoanthropologie Paris Pressesuniversitaires de France

Michels Robert 1912 ldquoElemente zur Entstehungsges-chichte des Imperialismus in Italienrdquo Archiv fur Sozia-lwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik 34 55ndash120 470ndash497

Mitchell Timothy 1988 Colonizing Egypt BerkeleyUniversity of California Press

Moebius Stephan 2006 Die Zauberlehrlinge Soziolo-

giegeschichte des Collegravege de Sociologie (1937ndash1939)Konstanz UVK VerlagsgesellschaftMommsen Wolfgang J 1984 Max Weber and German

Politics 1890ndash1920 Chicago University of ChicagoPress

Moret Alexandre and Georges Davy 1926 From Tribe to Empire New York Knopf

Motyl Alexander J 2001 Imperial Ends The Decay Col-lapse and Revival of Empires New York ColumbiaUniversity Press

Murphy David Thomas 1997 The Heroic Earth Geopoli-tical Thought in Weimar Germany 1918ndash1933 Kent OHKent State University Press

Naroll Raoul 1966 Imperial Cycles and World Order NpNaumann Friedrich 1915 [1964] ldquoMitteleuropardquo Pp

485ndash767 In Friedrich Naumann Werke Vol 4 Koumlln Westdeutscher Verlag

Neumann Franz L 1942 [2009] Behemoth The Structureand Practice of National Socialism New York OxfordUniversity Press

Oppenheimer Franz 1919 Der Staat Frankfurt amMain Literarische Anstalt Ruumltten amp Loening

mdashmdashmdash 1926 Der Staat Vol 2 of System der Soziologie Jena Gustav Fischer

mdashmdashmdash 1935 Stadt und Buumlrgerschaft Vol 4 part 3 of

System der Soziologie Jena Gustav Fischermdashmdashmdash 1944 ldquoJapan and Western Europe A Compara-tive Presentation of their Social Histories (I)rdquo Ameri-can Journal of Economics and Soci ology 3(4) 539ndash551

Osterhammel Juumlrgen 2005 Colonialism A TheoreticalOverview Princeton Markus Wiener Publishers

Pagden Anthony 2003 Peoples and Empires New YorkModern Library

Pareto Vilfredo 1893 ldquoThe Parliamentary Regime inItalyrdquo Political Science Quarterly 8(4) 677ndash721

Park Robert E 1919 ldquoThe Con10486781048684ict and Fusion of Cultu-res with Special Reference to the Negrordquo The Journalof Negro History 4(2) 111ndash133

mdashmdashmdash 1928 ldquoHuman Migration and the MarginalManrdquo American Journal of Sociology 33(6) 881ndash893

Porter Bernard 1968 Critics of Empire British Radical Attitudes to Colonialism in Africa 1895ndash1914 LondonMacmillan

Resis Albert 1970 ldquo Das Kapital Comes to Russiardquo Slavic Review 29(2) 219ndash237

Reuter Julia and Paula-Irene Villa (eds) 2010 Postkolo-niale Soziologie Bielefeld transcript

Robinson Ronald 1972 ldquoNon-European Foundationsof European Imperialism Sketch for a Theory ofCollaborationrdquo Pp 117ndash140 In Roger Owen and BobSutclifffe (eds) Studies in the Theory of ImperialismLondon Longman

mdashmdashmdash 1986 ldquoThe Excentric Idea of Imperialism withor without Empirerdquo Pp 267ndash289 In Wolfgang JMommsen and Juumlrgen Osterhammel (eds) Imperia-lism and After Continuities and Discontinuities Lon-don Allen and Unwin

Said Edward W 1993 Culture and Imperialism New York Knopf



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mdashmdashmdash 1978 Orientalism New York VintageSalz Arthur 1923 ldquoDer Imperialismus der Vereinigten

Staatenrdquo Archiv fuumlr Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpo-litik 50 565ndash616

mdashmdashmdash 1931 Das Wesen des Imperialismus Leipzig BGTeubner

Santoro Marco 2013 ldquoEmpire for the Poor ColonialDreams and the Quest for an Italian Sociology1870sndash1950srdquo Pp 106ndash165 In George Steinmetz (ed)Sociology and Empire Durham Duke University Press

Schaumlff10486781048684e Albert 1886ndash1888 ldquoKolonialpolitische Studienrdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr die gesamte Staatswissenschaft 42 625ndash665 43 123ndash217 343ndash416 44 59ndash96 263ndash306

Schmitt Carl [1941] 1991 Volkerrechtliche Grossrau-mordnung mit Interventionsverbot fur raumfremde

Machte 4th ed Berlin Duncker amp Humblotmdashmdashmdash 2003[1950] The Nomos of the Earth New York

Telos PressSchumpeter Joseph Alois [1919] 1951 Imperialism and

Social Classes New York AM KelleySemyonov Alexander Marina Mogilner and Ilya Gera-simov 2013 ldquoRussian Sociology in Imperial ContextrdquoPp 53ndash82 In George Steinmetz (ed) Sociology and

Empire Durham Duke University PressSoustelle Jacques 1937 La famille otomi-pame du Mexi-

que central Paris Institut drsquoethnologiemdashmdashmdash 1971 The Four Suns Recollections and Re983142lec-

tions of an Ethnologist in Mexico New York Gross-man Publishers

Spencer Herbert 1902 Facts and Comments New YorkD Appleton

Spengler Oswald 1920ndash1922 Der Untergang des Aben-

dlandes Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltges-chichte 2 Vols Muumlnchen CH BeckSteinmetz George 2002 ldquoPrecoloniality and Colonial

Subjectivity Ethnographic Discourse and NativePolicy in German Overseas Imperialism 1780sndash1914rdquo

Political Power and Social Theory 15135ndash228mdashmdashmdash 2003a ldquoThe State of Emergency and the New

American Imperialism Toward an AuthoritarianPost-Fordismrdquo Public Culture 15(2) 323ndash346

mdashmdashmdash 2003b ldquolsquoThe Devilrsquos Handwritingrsquo PrecolonialDiscourse Ethnographic Acuity and Cross-Identi9831421048681ca-tion in German Colonialismrdquo Comparative Studies inSociety and History 45(1) 41ndash95

mdashmdashmdash 2004 ldquoOdious Comparisons Incommensura-bility the Case Study and lsquoSmall Nrsquosrsquo in SociologyrdquoSociological Theory 22(3) 371ndash400

mdashmdashmdash 2005 ldquoReturn to Empire The New US Imperia-lism in Theoretical and Historical Perspectiverdquo Socio-logical Theory 23(4) 339ndash367

mdashmdashmdash 2006 ldquoDecolonizing German Theory An Intro-ductionrdquo Postcolonial Studies 9(1) 3ndash13

mdashmdashmdash 2007 The Devilrsquos Handwriting Precolonial Eth-nography and the German Colonial State in QingdaoSamoa and Southwest Africa Chicago University ofChicago Press

mdashmdashmdash 2008a ldquoThe Colonial State as a Social Fieldrdquo American Sociological Review 73(4) 589ndash612

mdashmdashmdash 2008b ldquoEmpire et domination mondialerdquo Pp4ndash19 In Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 171ndash172 (March)

mdashmdashmdash 2009 ldquoNeo-Bourdieusian Theory and the Ques-tion of Scienti9831421048681c Autonomy German Sociologists andEmpire 1890sndash1940srdquo Pp 71ndash131 In Political Powerand Social Theory 20

mdashmdashmdash 2012a ldquoThe Imperial Entanglements of Socio-logy and the Problem of Scienti9831421048681c Autonomy inGermany France and the United Statesrdquo Pp 857ndash872In Hans-Georg Soefffner (ed) Transnationale Verge-sellschaftungen Verhandlungen des 35 Kongresses der

Deutschen Gesellschaft fuumlr Soziologie in Frankfurt am

Main 2010 Vol 2 Wiesbaden VS Verlagmdashmdashmdash 2012b ldquoGeopoliticsrdquo Pp 800ndash822 In The Wiley- Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization Volume IIedited by George Ritzer Malden MA Wiley-Blackwell

mdashmdashmdash (ed) 2013a Sociology and Empire DurhamDuke University Press

mdashmdashmdash 2013b ldquoSociologists and Empiresrdquo Pp 1ndash50 InGeorge Steinmetz (ed) Sociology and Empire

mdashmdashmdash Forthcoming ldquoSocial Fields at the Scale ofEmpires Revising Bourdieursquos Theoryrdquo History andTheory

Steinmetz Selbald R 1903 Rechtsverhaumlltnisse von ein- geborenen Voumllkern in Afrika und Ozeanien Berlin

SpringerSulzbach Walter 1926 ldquoDer wirtschaftliche Wert derKolonienrdquo Der deutsche Volkswirt Zeitschrift fuumlr Poli-tik und Wirtschaft 1300ndash304

mdashmdashmdash 1929 Nationales Gemeinschaftsgefuumlhl und wirts-chaftliches Interesse Leipzig CL Hirschfeld

mdashmdashmdash 1942 ldquoCapitalistic Warmongersrdquo A ModernSuperstition Chicago University of Chicago Press

mdashmdashmdash 1959 Imperialismus und NationalbewusstseinFrankfurt am Main Europaische Verlagsanstalt

mdashmdashmdash 1963 ldquoDie Vereinigten Staaten und die Au10486781048684ouml-sung des Kolonialsystemsrdquo Schweizer Monatshefte 43(3) 233ndash245

Taylor Charles 2001 ldquoTwo Theories of Modernityrdquo Pp172ndash191 In Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar (ed) Alterna-tive Modernities Durham Duke University Press

Thurnwald Richard 1931ndash1935 Die Menschliche Gesell-schaft in ihren ethno-soziologischen GrundlagenBerlin W de Gruyter

mdashmdashmdash 1936 ldquoThe Crisis of Imperialism in East Africaand Elsewhererdquo Social Forces 15(1) 84ndash91

Tilly Charles 1975 ldquoRe10486781048684ections on the History of Euro-pean Statemakingrdquo Pp 3ndash82 In Charles Tilly (ed)The Formation of National States in Western EuropePrinceton NJ Princeton University Press

mdashmdashmdash 1990 Coercion Capital and European States AD 990ndash1990 Cambridge UK Blackwell

Tocqueville Alexis de 2001 Writings on Empire andSlavery Jennifer Pitts (ed) Baltimore Johns Hop-kins Press

Tunick Mark 2006 ldquoTolerant Imperialism JS MillrsquosDefense of British Rule in Indiardquo Review of Politics68(4) 586ndash611

Vierkandt Alfred 1896 Naturvȯlker und Kulturvoumll-ker Ein Beitrag zur Socialpsychologie Leipzig Dunc-ker amp Humblot

Wallerstein Immanuel 1971 ldquoThe Range of ChoiceConstraints on the Policies of Governments ofContemporary African Independent Statesrdquo Pp19ndash33 In Michael F Lofochie (ed) The State of

Nations Berkeley University of California Pressmdashmdashmdash 1970 [1986] ldquoThe Colonial Era in Africa Chan-

ges in the Social Structurerdquo Pp 13ndash35 In Immanuel Wallerstein Africa and the Modern World TrentonNJ Africa World Press

mdashmdashmdash 2004 World Systems Analysis An IntroductionDurham NC Duke University Press



74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162

Weber Alfred 1904 ldquoDeutschland und der wirtschaftlicherImperialismusrdquo Preussische Jahrbuumlcher 116298ndash324

Weber Max 1891 Die roumlmische Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung fuumlr das Staats- und Privatrecht StuttgartF Enke

mdashmdashmdash 1978 Economy and Society 2 Vols Berkeley

University of California Pressmdashmdashmdash 1896 [1998a] ldquoThe Social Causes of the Declineof Ancient Civilizationrdquo Pp 387ndash411 In Max WeberThe Agrarian Sociology of Ancient Civilizations Lon-don Verso

mdashmdashmdash 1998b The Agrarian Sociology of Ancient Civili- zations London Verso

mdashmdashmdash 1891 [2010] Roman Agrarian History in its Rela-tion to Roman Public and Civil Law 2nd revised trans-lation edition Claremont CA Regina Books

Weiler Bernd 2007 ldquoGumplowicz Ludwig (1838ndash1909)rdquo Pp 2038ndash2040 In George Ritzer (ed) The

Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology Malden MA

Blackwell Williams William Appleman 1959 ldquoImperial Antico-lonialismrdquo Pp 23ndash44 In WA Williams (ed) TheTragedy of American Diplomacy Cleveland WorldPublishing Company

Wolpe Harold (ed) 1980 The Articulation of Modes of Production London Routledge and Kegan Paul




CONTENTS

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

List of Contributors xv

List of Tables and Figures xvii

PART ONE

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN COMPARING SOCIETIES

983089 Comparing Societies around the World 983091

Henry Teune

983090 Comparing Societies across Sizes and Scales 983089983090

Mattei Dogan

983091 Comparing Societies Qualitative Methods 983090983089

Julian Go

983092 Comparing Societies Quantitative Methods 983091983088

Peter Ph Mohler

PART TWO

COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL SOCIOLOGY

983089 Ancient Civilizations 983092983093

SN Eisenstadt

983090 Empires Imperial States and Colonial Societies 983093983096

George Steinmetz

983091 Modern Societies 983095983093

John A Hall

983092 The Diverse Uses of Digital Formations 983096983097

Saskia Sassen

PART THREE

COMPARING INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL STRUCTURES

983089 Population Structures 983089983088983091

Arland Thornton

983090 Social Inequality and Mobility 983089983089983091

Sandra Buchholz and Hans-Peter Blossfeld

983091 State Structures 983089983090983089

Victor Nee and Michael Siemon



vi 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155





Andrew Savchenko


Ralph D Grillo




Harland Prechel



Joonmo Son


Stephen K Sanderson


Harriet Bradley

983089983091 Professions 983090983088983097



James Midgley


Joshua A Fishman


983089983095 Mass Media 983090983092983091

Willam A Gamson

983089983096 Mass Culture 983090983093983090

Mike Featherstone




Wenda K Bauchspies


Tom W Smith



983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 vii


PART FOUR



Erich Weede


Hendrik Spruyt


Veljko Vujačić


Robert M Marsh



Henk Vinken


Harald Schoen


Karen A Cerulo


Jack A Goldstone


Bill McCarthy

983089983089 Social Problems 983091983097983094

Robert Heiner

983089983090 Social Deviance 983092983088983090

Steve Hall


Mario Diani

983089983092 Terrorism 983092983089983096

Michel Wieviorka


Kathleen Tierney


Ekkart Zimmermann


Jack S Levy



viii 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155





Robert A Stebbins


Linda D Molm


Jonathan H Turner

983090983090 Trust 983092983097983090

Piotr Sztompka


PART FIVE



Masamichi Sasaki







Glenn E Robinson



PART SIX


Perry Anderson 983094983089983091







983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 ix




Daniel Chirot 983094983090983091


Mattei Dogan 983094983090983094





Thomas D Hall 983094983091983092

Geert Hofstede 983094983091983093

Alex Inkeles 983094983091983093

Edgar Kiser 983094983091983095

Melvin L Kohn 983094983091983096



Michael Mann 983094983092983091

Robert M Marsh 983094983092983093

Karl Marx 983094983092983095



Charles Ragin 983094983093983090



Theda Skocpol 983094983093983093



Charles Tilly 983094983094983088



Max Weber 983094983094983092








George Steinmetz















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59




















60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













vi 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155





Andrew Savchenko


Ralph D Grillo




Harland Prechel



Joonmo Son


Stephen K Sanderson


Harriet Bradley

983089983091 Professions 983090983088983097



James Midgley


Joshua A Fishman


983089983095 Mass Media 983090983092983091

Willam A Gamson

983089983096 Mass Culture 983090983093983090

Mike Featherstone




Wenda K Bauchspies


Tom W Smith



983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 vii


PART FOUR



Erich Weede


Hendrik Spruyt


Veljko Vujačić


Robert M Marsh



Henk Vinken


Harald Schoen


Karen A Cerulo


Jack A Goldstone


Bill McCarthy

983089983089 Social Problems 983091983097983094

Robert Heiner

983089983090 Social Deviance 983092983088983090

Steve Hall


Mario Diani

983089983092 Terrorism 983092983089983096

Michel Wieviorka


Kathleen Tierney


Ekkart Zimmermann


Jack S Levy



viii 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155





Robert A Stebbins


Linda D Molm


Jonathan H Turner

983090983090 Trust 983092983097983090

Piotr Sztompka


PART FIVE



Masamichi Sasaki







Glenn E Robinson



PART SIX


Perry Anderson 983094983089983091







983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 ix




Daniel Chirot 983094983090983091


Mattei Dogan 983094983090983094





Thomas D Hall 983094983091983092

Geert Hofstede 983094983091983093

Alex Inkeles 983094983091983093

Edgar Kiser 983094983091983095

Melvin L Kohn 983094983091983096



Michael Mann 983094983092983091

Robert M Marsh 983094983092983093

Karl Marx 983094983092983095



Charles Ragin 983094983093983090



Theda Skocpol 983094983093983093



Charles Tilly 983094983094983088



Max Weber 983094983094983092








George Steinmetz















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59




















60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 vii


PART FOUR



Erich Weede


Hendrik Spruyt


Veljko Vujačić


Robert M Marsh



Henk Vinken


Harald Schoen


Karen A Cerulo


Jack A Goldstone


Bill McCarthy

983089983089 Social Problems 983091983097983094

Robert Heiner

983089983090 Social Deviance 983092983088983090

Steve Hall


Mario Diani

983089983092 Terrorism 983092983089983096

Michel Wieviorka


Kathleen Tierney


Ekkart Zimmermann


Jack S Levy



viii 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155





Robert A Stebbins


Linda D Molm


Jonathan H Turner

983090983090 Trust 983092983097983090

Piotr Sztompka


PART FIVE



Masamichi Sasaki







Glenn E Robinson



PART SIX


Perry Anderson 983094983089983091







983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 ix




Daniel Chirot 983094983090983091


Mattei Dogan 983094983090983094





Thomas D Hall 983094983091983092

Geert Hofstede 983094983091983093

Alex Inkeles 983094983091983093

Edgar Kiser 983094983091983095

Melvin L Kohn 983094983091983096



Michael Mann 983094983092983091

Robert M Marsh 983094983092983093

Karl Marx 983094983092983095



Charles Ragin 983094983093983090



Theda Skocpol 983094983093983093



Charles Tilly 983094983094983088



Max Weber 983094983094983092








George Steinmetz















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59




















60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













viii 983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155





Robert A Stebbins


Linda D Molm


Jonathan H Turner

983090983090 Trust 983092983097983090

Piotr Sztompka


PART FIVE



Masamichi Sasaki







Glenn E Robinson



PART SIX


Perry Anderson 983094983089983091







983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 ix




Daniel Chirot 983094983090983091


Mattei Dogan 983094983090983094





Thomas D Hall 983094983091983092

Geert Hofstede 983094983091983093

Alex Inkeles 983094983091983093

Edgar Kiser 983094983091983095

Melvin L Kohn 983094983091983096



Michael Mann 983094983092983091

Robert M Marsh 983094983092983093

Karl Marx 983094983092983095



Charles Ragin 983094983093983090



Theda Skocpol 983094983093983093



Charles Tilly 983094983094983088



Max Weber 983094983094983092








George Steinmetz















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59




















60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983139983151983150983156983141983150983156983155 ix




Daniel Chirot 983094983090983091


Mattei Dogan 983094983090983094





Thomas D Hall 983094983091983092

Geert Hofstede 983094983091983093

Alex Inkeles 983094983091983093

Edgar Kiser 983094983091983095

Melvin L Kohn 983094983091983096



Michael Mann 983094983092983091

Robert M Marsh 983094983092983093

Karl Marx 983094983092983095



Charles Ragin 983094983093983090



Theda Skocpol 983094983093983093



Charles Tilly 983094983094983088



Max Weber 983094983094983092








George Steinmetz















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59




















60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162















George Steinmetz















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59




















60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 59




















60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













60 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Policymakers




















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 61
























62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













62 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 63




Imperialism

















64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













64 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





and Fall of Empires




Politics
















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 65























66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













66 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162





















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 67






















68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













68 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162



















983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 69










(2003 70)

Conclusion








70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













70 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162










Notes




Bibliography
























983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 71























































72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













72 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162























































983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













983141983149983152983145983154983141983155 983145983149983152983141983154983145983137983148 983155983156983137983156983141983155 983137983150983140 983139983151983148983151983150983145983137983148 983155983151983139983145983141983156983145983141983155 73






















































74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162













74 983143983141983151983154983143983141 983155983156983141983145983150983149983141983156983162











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