GALEENCYCLOPEDIAOF U.S.ECONOMICHISTORY

GALEENCYCLOPEDIAOF U.S.ECONOMICHISTORY

V O L U M E1AKT H O M A S C A R S O N , E D I T O R

M A R Y B O N K , A S S O C I AT E E D I T O R

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Library of Congress CatalogGale encyclopedia of U.S. economic history / Thomas Carson, editorcm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-7876-3888-9 (set). - ISBN 0-7876-3889-7 (vol. 1)

0-7876-3890-0 (vol.2)1. United StatesEconomic conditions Encyclopedias. I. Carson,

Thomas. II. Title: Gale encyclopedia of US economic history.HC102.G35 1999

330.973003dc21 99-39623CIP

All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended.Copyright 1999 by The Gale Group

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GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY v

Table of Contents

Advisory Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, vii

Photo and Illustration Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, ix

Contents by Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, xiii

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, xxi

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, xxiii

Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, xxv

Alphabetical Entries

A-K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 1

L-Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 553

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1147

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY vii

Advisory Board

Charles K. Hyde Ph.D.Subject-Area SpecialistProfessor of HistoryWayne State UniversityDetroit, Michigan

Brian CareyBrother Rice High SchoolBloomfield Hills, Michigan

Norma ColemanRoosevelt High SchoolGary, Indiana

Maria GalloTruman High SchoolBronx, New York

Kenneth E. Hendrickson, Jr. Ph.D.ChairHistory Department

Midwestern State UniversityWichita Falls, Texas

Michael Leahy Ph.D.Eastern High SchoolBristol, Connecticut

Gene McCreadieFoundation for Teaching EconomicsMentor TeacherTemple City High SchoolTemple City, California

Linda Karen Miller Ed. D.Fairfax High SchoolFairfax, California

Thomas C. Mackey Ph.D.Department of HistoryUniversity of LouisvilleLouisville, Kentucky

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY ix

Photo and Illustration Credits

Addams, Jane: p.2, The Library of Congress;American troops during World War I gas attack,1918, France: p.1130, Corbis-Bettmann. Reproducedby permission; Asian laborers, cheering as railroadenters station: p.153, 19th century, engraving. Ar-chive Photos. Reproduced by permission; Assemblyline workers at Ford Motor Company, Detroit,Michigan: p.61, The Library of Congress; Astor,John Jacob: p.62, National Portrait Gallery; Atomicexplosion: p.58, UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproducedby permission; Australian indenture terminationdocument: p.473, issued to Francis Neill, 1838. Ar-chive Photos. Reproduced by permission; Banisch, Al,of Heinz ketchup: p.431, 1997. AP/Wide World Pho-tos. Reproduced by permission; Bar graph, GrossOutput of WWII in Billions, 1939-1943: p.241, illus-tration by George Barille. The Gale Group; Bar graph,Public Assistance Payments by the Government:p.1099, illustration by Smith & Santori. The GaleGroup; Bar graph, Rise of Suburbs, 1901-1960:p.971, illustration by George Barille. The Gale Group;Bar graph, Rise of the Steel Industry, 1867-1915:p.960, illustration by George Barille. The Gale Group;Bar graph, Englands Colonial Population, 1700:p.910, illustration by George Barille. The Gale Group;Bar graph, Budget Deficit during presidencies, 1970-1995: p.125, illustration by George Barille. The GaleGroup; Bar graph, gallons of alcohol consumedduring Prohibition, 1910-1929: p.829, illustration byGeorge Barille. The Gale Group; Bar graph, South-ern Farm Production, 1850-1890: p.179, illustrationby George Barille. The Gale Group; Bar graph, TaxReceipts, 1923-1932: p.227, illustration by Smith &Santori. The Gale Group; Bar graph, The Graying ofAmerica: p.393, illustration by George Barille. TheGale Group; Bar graph, American Troops in Viet-nam, 1965-1973: p.1064, illustration by George Barille.The Gale Group; Bar graph, King Cotton, 1800-1860: p.538, illustration by Smith & Santori. The GaleGroup; Bar graph, Total European Immigrationto the United States, 1866-1925: p.466, illustrationby Smith & Santori. The Gale Group; Couple at

Morningstar Commune: p.1054, Occidental, Cali-fornia, 1971, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Barnum, P.T.: p.80, Archive Photos. Re-produced by permission; Battles of Korea, 1950,map: p.545, UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced bypermission; Bell, Alexander Graham: p.86, U.S. Na-tional Aeronautics and Space Administration; BerlinWall being dismantled, Germany: p.186, Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission; Bethune, MaryMcLeod: p.90, by Carl Van Vechten. The Estateof Carl Van Vechten. Reproduced by permission;Hersheys chocolate bar miniatures: p.433, 1998.AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission;Boeing 747: p.104, Archive Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Boone, Daniel: p.108, The Library ofCongress; Boston Tea Party: p.113, lithograph bySarony and Major. National Archives and RecordsAdministration; Boy laborers: p.304, National Ar-chives and Records Administration; Brandeis, LouisDembitz: p.116, The Library of Congress; Bunzey,Kenneth, Adrian Nelson working inside turbinegenerator: p.365, Schenectady, New York, 1955. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission;Burnham, Daniel Hudson: p.129, The Library ofCongress; Carnegie, Andrew: p.139, AP/ Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Cars lined up ata Standard gas station: p.752, UPI/Corbis-Bettmann.Reproduced by permission; Carver, George Wash-ington: p.142, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproducedby permission; Chart, The Articles of Confedera-tion v. The Constitution: p.10, illustration by GeorgeBarille. The Gale Group; Chart, Financing a NewNation, 1789-1791: p.1079, illustration by GeorgeBarille. The Gale Group; Chart, Exchange Rates:p.298, illustration by George Barille. The Gale Group;Chart, the Federal Reserve System: p.313, illus-tration by George Barille. The Gale Group; Chart,Slaves and Slaveholders, 1860: p.927, illustrationby Smith & Santori. The Gale Group; Chavez, Cesar:p.157, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by per-mission; Child worker at the Turkey Knob Minein West Virginia: photograph by Lewis Hine; Child,

Photo and Illustration Credits

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORYx

seated at computer (INTERNET on screen):p.488, Archive Photos. Reproduced by permission;Chrysler, Walter P: p.167, Reproduced by permis-sion of American Automobile Association; Confed-erate currency, five dollars: p.201, Archive Pho-tos. Reproduced by permission; Cook, Jane, FredStier (looking at first United States patent grant):p.776, Washington D.C., 1955, AP/Wide World Pho-tos. Reproduced by permission; Cooke, Jay: p.215,portrait. Archive Photos. Reproduced by permission;Corn piled high outside, Magnolia, Minnesota, 1995:p.389, photograph by Jim Mone. AP/Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Cotton Gin: p.219,Corbis-Bettmann Newsphotos. Reproduced by per-mission; Couch, Paula (lifting tobacco plants),Simpsonville, Kentucky, 1998: p.1006, photographby Tony Gutierrez. AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Cowboy with lasso duringroundup on the Sherman Ranch, Genessee, Kan-sas: p.222, National Archives and Records Adminis-tration; Death of General Wolfe: p.347, engraving.Archive Photos. Reproduced by permission; Deere,John: p.232, Ward/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced bypermission; Destitute sharecroppers, family of nine:p.912, Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission;Diagram titled Aggregate Demand: p.14, illustrationby Smith & Santori. The Gale Group; Disney, Walt,Mickey Mouse (on Disneys knee), DonaldDuck (on table), Miami, Florida, 1941: p.247, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission; Dix,Dorothea: p.250, AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Dow, Charles: p.252, AP/WideWorld Photos. Reproduced by permission; du Pont,leuthre Irne: p.260, The Library of Congress;Eastman, George (sitting in stateroom, holding cam-era): p.271, Corbis-Bettmann Newsphotos. Repro-duced by permission; Edison, Thomas (with his tin-foil phonograph): p.277, Washington D. C., AP/WideWorld Photos. Reproduced by permission; Erie CanalOpening, 1825, engravings: p.295, Archive Photos.Reproduced by permission; Family posed with cov-ered wagon, Loup Valley, Nebraska, 1886: p.221,National Archives and Records Administration; Fami-ly watching television, 1948: p.286, AP/Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Female workersexamining textiles for imperfections, 1912: p.1000,Boston, Massachusetts, Corbis-Bettmann. Reproducedby permission; Field, Marshall: p.315, Archive Pho-tos. Reproduced by permission; Food stamps payingfor milk, bread and eggs, 1980: p.328, UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission; Ford, Henry I(sitting in car): p.330, Library of Congress; Franke,Ernest A. (sitting in a Model T Ford): p.651, Wash-ington DC, 1938. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced

by permission; Franklin, Benjamin: p.338, painting.The Library of Congress; Freedmans Bureau (manwearing military uniform, standing between groups):p.343, Harpers Weekly; Fuller, R. Buckminster(standing next to Playsphere): p.352, Cambridge,Massachusetts, 1962, AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Gates, Bill (holding MicrosoftMoney software): p.361, New York, NY, 1991, pho-tograph by David A. Cantor. AP/Wide World Photos.Reproduced by permission; Gerber baby food, De-troit, Michigan, 1994: p.371, photograph by BillWaugh. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by per-mission; Gold Rush (California, African Americangold miner standing, holding shovel): p.379, ArchivePhotos. Reproduced by permission; Gompers, Samu-el (wearing tuxedo and glasses): p.383, The Libraryof Congress; Goodyear, Charles: p.384, sketch. TheLibrary of Congress; Gould, Jay (in light suit andvest): p.387, Archive Photos. Reproduced by permis-sion; Graph, Real Gross Domestic Product in Con-stant 1992 Dollars, 1959-1998: p.407, illustration bySmith & Santori. The Gale Group; Graph, birth rate,Baby Boom, 1940-1960: p.71, illustration by GeorgeBarille. The Gale Group; Graph, Total Trolley CoachPassengers, 1928-1970: p.968, illustration by Smith &Santori. The Gale Group; Graph, TrustbustingAdministrations, 1891-1920: p.1026, illustration bySmith & Santori. The Gale Group; Great RailwayStrike, cavalry on horses escorting train, drawn:p.401, drawing by G. W. Peters from a sketch by G. A.Coffin. Library of Congress; Great Serpent Mound:p.402, The Library of Congress; Greenspan, Alan(right hand in pocket, left on back of chair): p.406,1989, photograph by Dennis Cook. AP/Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Guggenheim, Dan-iel: p.409, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Hammer, Armand: p.414, The Library ofCongress; Harley Davidson motorcycle: p.418, Ar-chive Photos. Reproduced by permission; Hauling aharpooned whale aboard Norwegian whaling ves-sel: p.1112, photograph by Morgan, Greenpeace. Re-produced by permission; Haymarket Square Riot:p.427, painting. The Library of Congress; Hearst,William Randolph: p.429, The Library of Congress;Hill, James Jerome: p.435, drawing. Archive Photos.Reproduced by permission; His Masters Voice(Nipper the dog sitting with phonograph): p.861,painting by Francis Barraud. AP/Wide World Photos.Reproduced by permission; Hoffa, James (sittingbehind microphones): p.439, Washington, DC., 1967, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission;Hooverville outside a factory during the Depres-sion: p.445, Archive Photos/American Stock. Repro-duced by permission; Hughes, Howard (standing

Photo and Illustration Credits

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY xi

behind pilots seat): p.451, 1947. AP/Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Iacocca, Lee,speaking at a Chrysler function: p.456, 1992. Ar-chive Photos. Reproduced by permission; Industrialbreweries, man filling kegs: p.118, Archive Photos.Reproduced by permission; Jackson, Andrew, draw-ing: p.503, The Library of Congress; Jefferson, Tho-mas (head and shoulders, turned slightly to hisright), engraving: p.509, The National Portrait Gal-lery/Smithsonian Institution; Kelley, Florence: p.525,UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission;King, Dr. Martin Luther, Jr., Andrew Young, RalphAbernathy, Eva Gracelemon, Aritha Willis (Kingsarms around girls), Grenada, Mississippi: p.539,1966, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permis-sion; Klu Klux Klan: p.551, Corbis-Bettmann. Repro-duced by permission; Kroc, Ray (holding hamburgerin front of a McDonalds): p.549, AP/Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Los Angeles po-lice officer: p. 460, UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Repro-duced by permission; Landing at Ellis Island, peoplewalking across bridge: p.281, The Library of Con-gress; Langbo, Arnold, Tony the Tiger, shakinghands, Kelloggs Frosted Flakes: p.527, 1996. Ar-chive Photos. Reproduced by permission; Lease, MaryE.,(wearing dark dress with high ruffled collar):p.569, The Library of Congress; Lewis, John L.:p.577, The Library of Congress; Line graph, Balanceof Trade (deficit, 1976-1994): p.73, illustration byGeorge Barille. The Gale Group; Line graph, Unem-ployment and Inflation, 1960-1985: p.951, illustra-tion by George Barille. The Gale Group; Line graph,Embargo Act of 1807 (tonnage, foreign trade in U.S.ports, 1790-1815): p.284, illustration by George Barille.The Gale Group; Line graph, Growing Opposition tothe War, 1965-1973: p.814, illustration by GeorgeBarille. The Gale Group; Line graph, Radios inHomes, 1922-1929: p.852, illustration by GeorgeBarille. The Gale Group; Line graph, Railroads (milesof track laid per year, 1830-1930): p.854, illustrationby George Barille. The Gale Group; Line graph, Rateof Inflation, 1960-1994: p.483, illustration by GeorgeBarille. The Gale Group; Line graph, Stock MarketPrices, 1920-1932: p.397, illustration by George Barille.The Gale Group; Line graph, The Labor Movement(union density for years 1930-1978): p.554, illustra-tion by George Barille. The Gale Group; Line graph,Merger Movement, 1895-1904: p.622, illustration byGeorge Barille. The Gale Group; Living room furni-ture in showroom: p.355, c. 1950. Archive Photos.Reproduced by permission; Loggers working in for-est: p.592, Archive Photos. Reproduced by permis-sion; Long, Huey P.: p.583, The Library of Congress;

Long Island, New York (houses): p.574, Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission; Man breakingopen a barrel of liquor during Prohibition: p.279,The Library of Congress; Man cooling off after Chi-cago fire: p.159, Chicago, Illinois, 1871, photographby G.N. Barnard. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproducedby permission; Man writing sign (No Work To-morrow): p.395, National Archives and RecordsAdministration; Map of western United States show-ing route of Lewis and Clarks exploration of theWest: p.587, illustration by XNR Productions. GaleResearch; Marshall Fields State Street store, 1879,Chicago, Illinois, painting: p.239, Dayton HudsonCorporation. Reproduced by permission; McCormick,Cyrus H.: p.614, engraving. The Library of Congress;McDevitt, William (displaying Susan B. Anthonydollars), Philadelphia: p.642, 1979. AP/Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Men on boat,pulling in net of fish: p.319, photograph by RobertVisser, Greenpeace. Reproduced by permission; Menworking in television station control room, Bur-bank, California: p.682, 1955. AP/Wide World Pho-tos. Reproduced by permission; Microsoft Corporateheadquarters: p.633, Microsoft Corporation. Repro-duced by permission; Migrant worker with her fivechildren, Fresno, California: p.396, 1937. AP/WideWorld Photos. Reproduced by permission; Mission-aries in camp on way to the Klondike, c. 1897,Alaska Territory: p.542, photograph by LaRoche.Corbis. Reproduced by permission; Morgan, J. P.:p.663, Archive Photos. Reproduced by permission;Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (standing by inven-tion), painting: p.667, The Library of Congress; Ne-braska Gas Company pipeline: p.146, Archive Pho-tos. Reproduced by permission; New York City slums,five youngsters playing, New York City: p.373,1950. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permis-sion; New York Stock Exchange, balloons beingreleased, New York City: p.722, 1997. photograph byEmile Wamsteker. AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Nielson, A.C., Sr.: p.723, UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission; Nolan,Mary in Shanghai Lady: p.41, Corbis-Bettmann.Reproduced by permission; Nuclear power plant com-plex (cooling tower at left): p.740, photograph byRobert J. Huffman. Field Mark Publications. Repro-duced by permission; Panama Canal, foot gate slightlyopen, Panama, 1904-1914: p.766, Archive Photos.Reproduced by permission; Perkins, Frances: p.784,AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission;Pikes Peak, evergreen tree in foreground: p.793,1956. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permis-sion; Pinkham, Lydia Estes (oval format, cameopinned to jabot): p.798, Archive Photos. Reproduced

Photo and Illustration Credits

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORYxii

by permission; Porter scratching head, looking atrows of shoes: p.121, Archive Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Post, Charles: p.807, The Library ofCongress; Powderly, Terence Vincent (sitting atdesk, writing): p.817, The Library of Congress; Pulit-zer, Joseph (wearing pince-nez, thick dark hair andbeard): p.838, Archive Photos. Reproduced by per-mission; Pullman strike, 1894, workmen pullingspikes from railway switches, train approachingmen, engraving: p.842, Archive Photos. Reproducedby permission; Rand, Ayn (standing on city streets):p.858, 1962. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Rath & Wrights buffalo hide yard,1878, Dodge City, Kansas: p.126, National Archivesand Records Administration; Reagan, Ronald (look-ing front, smiling, dotted tie): p.862, 1981. TheLibrary of Congress; Reaper: p.615, Corbis-Bettmann Newsphotos. Reproduced by permission; Recruitmentsign of Uncle Sam, I want You, Washington:p.908, 1961, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Repeal the 18th Amendment (wom-an putting sign on spare tire): p.1030, The Library ofCongress; Reuther, Walter, and George Meany,New York: p.34, 1955. UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Repro-duced by permission; Revere, Paul (on horseback),illustration: p.874, National Archives and RecordsAdministration; Robinson, Jackie (toeing home plate),1955 World Series.: p.82, AP/Wide World Photos.Reproduced by permission. Rockefeller, John D.(wearing tweed suit, patterned vest): p.881, ArchivePhotos. Reproduced by permission; Roosevelt, Franklin(smiling into radio microphones): p.883, The Li-brary of Congress; Rosie the Riveter (woman using arivet gun): p.884, Archive Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Rubber Pressing Machines: p.1042, Ar-chive Photos. Reproduced by permission; Sacajawea(pointing), Meriwether Lewis, William Clark: p.575,drawing by Alfred Russell. Corbis-Bettmann. Repro-duced by permission; Segregation sign (officer plac-ing segregation sign), Jackson, Mississippi: p.802,1956, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permis-sion; Shays Rebellion (two men fighting), Massa-chusetts, c. 1786, engraving: p.913, Archive Photos.Reproduced by permission; Silent movie theater withorchestra pit, illustration: p.671, Archive Photos.Reproduced by permission; Singer, Isaac Merritt:p.922, illustration; Southern Industry (black manstanding with bag of picked cotton), c. 1850, engrav-ing: p.9, Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permis-sion; Stanford, Amasa Leland (wearing dark threepiece Regency style suit), engraving: p.955, ArchivePhotos. Reproduced by permission; States, maps ofThe Gale Group; Stock Market Crash (man sellingcar): p.965, UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by

permission; Studebaker, couple outside, women in-side: p.970, AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced bypermission; Sunset over Appalachians, Stone Moun-tain, Virginia: p.50, 1998. Photograph by Amy Sancetta.AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission;Taft, William Howard: p.977, The Library of Con-gress; Tarbell, Ida M. (flowers in her lap and on herdress): p.980, The Library of Congress; Tecumseh,lithograph: p.985, National Portrait Gallery. Repro-duced by permission; Telephone operators, connect-ing calls at switchboard: p.1122, ca. 1940, AP/WideWorld Photos. Reproduced by permission; The origi-nal Colt Revolver: p.195, Corbis-Bettmann. Repro-duced by permission; Three demonstrators seated atlunch counter while crowd harasses them: p.171,AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission;Trans-Alaska pipeline and pump station, Fairbanks,Alaska: p.30, photograph by Al Grillo. AP/Wide WorldPhotos. Reproduced by permission; Transcontinentalrailroad line, two engineers shaking hands, Prom-ontory Summit, Utah: p.1015, 1869. photograph byAndrew J. Russell. AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Truman, Harry (holding copyof Chicago Tribune with headline Dewey DefeatsTruman): p.1021, AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Two children in dust storm(pumping water), Springfield, Colorado: p.265, 1935.AP/ Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission;U.S.S. Shaw exploding at Pearl Harbor, December7, 1941: p.1132, National Archives and Records Ad-ministration; Unemployed lining up outside a reliefkitchen opened in New York City: p.240, AP/WideWorld Photos. Reproduced by permission; Universalstock ticker: p.964, AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Vanderbilt, Cornelius (whitehair, formal dress), print: p.1057, The Library ofCongress; Wall Street, Christmas tree in front ofNew York Stock Exchange: p.1074, 1997. photo-graph by Mark Lennihan. AP/Wide World Photos.Reproduced by permission; Washington, Booker T.(seated at a desk): p.1093, The Library of Congress;Washington, George, at Valley Forge, engraving:p.36, National Archives and Records Administration;Wilson, Woodrow: p.1117, The Library of Congress;Women marching for the right to vote: p.1125,Archive Photos/Hackett Collection. Reproduced bypermission; Women workers assembling aircraft(long rows of glass domes): p.442, National Archivesand Records Administration; Wright, Frank Lloyd(standing, model of Guggenheim Museum): p.1136,New York City, 1945, AP/Wide World Photos. Repro-duced by permission; Young girl standing by a pow-er loom: p.161, National Archives and RecordsAdministration.

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY xiii

Contents by Era

Many topics do not fit easily into the categories that wehave created for them. Companies are placed in the erain which they were founded. Industries and people areplaced in the era when they first flourished. Geo-graphic terms have been placed in eras only when itseemed logical to do so. No attempt has been made tolist historical economic terms. The reader is advised touse the index for terms that cannot be found in thistable of contents.

SETTLEMENT ANDECONOMICDEVELOPMENT: THECOLONIES TO 1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 909

Africans Arrive inVirginia, 1619 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 8

American Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 34Anasazi Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 46Aztec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 69Back Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 71Beringia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 88Choctaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 164Clovis Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 183Colonies, Corporate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 189Colonies, Distribution of

Wealth in (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 190Colonies, Proprietary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 191Columbian Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 196Corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 216Eastern Woodlands Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 270Encomienda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 285Far Western Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 306French and Indian War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 346Great Migration (16301642) . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 398Great Serpent Mound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 402Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 447Inca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 470Indentured Servants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 472Indigo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 477Iroquois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 499LAnse aux Meadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 553Lumber Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 591Maya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 611Mercantilism (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 620Mesa Verde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 625Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 626Mestizo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 626

Middle Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 635Molasses Act of 1733 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 651Mound Builders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 670Native Americans, Treatment

of (Spain v. England) (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 691Naval Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 693Navigation Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 694Navigation Acts, Economic

Burden on the AmericanColonies (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 694

New France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 707New Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 715New Orleans, Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 715New Spain, Viceroyalty of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 717New Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 717Northwest Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 738Northwestern Coast Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 738Paleo-Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 765Pieces of Eight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 791Pilgrims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 793Plains Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 800Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 815Puritans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 845Quebec Act of 1774 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 847Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 878Santa Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 894Sheep Herders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 914Shipbuilding Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 918Slave Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 925Slavery (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 926Southwestern Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 943Subsistence Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 971Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 973Tidewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1002Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1005Tobacco Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1006Tordesillas, Treaty of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1009Triangular Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1017Utopian Communities,

Communes (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1054Wampum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1078

THE AGE OFREVOLUTION, 17631790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 9

American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 35American Revolution, Loyalty

to Great Britain during(Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 37

Articles of Confederation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 57

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Boone, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 107Boston Massacre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 110Boston Tea Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 112Connecticut (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 202Constitution, Economic

Benefits of (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 206Continental Congress, Second . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 213Continentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 213Cumberland Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 226Delaware (1787) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 233European Loans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 296Federalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 313Franklin, Benjamin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 338Georgia (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 367Hancock, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 415Independence, Economic

Impact of (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 473Intolerable Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 494Jay Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 506Jefferson, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 508Land Ordinance of 1785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 563Maryland (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 605Massachusetts (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 608Morris, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 665New Hampshire (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 707New Jersey (1787) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 710New York (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 718North Carolina (1789) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 730Northwest Ordinance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 737Pennsylvania (1787) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 778Proclamation of 1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 820Rag Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 853Revere, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 873Rhode Island (1790) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 874Shays Rebellion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 913Smith, Adam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 932South Carolina (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 939Stamp Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 951States Rights (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 957Sugar Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 973Townshend Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1010Virginia (1788) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1065Washington, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1095Wilderness Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1116

WAR AND COMMERCIALINDEPENDENCE, 17901815 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1078

American System ofManufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 40

Bank of the United States (FirstNational Bank) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 76

Barbary States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 78Cotton Gin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 218Embargo Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 284Evans, Oliver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 297Expansionists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 299Fallen Timbers, Battle of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 304Fulton, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 353Government Land Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 390Hamilton, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 412Harpers Ferry Armory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 420Jackson, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 503

Keelboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 524Kentucky (1792) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 532Lewis and Clark Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 574Louisiana (1812) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 584Louisiana Purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 586Lowell, Francis Cabot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 588Lowell System of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 589Manifest Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 598Mint Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 642Monroe, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 658Napoleonic Wars, Economic

Impact on the U.S.Economy (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 677

Natchez Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 680National Road, Building of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 688Native American Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 689New York Central Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 720Ohio (1803) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 743Old Northwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 750Old Southwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 750Pikes Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 792Pinckney Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 795Plantations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 801Putting Out System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 845Report on Manufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 870Rhode Island System of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 876Samuel Slater Builds First

Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 892Slater, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 924Spinning Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 949Springfield Armory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 950Steamboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 959Stevens, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 962Tecumseh, Death of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 984Temperance Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 986Tennessee (1796) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 989Textile Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 999Vermont (1791) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1060Whiskey Rebellion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1113

EARLY REPUBLIC TOCIVIL WAR, 18151860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 267

Abolition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 1Adams-Onis Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 1Agriculture Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 16Alabama (1819) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 22Arkansas (1836) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 53Astor, John Jacob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 62Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 74Bank of the United States

(Second National Bank) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 76Bank War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 77Bennett, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 87Biddle, Nicholas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 94Black Hawk War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 99Borden Incorporated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 109Brook Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 120Brunswick Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 121Central Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 150Chase, Salmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 155Clay, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 180Clipper Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 182Colts Manufacturing

Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 194

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Convention of 1818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 214Cotton Gin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 218Cumberland Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 226Deere, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 231Dix, Dorothea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 249Dred Scott Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 253Drew, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 254du Pont, Irne leuthre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 260Erie Canal, Building of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 294Five Civilized Tribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 320Florida (1845) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 322Frmont, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 344Fugitive Slave Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 349Gadsden Purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 357Gold Rush of 1849 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 378Goodyear, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 384Harpers Ferry Raid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 420Hershey Foods Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 433Howe, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 449Illinois (1818) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 462Indiana (1816) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 475Iowa (1846) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 495Japan, Opening of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 505Kansas-Nebraska Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 523King Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 537Liberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 581Lukens, Rebecca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 590Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 595Market Revolution (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 602Maysville Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 611McCormick, Cyrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 613McCormick Reaper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 615Mexican Cession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 628Michigan (1837) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 629Minnesota (1858) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 639Mississippi (1817) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 642Missouri (1821) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 646Missouri Compromise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 648Missouri River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 649Molly Maguires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 652Monroe Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 656Morse, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 666Nat Turners Rebellion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 679Oregon (1859) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 755Oregon Country Cessation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 758Oregon Trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 760Otis Elevator Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 761Panic of 1819 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 768Panic of 1837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 769Pennsylvania Main Line Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 781Pennsylvania Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 781Perry, Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 785Pinkerton National

Detective Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 796Polk, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 803Pony Express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 804Porkopolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 806Purdue, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 843Railroad Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 854Railroads, Federal Land Grants

to (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 856Ricardo, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 877Roebling, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 881Santa Fe Trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 895Singer, Isaac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 921

Slums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 931Soo Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 938Spoils System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 949Steamboat Act of 1852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 958Steel Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 959Steel Plow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 961Studebaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 969Tallmadge Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 979Tariff of Abominations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 981Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 986Texas (1845) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 993Texas Annexation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 996Trail of Tears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1012Tyler Preemption Act of 1841 . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1030Underground Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1033Vanderbilt, Cornelius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1057Walker, Amasa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1071War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1087Welland Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1100Wells, Fargo and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1101Western Union Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1105Westward Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1107Whaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1111Wildcat Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1116Wisconsin (1848) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1118Womens Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1124

CIVIL WAR ANDINDUSTRIALEXPANSION, 18601897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 173

Agricultural EquipmentIndustry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 14

Alabama Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 25Alaska Purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 28American Railway Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 35American Smelting and

Refining Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 39AT&T Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 63American Tobacco Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 41Ames, Oakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 43Ames, Oliver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 44Amusement Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 45Automobile, Origin of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 68Barbed Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 79Barnum, Phineas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 79Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 82Bell, Alexander Graham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 86Bessemer Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 89B.F. Goodrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 92Bicycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 93Black Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 98Blackwell, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 101Bland-Allison Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 102Bleeding Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 102Boll Weevil Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 106Bonanza Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 106Brewing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 117Brooklyn Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 120Bryan, William Jennings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 123Buffalo, Extermination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 125Burnham, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 128Busch, Adolphus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 130California (1851) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 133

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Campbell Soup Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 136Carnegie, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 138Carpetbaggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 140Cattle Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 147Cattle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 149Central Pacific Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 152Chain Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 154Chicago Fire of 1871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 158Chinese Exclusion Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 162Chisholm Trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 164Civil Rights Acts of 1866, 1875 . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 168Civil Service Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 172Civil War, Economic Causes

of (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 175Civil War, Economic Impact

of (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 178Coca-Cola Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 184Colorado (1876) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 192Comstock Lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 200Confederate Dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 200Cooke, Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 214Cow Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 221Cowboy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 222Coxey, Jacob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 222Cross of Gold Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 225Debs, Eugene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 229Department Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 238Dingley Tariff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 245Dow, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 252Durant, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 262Eastman, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 270Eastman Kodak Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 272Edison, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 277Ellis Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 281Emancipation Proclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 282Exodusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 299Exxon Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 300Farmers Alliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 307Farmers Protest Movements

(Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 307Field, Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 314Fifteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 316Fourteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 336Free Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 340Freedmens Bureau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 343General Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 364Gold Resumption Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 378Gompers, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 382Gould, Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 386Great Railroad Strike of 1877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 400Greenback Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 404Greenbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 405Hanna, Marcus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 416Hay, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 425Haymarket Bombing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 426H.J. Heinz Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 430Hill, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 434Homestead Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 441Homestead Steel Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 443Homesteaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 444Idaho (1890) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 457Industrial Revolution (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 478Industrialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 481Interstate Commerce

Commission Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 489

Interstate Commerce:Regulation andDeregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 490

Ironclads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 498Jim Crow Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 510Jones, Mary Harris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 514Jones, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 516Kansas (1861) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 520Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 534Kimberly-Clark Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 536King, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 540Klondike Gold Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 541Knights of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 543Kroger Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 549Ku Klux Klan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 551Labor Movement (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 553Labor Unionism (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 557LaFollette, Robert Marion, Sr. . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 559Land Grant Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 561Lease, Mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 568Longhorn Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 584Mail-Order House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 595Mass Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 608Maytag Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 612Montana (1889) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 659Montgomery Ward and Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 661Muckrakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 671Munn v. Illinois (1877) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 673National Bank Act of 1863 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 680National Grange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 685Nebraska (1867) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 696Nevada (1864) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 700Open Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 754Panics of the Late

Nineteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 772Pinkham, Lydia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 797Pittsburgh Plate Glass

Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 799Plessy v. Ferguson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 801Poll Tax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 803Pollock v. Farmers Loan and

Trust Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 804Populist Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 805Postum Cereal Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 808Powderly, Terence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 816Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 818Procter and Gamble Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 821Protectionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 833Pulitzer, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 837Pullman Palace Car Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 840Pullman Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 841Pyramiding Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 846Radical Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 849Railroad Gauges,

Standardization of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 854Railroad Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 854Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 866Retail Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 871Robber Barons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 879Rockefeller, John D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 880Scalawags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 899Sears, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 901Sears Roebuck and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 903Sharecropping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 912Sherman Anti-Trust Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 915

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Sherman Silver Purchase Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 916Shermans March Through

Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 917Social Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 933Sod Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 936South Dakota (1889) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 941Standard Oil Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 953Standard Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 955Stanford, Leland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 955Steel Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 959Streetcars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 966Tenant Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 988Tenements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 988Thirteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1001Times Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1002Transatlantic Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1014Transcontinential Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1014Union Pacific Railroad

Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1036United Mine Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1039United States v. E.C. Knight . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1045Upjohn Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1045United States Rubber Company . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1042Utah (1896) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1049Vaudeville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1058Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific

Railway Company v.Illinois (1886) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1069

Wallace, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1075Washington (1889) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1091Washington, Booker T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1093West Virginia (1863) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1102Westinghouse, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1106Working Conditions in

Factories (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1127Wrigley, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1137Wyoming (1890) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1139Yellow-Dog Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1143

AN ERA OF ECONOMICINSTABILITY, 18971920. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 292

Addams, Jane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 2American Federation of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 33American Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 34Anti-Immigration Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 48Arizona (1912) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 51Assembly Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 60Automobile Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 66Beveridge, Albert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 91Big Stick Diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 95Birds of Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 96Black and Decker Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 96Boeing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 103Brandeis, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 115Brotherhood of Sleeping

Car Porters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 120Carrier, Willis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 140Carver, George Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 142Chrysler, Walter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 166Clayton Anti-Trust Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 182Croly, Herbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 224Dollar Diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 250Durant, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 263

Entertainment Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 285Eighteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 279Federal Reserve Banking Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 311Federal Reserve System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 312Firestone, Harvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 317Ford, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 329Ford Motor Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 331General Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 366Giannini, Amadeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 374Gillette Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 375Gillette, King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 376Gold Standard Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 382Great Migration (19101920) . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 399Guggenheim, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 409Harley-Davidson, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 417Hearst, William Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 429Hepburn Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 432Hires, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 437Hollerith, Herman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 439Imperialism (Possession of

Colonies) (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 467International Business

Machines, Corporation(IBM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 485

Industrial Workers of theWorld (IWW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 480

Johnson, Hugh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 512Kelley, Florence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 524Kellogg Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 526Kellogg, Frank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 528Kellogg, Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 529Kresge, Sebastian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 546Lane, Gertrude Battles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 564Ledbetter, Ivy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 570Lever Food Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 572Liberty Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 581Mann-Elkins Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 599McGraw-Hill Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 616Merrill, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 623Mitchell, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 649Model T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 650Morgan, John Pierpont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 663Movies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 670Nabisco Foods Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 675New Mexico (1912) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 713New York Yankees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 721Nineteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 724North Dakota (1889) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 733Northern Securities Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 735Oklahoma (1907) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 747Open Door Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 753Overman Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 762Packers and Stockyards Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 765Panama Canal, Building of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 765Panama Canal Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 768Panic of 1907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 771Perkins, Francis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 783Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 789Pinchot, Gifford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 794Post, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 807Procter, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 823Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 837Pure Food and Drug Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 843Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 852Radio Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 853

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GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORYxviii

Railroad War Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 856Reinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 869Scientific Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 901Selective Service Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 908Sinclair, Upton, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 920Sixteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 923Spanish-American War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 946Sullivan, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 974Taft, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 977Tarbell, Ida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 979Taylor, Frederick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 983Tennessee Valley Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 991Texas Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 997Thomas, Norman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1001Tobacco Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1008Transportation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1015Triangle Shirtwaist

Factory Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1016Trust-Busting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1025Underwood Tariff Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1035United Parcel Service of

America, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1040United States Steel Company . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1043Veblen, Thorstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1059Walker, Sarah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1073War Industries Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1085Weyerhauser Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1110Wilson, Woodrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1116Womens Trade Union League . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1126World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1129Wright, Frank Lloyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1135

PROSPERITY DECADE,19201929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 839

Advertising Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 3Bean, Leon Leonard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 83Caterpillar Incorporated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 145Chrysler Motors Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 164Fordney McCumber Tariff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 333Fuller, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 351Gerber Products Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 370Howard Johnson

International, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 447Kelsey-Hayes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 530Land OLakes, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 561Lasker, Albert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 566Lewis, Sinclair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 578Mellon, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 619National Broadcasting

Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 681Penney, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 777Prohibition (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 828Reconstruction Finance Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 868Rubbermaid Incorporated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 885Sheppard-Towner Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 915Warner, Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1088Zenith Electronics Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1145

DEPRESSION ANDWORLD WAR II, 19291945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 239

Andersen, Arthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 46Arsenal of Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 57

Baruch, Bernard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 81Bechtel, Stephen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 85Bethune, Mary McLeod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 90Bretton Woods Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 117Civilian Conservation Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 180Closed Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 183Congress of Industrial

Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 201Coughlin, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 218Council of National Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 220Dust Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 264Emergency Price Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 284Fair Labor Standards Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 303Farm Credit Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 306Federal Deposit Insurance

Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 310Galbraith, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 357Gallup, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 359Glass-Steagal Banking Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 377Great Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 394Great Depression, Causes of

(Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 396Hammer, Armand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 414Home Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 440Hooverville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 444Hopkins, Harry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 445International Monetary Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 487Keynes, John Maynard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 534Keynesian Economic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 536Knopf, Blanche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 543Lange, Dorothea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 565Lend-Lease Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 571Liberty Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 582Long, Huey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 583Marcus, Stanley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 599Minimum Wage Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 638National Labor Relations

Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 687National Industrial

Recovery Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 686National Recovery

Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 687New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 702New Deal: Reform or

Revolution? (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 705Norris-LaGuardia Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 726Office of Emergency

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 743Office of Price Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 743Oil Depletion Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 747Penny Auctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 782Quantity Theory of Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 847Rand, Ayn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 857Randolph, A. Phillip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 858Rationing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 860RCA-Victor Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 860Right to Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 878Roosevelt, Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 882Rosie the Riveter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 884Rudkin, Margaret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 886Rural Electrification

Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 888Second New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 906Securities and Exchange

Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 907

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GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY xix

Smoot-Hawley Tariff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 933Social Security Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 934Stock Market Crash of 1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 965Townsend Clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1010Tupper, Earl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1027Twenty-first Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1030Tyson Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1031United Auto Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1038United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1040War Labor Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1086War Labor Disputes Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1086War Production Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1088Watson, Thomas, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1096Works Progress Administration . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1129World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1131

POSTWAR PROSPERITY,19451973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 812

Airline Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 20Alaska (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 25Arms Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 56Baby Boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 71Alfred Chandler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 154Chavez, Cesar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 157Civil Rights Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 169Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 186Congress on Racial Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 201Deming, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 237Disney, Walter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 247Drucker, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 255Economic Opportunity Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 276Environmentalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 288Equal Opportunity Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 290Fair Employment Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 303Federal Railroad

Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 310Forbes, Malcolm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 327Full Employment Act of 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 351General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 362Getty, J. Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 371Ghetto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 372GI Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 373Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 402Gruen, Victor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 408Halpin, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 411Harrington, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 421Hawaii (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 422Hilton, William Barron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 436Hoffa, Jimmy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 438Hughes, Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 450Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 487Interstate Highway Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 492Kaiser, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 519King, Martin Luther, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 538Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 544Kroc, Raymond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 548Lauder, Estee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 567Leontif, Wassily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 571Levitt, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 573Marshall Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 603Medicaid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 618Medicare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 618

Military-Industrial Complex(Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 636

Morita, Akio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 664Nader, Ralph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 676Nielsen, Arthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 723Nixon, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 725Normalcy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 726North Atlantic Treaty

Organization (NATO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 729Nuclear Energy (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 739OPEC Oil Embargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 751Pickens, Thomas Boone, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 789Postwar Boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 810Racketeer Influenced and

Corrupt OrganizationsAct (RICO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 849

Saint Lawrence Seaway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 891Schumpeter, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 899Sloan, Alfred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 929Sony Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 936Space Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 944Suburbs, Rise of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 971Taft-Hartley Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 978Trippe, Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1019Truman, Harry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1021United Farm Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1038Urban Renewal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1046Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1063Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1070Walton, Sam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1076Wild and Scenic Rivers Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1115

THE CONTEMPORARYWORLD, 1973PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 210

Affirmative Action (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 6Air Traffic Controller Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 17Airline Deregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 19Alaskan Pipeline, Building of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 29Allen, Paul Gardner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 31Americans with Disabilities

Act (ADA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 42Andreesen, Marc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 47Asian Financial Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 59Balanced Budget Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 73Baldridge, Malcolm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 73Buffett, Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 127Case, Stephen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 143Dell, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 236DeVos, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 244Eisner, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 280Family and Medical Leave Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 305Flat Tax Provision (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 320Foreign Investment in the

United States (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 333Foreign Investment of U.S.

Companies Abroad (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 335Friedman, Milton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 348Gates, William, III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 360Global Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 377Gorman, Leon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 385Graying of America (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 392Greenspan, Alan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 405Helms-Burton Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 432

Contents by Era

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORYxx

Iacocca, Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 455Illegal Drugs (Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 459Information Superhighway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 483Internet and the Economy

(Issue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 488Jobs, Steve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1, 511Mexican Bail-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 626Microsoft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 632National Association of

Securities DealersAutomated Quotations(System) NASDAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 680

Netscape CommunicationsCorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 698

North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 728

Personal Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 786Proctor, Barbara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 825Reagan, Ronald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 862Reaganomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 863Rust Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 888Savings and Loan Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 896Stagflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 951Sun Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 975Trucking Industry

(Commericial) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1020Trump, Donald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1022Wozniak, Stephen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v2, 1133

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY xxi

Preface

The Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic Historyoffers to students comprehensive coverage of Ameri-can economic history from the Paleolithic Age to thepresent with an emphasis on the nineteenth and twenti-eth centuries. The topics selected for inclusion by ourboard of advisors have been chosen to support mosttextbooks on American history, and this work shouldbe a useful tool for juniors and seniors in high schooland first- and second-year college students who arebeginning an investigation of the subject. The studentwill find articles on the Aztec, Maya, and Inca, becausemany texts begin with a chapter on the early history ofour southern neighbors. The history of Native Ameri-cans has also been included, so articles can be found onMound Builders, Plains Indians, Five Civilized Tribes,the Trail of Tears and many other topics. Successfulwomen and minority leaders are also to be found.There is, of course, a wealth of material on the rise ofthe United States as an industrial power. Brilliantinventors, labor unionizers, robber barons, reformers,political leaders, and manufacturers of products asdisparate as Colt revolvers and modern computer soft-ware can all be found on these pages.

The articles in this book have been selected by adistinguished board of nine advisors that representsboth university and high school teachers and librarians. It includes people from different regions of the countryand varied ethnic backgrounds. Five of them havedoctorates in American History or a related area.Professor Charles K. Hyde, a specialist in U.S. Eco-nomic History from Wayne State University, not onlyhelped in the selection of topics, but also read andcommented on every article in the book. The ency-clopedia is immeasurabily stronger because of hiscontribution.

Professor Hyde divided American history into teneras. We have had a research scholar write an overviewessay for each of these eras, and we expect that theseoverviews will help the beginning student place thewhirl of facts presented in this book into its proper

context. These eras will also provide the basis oforganization for our table of contents and our chronology.

The book includes 1,003 articles; about half areeconomic terms and historical and geographic defini-tions. These articles are somewhat shorter than theothers, and they include no bibliography. They willgive rather concise explanations of such terms asPrairie, Cumberland Gap, Santa Fe Trail, or Knights ofLabor. About 200 of these terms are economic incharacter, defining such concepts as Laissez Faire,Aggregate Demand, and Pay Equity. It is hoped thattheir addition will make this book useful to the studentof economics as well as the student of history.

The remaining half of the book consists of over-views, issues, biographies, state economic histories,historical events, and company and industry histories.Each of these entries have a Further Reading sec-tion that will direct the student toward other works onthe subject and may serve as the basis for writingresearch papers. The Further Reading will averageabout five citations, ranging from on-line encyclopediaarticles to scholarly monographs. The Issues essays, aspecial feature of this book, contain discussions oftopics that are currently a subject of public debate, likethe flat tax, or have been so in the past, like slavery.Matters of current scholarly dispute, such as whetherthe Spanish or the English treated Native Americansbetter, are also included among the Issues.

The book is organized in word-by-word alphabeti-cal order. Most articles can be found under the fullname of the entity and not the acronym. For example,IBM will be found under International BusinessMachines and not IBM. The exceptions to thisrule are few. In some cases the acronym has becomethe company name, like the AT&T Corporation orRCA Victor. The OPEC Oil Embargo is our onlyinstance of an event that contains an acronym, and ithas been allowed to stand. A student who knows onlythe acronym should check the index to find the fullname of the institution.

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. ECONOMIC HISTORY xxiii

Introduction

Beginning students of American economic historyand their teachers will find this encyclopedia to be a valuable source of information on the complex mosaicof people, businesses, industries, single events, andlonger-lived movements and trends that together com-prise the economic and social history of the UnitedStates. In teaching U.S. economic history over the pastquarter-century, I have concluded that students strug-gle with the subject matter more than with othervarieties of history. What makes the field difficult isthe requirement that students learn basic economicconcepts and at the same time come to grips with long-term, complex historical developments and trends.Students must also familiarize themselves with a longlist of individuals and institutions, which were impor-tant forces in American economic and social history. In bringing all of this information together into a singlereference work for the first time, this encyclopedia willbe a valuable helpmate to students and teachers alike.

This encyclopedia has a variety of distinctivetypes of entries which is its real strength as a referencetool. The Era Overviews provide an overall chrono-logical and thematic framework for more than fourhundred years of American economic history. Theyhelp readers identify the major long-term economicchanges within each era, providing a big picturefocus. A second type of entry, Issues in EconomicHistory, also emphasize long-term influences and policyissues, such as the role of immigrants in the nationaleconomy or the use of child labor. These entries remindthe reader that issues or problems in economic historycan extend beyond the boundaries of narrow chrono-logical periods.

Students interested in the economic history of aparticular colony or state will find the GeographicalProfiles of great value. There is often a natural interestin the economic history of ones own state or even arequirement that students learn their states history.

Textbooks sometimes discuss the economic develop-ment of individual colonies during the eighteenth cen-tury, but seldom carry that history into the nineteenthor twentieth centuries.

The more specific developments in U.S. economichistory are analyzed using several complementary ap-proaches. Entries that focus on Key Events andMovements take a broad approach to the causes andeffects of major developments, while the Biographiesemphasize the importance of the human actors ineconomic history. The Historic Business and Indus-try Profiles focus on the importance of profit-seekingfirms or corporations and some of the key industries inthe shaping of the economy over time.

Finally, the inclusion of Economic Concepts andTerms greatly aids the student who has little or nobackground in basic economics. American economichistory textbooks for colleges and high schools typical-ly assume that the student has completed at least oneeconomics course and therefore is