Energy & Society Toolkit Appendices

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Toolkit Appendices

Energy & Society Toolkit Appendices

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Table of Contents

1. Orders of Magnitude 3

2. Units and Conversion Factors 4 2.1. Distance 4 2.2. Area 4 2.3. Volume 4 2.4. Mass 4 2.5. Pressure 4 2.6. Temperature 4 2.7. Force 4 2.8. Energy 4 2.9. Power 5

3. Energy Reference Numbers 6 3.1. Approximate Values of the Most Common Measures of Energy 6 3.2. Approximate Values of the Most Common Energy Flows 6 3.3. Energy Content of Select Substances 7

4. Power Reference Numbers 8 4.1. Examples of Power Use and Requirements 8

5. Energy Resources, Emissions, and Data 9 5.1. Global Exergy Flux, Reservoirs, and Destruction 9 5.2. Fossil Energy Resources 10 5.3. Renewable Energy Resources 11 5.4. Emissions Factors 11

6. References 15

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1. ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE

Table 1 Orders of Magnitude & Metric Unit Conversions

Multiple Prefix Symbol

10-18 0.000000000000000001 atto a

10-15 0.000000000000001 femto p

10-12 0.000000000001 pico p

10-9 0.000000001 nano n

10-6 0.000001 micro

10-3 0.001 milli m

10-2 0.01 centi c

10-1 0.1 deci d

101 10 deka da

102 100 hecto h

103 1,000 kilo k

106 1,000,000 Mega M

109 1,000,000,000 Giga G

1012 1,000,000,000,000 Tera T

1015 1,000,000,000,000,000 Peta P

1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 Exa E

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2. UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

2.1. Distance 1 meter (m) = 3.281 feet (ft) = 39.37 inches (in) 1 mile (mi) = 5280 ft = 1.609 kilometers (km) 1 micron (µ) = 10-6 m 1 angstrom (Å ) = 10-10 m

2.2. Area 1 square meter (m2) = (100 cm)2 = 104 square centimeters (cm2)

1 square meter (m2) = (3.281 ft)2 = 10.8 square feet (ft2) 1 square kilometer (km2) = (1000 m)2 = 106 m2 = 0.4 square miles (mi2) 1 hectare (ha) = (100 m)2 = 104 m2 = 2.47 acres 1 acre = 43560 ft2 1 barn (b) = 10-24 cm2

2.3. Volume 1 cubic meter (m3) = 1000 liters (l) = 264.2 US gallons (gal) = 35.31 cubic feet (ft3)

1 liter (l) = 103 cubic centimeters (cm3) = 103 mL = 1.057 US quarts 1 acre foot = 1.234× 103 m3 1 cord = 128 ft3

1 board foot = 2.36× 10-3 m3 1 cubic mile = 4.17 cubic kilometers (km3) 1 barrel of petroleum (bbl) = 42 US gallons = 0.159 m3

2.4. Mass 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)

1 metric ton (tonne) = 103 kg = 1.102 short tons = 0.9842 long tons 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces avoirdupois (oz) = 453.6 grams (g)

2.5. Pressure 1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.9869 atmospheres (atm) 1 atmosphere (atm) = 76 cm of mercury = 14.17 lb/in2 = 760 torr

2.6. Temperature

Degrees Celsius (°C) =

[degrees Fahrenheit (°F) −32]

Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) =

[degrees Celsius (°C)] +32

Kelvins (K) = degrees Celsius (°C) + 273.15

2.7. Force 1 Newton (N) = 1 kg · m⁄s2

2.8. Energy 1 joule (J) = 1 Newton-meter (N·m) = 1 kg · m2⁄s2

1 joule (J) = 107 ergs 1 joule (J) = 0.2390 calories (cal) 1 joule (J) = 9.484× 10-4 British thermal units (Btu)

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1 joule (J) = 1 watt –second (Ws) 1 joule (J) = 6.242× 1018 electron volts (eV) 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.6× 106 J = 3414 Btu 1 quad = 1015 Btu = 1.05× 1018 J 1 therm = 105

Btu

1 foot pound = 1.356 J 1 kiloton of TNT (KT) = 4.2× 1012 J 1 calorie (cal) = 4.1868 J 1 Calorie = 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 103 calories (cal) 1 tonne of oil equivalent (toe) = 41.868 GJ

2.9. Power 1 Watt (W) = 1 joule/second (J⁄s) = 3.6 kJ/hour = 31.5 MJ/year 1 horsepower (hp) = 0.764 kiloWatts (kW)

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3. ENERGY REFERENCE NUMBERS

3.1. Approximate Values of the Most Common Measures of Energy

Reference energy measure: joule (J) 1 British thermal unit (Btu) ≈ 1 kilojoule (kJ) 1 million Btu ≈ 1 gigajoule (GJ) 1 GJ ≈ 8 gallons of gasoline ≈ 1000 cubic feet of natural gas ≈ 33 kg of coal 4 GJ ≈ 1 ton of TNT 6 GJ ≈ 1 barrel of oil (bbl) 15 GJ ≈ 1 ton of wood 30 GJ ≈ 1 ton of coal 1,000,000,000 GJ = 1 exajoule = 1 quad Reference energy measure: watt (W) 70 gigawatts (GW) ≈ 1 million bbl of oil per day ≈ 2 exajoules per year 1 terawatt (TW) ≈ 1 billion tons of coal per year ≈ 30 exajoules per year

Reference energy measure: 1 British thermal unit (Btu)i 1,028 Btu ≈ 1 cubic foot of natural gas 3,412 Btu ≈ 1 kilowatt-hour electricity (kWh) 3,500,000 Btu ≈ 1 barrel of fuel ethanol 5,200,000 Btu ≈ 1 barrel of gasoline 5,800,000 Btu ≈ 1 barrel of crude oil 22,230,000 Btu ≈ 1 tonne coal

3.2. Approximate Values of the Most Common Energy Flows

Flow Value in Terawatts(1012 W) Energy radiated by sun into space 3.7× 1014

Solar radiation incident on top of Earth’s atmosphere 175,000 Solar radiation reflected back to space from Earth 53,000 Solar radiation reflected back to space from Earth’s atmosphere 46,000 Solar radiation absorbed in atmosphere 44,000 Rate at which latent heat flows from Earth’s surface to atmosphere 42,000 Rate at which infrared radiation leaving Earth’s surface flows directly to space 10,200 Rate at which convective heat flows from Earth’s surface to atmosphere 8,600 Wind, waves, ocean currents 500-2,000 Net primary productivity on earth 75-125 Energy conducted from Earth’s interior to its surface 20-40 World energy consumption (1980) 10 U.S. energy consumption (1980) 2.5 Energy content of food consumed by world’s human population (1980) 0.55 World electricity production (1980) 0.87 U.S. electricity production (1980) 0.26

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3.3. Approximate Energy Content of Select Substances

Substance Energy Content (106 J/kg unless otherwise noted) Natural gas 3.9× 107 J/m3

Gasoline 48 Petroleum (crude) 43 (6.1× 109 J/bbl) Typical animal fat 38 Coal 29.3 Charcoal 29 Paper 20 Dry biomass 16 Air-dried wood or dung 15 Crop wastes (20% moisture) 13 Bread 12 Milk 3 Beer 1.8

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4. POWER REFERENCE NUMBERS

4.1. Examples of Power Use and Requirements

Power (Production and Use) Power Requirements (with units)

Lift a mosquito at a rate of 1 cm/sec 1 erg/sec = 10-7 W = 10-10 kW

Pumping human heart 1.5 W = 1.5× 10-3 kW

Combusting a match 10 W = 10-2 kW

Human working hard 0.1 kW

Draft horse working 1 kW

Compact car, moving 100 kW

Boeing 747 jetliner, cruising 250,000 kW

One large coal fired power plant 1× 106 kW = 1 GW of electricity

All power plants worldwide 2× 109 kW = 2,000 GW

All cars in the US, on at the same time 15× 109 kW = 15,000 GW

Total human energy use (7 billion people) 1.1× 1010 kW =1.1× 104 GQ

= 400 Quads/year

From, Tester, et al., (2005).

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5. ENERGY RESOURCES, EMISSIONS, AND DATA

5.1. Global Exergy Flux, Reservoirs, and Destruction

For more information, see Weston A., Hermann. “Quantifying global exergy resources.” Energy 31, no. 12 (September 2006): 1685-1702.

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5.2. Fossil Energy Resources

Table 2 Global Fossil Energy Reserves, Resources, and Occurrences, in EJ

Table from Nakicenovic N, et al. (1997), pg 87, Table B-3.

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5.3. Renewable Energy Resources

Table 3 Global Renewable Energy Potentials by 2020-2025, maximum technical potential, and annual natural flows, in EJ thermal equivalenta

Table from Nakicenovic N, et al. (1997), pg 88, Table B-4.

5.4. Emissions Factors

Table 4 Carbon-emissions factors for some primary energy sources (kg C/GJ)

IPCC 2006

Fuel IPCC 1996

Default Lower Upper

LIQUID FOSSIL FUELS Primary Fuels Crude Oil 20.0 20.0 19.4 20.6 Orimulsion 22.0 21.0 18.9 23.3 Natural Gas Liquids 17.2 17.5 15.9 19.2 Secondary Fuels / Products Gasoline 18.9 — — — — Motor Gasoline — 18.9 18.4 19.9 — Aviation Gasoline — 19.1 18.4 19.9 — Jet Gasoline — 19.1 18.4 10.0 Jet Kerosene 19.5 19.5 19 20.3 Other Kerosene 19.6 19.6 10.3 20.1 Shale Oil 20.0 20.0 18.5 21.6

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Gas/Diesel Oil 20.2 20.2 19.8 20.4 Residual Fuel Oil 21.1 21.1 20.6 21.5 Liquefied Petroleum Gases 17.2 17.2 16.8 17.9 Ethane 16.8 16.8 15.4 18.7 Naptha (20.0)a 20.0 18.9 20.8 Bitumen 22.0 22.0 19.9 24.5 Lubricants (20.0)a 20.0 19.6 20.5 Petroleum Coke 27.5 26.6 22.6 31.3 Refinery Feedstocks (20.0)a 20.0 18.8 20.9 Refinery Gas 18.2b 15.7 13.3 19.0 Paraffin Waxes — 20.0 19.7 20.3 White Spirit & SBP — 20.0 19.7 20.3 Other Petroleum Products — 20.0 19.6 20.3 Other Oil (20.0)a — — — SOLID FOSSIL FUELS Primary Fuels Anthracite 26.8 26.8 25.8 27.5 Coking Coal 25.8 25.8 23.8 27.6 Other Bituminous Coal 25.8 25.8 24.4 27.2 Sub-bituminous Coal 26.2 26.2 25.3 27.3 Lignite 27.6 27.6 24.8 31.3 Oil Shale (& Tar Sandsc) 29.1 29.1 24.6 34 Peat 28.9 28.9 28.4 29.5 Secondary Fuels / Products BKB & Patent Fuel 25.8a 26.6 23.8 29.6 Coke Oven / Gas Coke 29.5 29.2 26.1 32.4 Coke Oven Gas 25.8b 12.1 10.3 15.0 Blast Furnace Gas 29.5 70.8 59.7 84.0 Gas Works Gas — 12.1 10.3 15.0 Oxygen Steel Furnace Gas — 49.6 39.5 55.0 GASEOUS FOSSIL FUELS Natural Gas (Dry) 15.3 15.3 14.8 15.9 BIOMASS

Solid Biomass 29.9 — — — Municipal Waste – Biomass Fraction — 27.3 23.1 32.0 Municipal Waste – Non-biomass Fraction — 25.0 20.0 33.0 Industrial Wastes — 39.0 30.0 50.0 Charcoal — 30.5 25.9 36.0 Wood / Wood Waste — 30.5 25.9 36.0 Sulphite Ives (black liquor) — 26.0 22.0 30.0 Other Primary Solid Biomass — 27.3 23.1 32.0 Liquid Biomass (20.0)a — — — Biogasoline — 19.3 16.3 23.0 Biodiesels — 19.3 16.3 23.0

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Other Liquid Biofuels — 21.7 18.3 26.0 Gas Biomass (30.6)a — — — Landfill Gas — 14.9 12.6 18.0 Sludge Gas — 14.9 12.6 18.0 Other Biogas — 14.9 12.6 18.0

a This value is a default value until a fuel specific carbon emissions factor (CEF) is determined. For gas biomass, the CEF is based on the assumption that 50% of the carbon in the biomass is converted to methane and 50% is emitted as CO2. The CO2 emissions from biogas should not be included in national inventories. If biogas is released and not combusted, 50% of the carbon content should be included as methane. (IPCC 1996) b For use in the sectoral calculations. (IPCC 1996) c Tar sands added in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

The table below combines data from the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Units are in kg C/GJ

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Table from Nakicenovic N, et al. (1997), pg 80, Table B-2.

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6. REFERENCES

Nakicenovic N, Grübler A, Ishitani H, Johansson T, Marland G, et al. 1997. Energy primer. In Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses, ed. RT Watson, MC Zinyouera, RH Moss, pp. 75–92. Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change, Geneva. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Tester, Jefferson W., Drake, Elisabeth, M., Driscoll, Michael J., Golay, Michael W., Peters, William A. Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, 2005).

i Committee on America’s Energy Future. 2009. “Appendix D” in America’s Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. National Academies Press: Washington, DC.