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Listed by Name How to Find Ship Info Introduction Support HNSA:
Folks,
Engine Room Tools, 1949, is a training manual that focuses on the correct use of
tools aboard ship. It is noteworthy because it includes tools that are specific to
the maritime trades.
In this online version of the manual we have attempted to keep the flavor of the
original layout while taking advantage of the Web's universal accessibility.
Different browsers and fonts will cause the text to move, but the text will remain
roughly where it is in the original manual. In addition to errors we have
attempted to preserve from the original, this text was captured by a
combination of optical character recognition and human typist. Each method
creates errors that are compounded while encoding for the Web. PPlease report
any typos, or particularly annoying layout issues with the Mail Feedback Form
for correction.
Richard Pekelney
Webmaster
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Table of Contents
Introduction
Part I, Hand Tools
Part II, Fasteners, Hoists, etc.
Part III, Measuring Instruments
2020
COPYRIGHT 1949 BY
MAST MAGAZINE ASSOCIATION
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Prepared by the Staff
of the
UNITED STATES
MARITIME SERVICE INSTITUTE
Acknowledgment
The staff of the United States Maritime Service Institute wishes to acknowledge the
valuable aid given by the following organizations in granting permission to use
material from their publications.
National Board of Fire Underwriters
Snap-on Tools Corporation
Herman H. Sticht Co., Inc.
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1
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS
1. This text is divided into three parts. Each part constitutes one lesson and isfollowed by its respective examination. The correct procedure is to study Part 1,
and complete and send in the examination for that part. Then study and
complete Parts 2 and 3 in the same way.
Except for certain special tools that are taken up later in connection with the
equipment on which they are used, these lessons describe the hand tools
commonly worked with in the engineering department of a ship, and explain
certain precautions that should be taken in using and caring for such tools. In
order that the coverage will be as complete and helpful as possible, the lessons
also include a description of some tools that might not be found aboard ship,
but that would be encountered in shipyards, machine shops, and other places
where maintenance and repair work is done.
The information in the lessons is extremely important to all who desire to be
completely familiar with and well trained in the knowledge and uses of hand
tools. It will aid the beginner, for example, to identify and locate the right tool for
a job and help him to perform his work more efficiently. It should also contain
much of interest to engineering personnel who have picked up their knowledge
of tools more or less by chance as their work required various tools to be used.Even engineers with long experience may gain valuable information that they
had not known about previously.
The Tools lessons will be found quite elementary in places, since they are
prepared so as to be suitable for the beginning student, as just explained. They
should be studied carefully, however, as this will enable all students to practice
the art of study (which they may not have been doing recently) and will help
them to master the more difficult engineering principles that follow in later
lessons.
2. Good tools are essential if a mechanic is to do his best work quickly, properly
and accurately. Without the proper tools and
2
the knowledge of how to use them, time is wasted, efficiency is reduced, and the
person doing the work may injure himself.
Good tools are carefully made, and must be handled properly if they are to work
and last as intended. They cannot take rough usage. This is especially important
aboard ship where it may be .impossible to procure a replacement when
needed.
In general, every tool should be given. its own place on a tool rack or tool board,
or in a tool box. Some tools should be kept close by the machine for which they
are designed and on which they are used. Other tools must be stored in the tool
room. Tools should be cleaned after being used, should be oiled, in some cases,
to prevent rust, and should then be returned to their respective places.
When tools are taken care of systematically, it is much easier to find the tool
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needed. This is important, especially in an emergency. It is also possible to check
more readily to see whether any tools are missing, and, if so, which ones they
are.
A good mechanic will take care of his tools, as valuable time and possibly lives
may depend on the accomplishment of a piece of work quickly and accurately.
He will keep cutting tools sharp, grind them, if necessary, when through usingthem, and store them so that their edges will not be damaged or dulled by
contact with each other or with other hard objects. He will handle delicate
measuring instruments with care, and will not keep them where they might be
damaged by heavy tools.
When work is being done, the necessary tools should be kept within easy reach,
but not where they can fall and be damaged, or where they may fall and injure
someone, as might occur from an upper level in the engine room. It is advisable
to spread canvas along a grating, if tools are to be placed on it, or if work isbeing carried on where tools might drop and fall through it. Openings in the
engine or other equipment being worked on should be covered or plugged to
prevent tools, nuts, bolts, etc., from accidentally falling through the openings.
Such objects within the cylinder or crankcase of an engine, and not observed
and removed before starting up, can cause considerable damage.
Tools should never be placed on the finished parts of a machine, on the ways of
a lathe, for example. Sharp tools should not be carried in the pockets of clothing
or left protruding from work benches, as they may tear or puncture objects with
which they come in contact, including the workman.
3
Some tools can be used for several purposes, but using the wrong tool may ruin
not only it, but the work as well. If a screwdriver is used as a prying tool, it may
bend or break. If a chisel is used instead of a wrench, an important part of the
machinery may be scarred or broken.
The way in which tools are handled, and the care given to them, indicates the
quality of workmanship and the kind of engineering to be expected in your
department.
4
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 1
3. Hammers.-The hammer is a very simple striking tool, being just a weightedhead and a handle to direct its course. Several types of hammers are shown in
Fig. 1.
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FIG. 1. TYPES OF HAMMERS.
The ball-peen hammer, often termed the machinist's hammer, is a very useful tool
aboard ship. The headof the hammer is made of hardened steel. The handleis
of hickory or other hardwood. The flat portion of the head is called theface, and
the other end is known as the peen, the latter being used for heading rivets and
similar peening or drawing operations. The hole for the handle is the eye.
Ball-peen hammers are classed according to the weight of the head without the
handle. They vary in size from 4 ounces to 2 pounds, three popular sizes being
the 6-ounce for light work, the 12-ounce for general utility, and the 16-ounce for
heavy work.
The straight-peen hammeris used for spreading or drawing out metal in line with
the handle, while the cross-peen hammeris used for the same operation at right
angles with the handle. The claw hammeris used for driving and pulling nails.
Hammers with heads made of soft material, such as lead,
5
copper, babbitt, rawhide, wood, plastic, etc., are called soft hammers. Soft
hammers are generally used where a steel hammer might mar or injure the
work.
4. The eye in the hammer head is made with a slight taper in both directions
from the center. After the handle is inserted in the head, a steel wedge is driven
into the end. This expands the taper of the handle in the eye and wedges the
handle in both directions. If the wedge starts to come out, it should be driven in
again. If the wedge comes out and is lost, it must be replaced before continuing
to use the hammer. Never work with a hammer having a loose head. A loose
head will eventually fly off, and may injure someone.
When using a hammer, it should be held near the end of the handle with the
face of the hammer parallel to the work. A grip just tight enough to control the
blow is best. The correct way to hold a hammer is shown in Fig. 2.
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FIG. 2. How TO HOLD A HAMMER.
Keep the hands and the hammer handle free from grease and oil, otherwise the
hammer may slip from the grasp. It should also be remembered that oil or
grease on the hammer face may cause it to slip off the work and lead to a
painful bruise. Do not ruin the hammer handle by using it for pounding or
prying purposes.
6
5. Sledges.-Sledges, or sledge hammers, are used for heavy work. They can be
procured in both single-face and double-face types, a double-face sledge being
shown in Fig. 3, and vary in weight from 4 to 20 pounds. The handles vary in
length up to 36 inches.
FIG. 3. SLEDGE.
6. Screwdrivers.-Screwdrivers have three main parts: the handle, which is
gripped by the user; the shank, which is the steel portion extending from the
handle; and the blade, which is the end that fits into the slot of the screw.
Several types of screwdrivers are shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. TYPES OF SCREWDRIVERS.
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The standard screwdriveris used for most ordinary work and comes in a variety
of sizes. The blade must have sharp corners and fit the slot in the screw closely;
otherwise it is likely to slip and damage the slot. It is also important that a
screwdriver be held firmly against the screw to prevent it from slipping and
injuring the worker or the work.
The offset screwdrivermakes work possible in tight corners where the straight
type will not enter. It has one blade forged in line with the shank, and the other
blade at right angles to the shank. With such an arrangement, first one end of
the screwdriver
7
can be used and then the other, changing ends after each swing, thus working
the screw in or out of the threaded hole.
The Phillips-type screwdriveris made with a specially shaped blade to fit
Phillips-type cross-slot screws. The heads of these screws have two slots that
cross in the center. This checks the tendency of the screwdriver to slide out of
the slot onto the finished surface of the work.
The ratchet screwdriveris used to drive or remove small screws rapidly.
Some screwdrivers have handles made of insulating material, and are useful
when electrical work is being done. When a screwdriver with an insulated
handle is not available, the handles of other screwdrivers can be insulated by
wrapping them with tape.
While the screwdriver shown in Fig. 4 has a round shank, some heavy-duty
screwdrivers are made with a square shank, the construction enabling the
torque of the screwdriver to be increased by applying a wrench to the square
shank. A heavy-duty screwdriver, also a special screw-holding screwdriver, are
shown in Fig. 5.
FIG. 5. SPECIAL SCREWDRIVERS.
FIG. 6. CORRECTLY GROUND TIP.
7. The tip of a screwdriver blade should be ground so that the sides of the blade
are parallel, and the blade sides should
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8
gradually taper out to the shank body, as shown in Fig. 6. If the end of the blade
is damaged, it can be made serviceable again by means of a grinding wheel. First
grind the tip straight and at a right angle to the shank. After the tip is ground
square, dress off from each face, a little at a time. Keep the faces parallel for a
short distance or have them taper in a slight amount. Never grind the faces so
that they taper to a sharp edge at the tip.
Do not use a screwdriver to check an electrical circuit where the amperage is
high. The electrical current may be strong enough to form an arc and melt the
screwdriver blade. It is also bad practice to try to turn a screwdriver with a pair
of pliers or to use it as a chisel.
Do not hold work in the hand while using a screwdriver. If the blade slips, it can
cause a bad cut. Hold the work in a vise, secure it with a clamp, or stand it firmly
on a solid surface. If such precautions are impossible, take care to have no part
of your body in front of the screwdriver blade. That safety rule applies to any
sharp or pointed tool.
8. Pliers.-Several commonly used types of pliers are shown in Fig. 7.
FIG. 7. TYPES OF PLIERS.
Side-cutting pliersare used principally for holding and bending thin material or
for cutting wire.Adjustable combination pliershave a slip joint that permits the
jaws to be opened wider at the
9
hinge for gripping large diameters. They are used principally for holding and
bending flat or round stock. The various lengths and shapes offlat-nose,
round-nose, and needle-noseor long-nose pliersmake it possible to bend or form
metal into a variety of shapes, to hold objects in tight spots, and to make
delicate adjustments. Needle-nose pliers are helpful when recovering a washer
or nut from a place where it is hard to reach. They also make it easier to remove
and install such things as valve-spring retainer pins. They are not of heavyconstruction, however, and should not be forced beyond their capacity. Their
jaws are comparatively weak, and are easily broken or sprung.
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Avoid using pliers on a hardened surface, as such use dulls the teeth and causes
pliers to lose their gripping power. Do not use pliers for loosening or tightening
nuts, as the flats of the nuts will become damaged.
Diagonal-cutting pliershave short jaws with blades at a slight angle, as shown in
Fig. 8. This tool is valuable when removing and replacing cotter pins, and can beused not only to cut the
FIG. 8. DIAGONAL-CUTTING PLIERS.
pins to the desired length but to spread the ends after the pins are in place.
They are also handy for cutting the soft wire which is passed through small
holes in nuts and bolt heads to "safety" them, or prevent them from working
loose. When diagonal-cutting pliers are used, the cut should be made with the
throat of the jaws, not with the points, as the latter use would increase the
tendency to spring the jaws apart. Once the jaws are sprung, it is difficult to cut
fine wire.
9. Nippers.-Nippers resemble pliers, but are used only for cutting, not for
holding. Various types can be used for cutting wire, rod, nails, rivets, and bolts.
For light work on soft metals the
10
FIG. 9. NIPPERS.
nippers shown at A, Fig. 9, would be used. They must not be overstrained,
however, as their thin cutting edges are easily nicked and dented. For heavier
work, the nippers shown at B are used. This type has replaceable blades, a
strong joint, and a short fulcrum that provides plenty of leverage. Nippers
should not be used to cut such material as drill rod or piano wire.
10. Shears and Snips.-Hand shears, or snips, are used for cutting sheet metal of
various kinds and thicknesses. Several commonly used types of these tools are
shown in Fig. 10.
Straight snipshave blades that are flat and straight on the inside surfaces. They
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are designed for straight cutting but can also be used on large outside curves. It
is difficult, however, to cut circles and arcs of small radii with straight snips, the
scroll-pivoter snipsbeing more suitable for such purposes. The blades of the
latter tool are approximately at right angles and provide clearance for following
curves.
Circular snips, with their curved blades, will handle all except the smallest curves.They are available for either right-hand or left-hand use. Hawksbill snipscan cut
inside and outside circles of small radii. Their narrow curved blades are beveled
enough to permit sharp turns without buckling the material. It should be noted,
however, that both the circular and hawksbill snips must be used carefully, as
their blades are easily sprung out of contact.
Trojan snipsare slender-bladed snips used for straight or curved cutting. The
blades are small enough to permit sharp turns, and will also cut outside and
inside curves. They are sometimes known as combination snips. There are alsospecial snips designed for stainless steel and Monel metal. They resemble
Trojan snips, but
11
FIG. 10. SHEARS AND SNIPS.
have inlaid alloy cutting edges. They are identified by the words "For Stainless
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Steel Only" stamped on them.
11.Snips do not remove any of the metal when making a cut, but work with a
shearing action that tends to roughen the edges of the material. Because of this
it is better not to cut exactly on the layout line. After the cut is made, the edge
can be dressed with a file. There is no set rule for the amount to be allowed for
dressing, but the thinner and softer the metal; the closer the cut can be made tothe layout line.
12
When cutting from the edge of a large sheet, it is advisable to cut from the
left-hand side. This allows the small piece being removed to curl out of the way
of the snip blades as the cut is made. Never cut with the full length of the
blades. If the points of the snips are allowed to come together, they will tear themetal as the cut is completed. Stop each cut about 1/4 inch before the ends of
the blades have been reached, and start a new cut with the throat, which is that
part of the angle between the blades nearest to the pivot pin. Cutting in this
way, especially with heavy metal, is easier on the snips and is not so likely to
spring the blades. When the blades are sprung, hand snips are useless. Care
should also be taken to see that snips are not used to cut wire, bolts, rivets, or
nails, as such use will dent or nick the cutting edges.
Snip blades can be reground when they become dull. To do so, the blades
should be taken apart and the cutting edges ground to an included angle of 85.
Blade tension is adjusted by turning the nut on the pivot bolt, or pin, holding the
blades just tight enough to remain in any position in which they are placed. Oil
the pivot, spread a thin film of light oil on the blades to prevent rust, and keep
the snip blades closed when they are not in use.
When cutting large sheets of metal, it is helpful to lay the metal on the bench
and make the cut with the lower handle of the snips resting on the bench top.
This lessens the strain on the worker's hand and allows him to use his weight to
advantage.
12. Bolt Cutters.-For heavy-duty cutting jobs, a bolt cutter, shown in Fig. 11, is
used. These tools are made in several sizes,
FIG 11. BOLT CUTTER.
from 18 to 36 inches in length, the larger ones being used to cut mild steel bolts
and rods up to 1/2 inch in diameter. Bolt cutters usually have special replaceable
jaws of extra-hard metal alloys;
13
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the jaws therefore are brittle and will break before they will bend or dent. Any
twisting motion should be avoided when they are used. The tool shown in Fig.
11 has set screws which enable the relative positions of the blades to be
adjusted, if they should fail to meet properly after having been sharpened.
Fig. 12. PUNCHES.
13. Punches.-Several types of punches are shown in Fig. 12. These tools may be
used for a variety of jobs, but the correct punch for the job should always be
selected.
A center punchis used to make a starting mark for a drill when holes are to be
drilled in metal. If the center punch mark is not made, the drill will wander or
"walk away" from the desired center. The center punch point should be taper-
ground to an angle of about 90. Never use a center punch to remove a bolt or
pin, as the sharp point will act as a wedge and tend to tighten the bolt or pin in
the hole.
Prick punchesare generally used for marking centers and lines in layout work.
Starting punches, sometimes called drifts, have a long taper
14
from the tip to the body. They are made that way to withstand the shock of
heavy blows. They may be used for knocking out rivets after their heads have
been cut off, or for freeing pins or bolts from their holes. To start a bolt or pin
that is extremely tight, use a starting punch that has a point diameter only
slightly smaller than the diameter of the object that is being removed.
After a pin or bolt has been loosened or partially driven out, it may be found
that the starting punch is too large to finish the job. Apin punchcan then be
used, as it is designed to follow through the hole without jamming. Both startingpunches and pin punches must have flat ends, never edged or rounded ones.
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The alining, or lining up, punch is used to line up corresponding holes in adjacent
parts, for example when working on engines that have pans and cover plates.
A special punch, not shown in the illustration, is known as the soft-faced drift.
This drift is made of brass or fiber and is used to remove such things as wrist
pins. It is heavy enough to resist damage to itself, but soft enough not to injurethe finished surfaces of the parts being removed.
When it is necessary to make gaskets of rubber, cork, leather, or composition
materials, agasket punch, one type of which is shown in Fig. 12, is used to cut the
bolt holes. This punch comes in sizes to accommodate standard bolts and studs.
The cutting end is tapered to a sharp edge so as to produce clean, uniform
holes. To use the gasket punch, place the gasket material on a piece of wood
that has been cut across the grain, so that the cutting edge of the punch will not
become broken or dulled. Then hold the punch against the gasket and strike it
with a hammer, driving the punch through the gasket where holes are required.
14. Vises.-Two types of vises usually found aboard ship are shown in Fig. 13. The
machinist's viseis a heavy-duty holding tool with parallel jaws and either a fixed
or swivel base. It should be used only for holding material when hacksawing,
filing, drilling, tapping, reaming, etc. It should not be used as an anvil. The utility
viseis satisfactory for general work and is designed for a variety of uses. It has a
small anvil and anvil horn as part of the back jaw. The anvil surface is broken by
a small hole into which the hardiefits. The hardie is the small tool shown in Fig.
13, just above the anvil of the utility vise. It is used for cutting heavy wire andsmall rods and bars. Pipe jaws, as shown in the illustration, can
15
FIG. 13. VISES.
be mounted inside the regular jaws for holding pipes and rods. Soft jaws, which
are inserts of brass, copper, or other soft metal, can be made from scrap metal
and mounted on the jaws of a vise when the surface of the work must be
protected.
15. For satisfactory operation, keep the vise clean, oiled, and in good general
condition. The screw that operates the movable jaw should be lubricatedfrequently with light grease or heavy cylinder oil. The slide should be wiped
clean every day and light machine oil spread over it. Never oil the swivel joint of
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a vise, however, as its holding power would be impaired. Always tighten and
loosen a vise by holding the handle with the hands, applying the weight of the
body to secure the turning pressure. Do not hit the vise handle with a hammer.
When the vise is not in use, the jaws should be brought lightly together, with the
handle in the vertical position.
Be sure to keep fingers clear of the jaws when clamping work in the vise, anduse care to keep them from being pinched between the end of the handle and
the head of the screw, the latter accident being a very common one. When
holding heavy work in a vise, it is advisable to place a block of wood or metal
under the work as a prop to prevent it from sliding down and perhaps falling to
the floor or on the foot. Care should also be exercised to see that the vise is not
opened beyond the limit of the screw,
16
as the movable jaw may drop off and the user suffer serious injury. If it is
necessary to pound against metal parts held in a vise, be sure to pound against
the back jaw, as it is heavier than the front jaw and strong enough to absorb the
shock of the blows.
16. Clamps.-When a vise is not available, a clamp can be used to hold pieces of
material together while they are being worked on. Clamps of this type are
shown in Fig. 14. A different kind of clamp is often used to make a temporary
fastening in the engine room when it is desired to lift or take a strain on some
object. To do so, the clamp is securely fastened to a convenient beam, as shown
in Fig. 15, and a line or small hoist then suspended from the clamp.
FIG. 14. SCREW CLAMPS.
17. Wrenches.-Fundamentally, the wrench is a tool for exerting a twisting strain,
as in turning bolts and nuts. As the majority of nuts and bolt heads are
hexagonal, or 6-sided, many wrenches are specially designed to fit hex-heads
and hex-nuts.
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18. Open-end Wrenches.-Solid, nonadjustable wrenches with
17
FIG. 15. BEAM CLAMPS.
openings in one or both ends are called open-end wrenches. A set of these tools
is shown in Fig. 16. Open-end wrenches with small openings are usually shorter
than wrenches with large openings, thus proportioning the lever advantage of
the wrench to the size of the work and helping to prevent breakage of the
wrench or damage to the bolt or stud.
FIG. 16. SET OF OPEN-END WRENCHES.
18
The size of an open-end wrench is usually stamped on the face, and denotes the
width of the opening between the jaws of the wrench. To determine the size of
bolt head or nut that the wrench will fit, subtract 1/8 inch from the wrench size
and then multiply by 2/3. For example, a 1 5/8-inch wrench will fit the nut of a
1-inch bolt, as shown by the following.
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1 5/8 - 1/8 = 1 1/2
1 1/2 X 2/3 = 1 inch. Ans.
When the size of the nut or bolt is known and it is desired to find the wrench to
fit it, multiply the nut size by 3/2 and add 1/8 inch. For example, for a 3/4-inch
nut, the width of the wrench opening would be computed as follows:
3/4 X 3/2 = 9/8
9/8 + 1/8 = 10/8 = 1 1/4 inches. Ans.
19. Open-end wrenches may have their jaws parallel to the handle, or at angles
up to 90, the average being about 15. A wrench with 15 angles and a wrench
with a 90 angle are shown in Fig. 17.
The jaws of open-end wrenches are placed at an angle in order to make it easier
to work with the wrenches in close quarters, as it is frequently necessary to
tighten or loosen a nut where there is very little space in which to swing a
wrench. The procedure
FIG 17. OPEN-END WRENCHES.
19
known asfloppingthe wrench is therefore used, that is, turning the wrench over
so that the other face is down after each stroke. In a situation such as shown in
Fig. 18, view (1), it is not possible to place the jaws of the wrench on the nut
when held in the position illustrated. However, with the wrench turned over, asshown in views (2) and (3), it is possible to apply the wrench
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FIG. 18. USE OF OPEN-END WRENCH.
to the nut and turn it in the direction for loosening. Although not shown in the
illustration, the wrench will have to be turned over at the end of each swing.
When a wrench has jaws at the 15 angle, it is possible, by means of the flopping
technique, to turn a hex-nut even though the swing of the wrench is limited to
30.
There are special open-end wrenches, such as tappetwrenches, which are very
thin and have extra long handles. They are used to adjust the valves of small
internal combustion engines, and must be handled with care. A set of ignition
wrenches is used in caring for engine electrical systems.
Aboard ship, heavy-duty open-end wrenches are often needed in order to
handle large nuts. These are known as drive-upwrenches. In some cases one
man will hold the wrench on the nut, keeping a firm pulling strain on it, while
another person
20
strikes the wrench with a sledge hammer. Some wrenches are so large that a
pulling strain is taken with a chain fall, and the wrench is then struck by a heavy
ramsupported by a block and tackle and wielded by several men.
20. When selecting an open-end wrench, be sure that the wrench jaws fit the nut
or bolt head. If the wrench opening is too large, the wrench will slip around the
nut and round off the corners of the hex-faces, possibly springing the jaws of
the wrench at the same time. Also, always make sure that the wrench is seated
firmly on the flats of the nut.
When it is necessary to exert considerable force on a wrench, it is usually
advisable to pull instead of push. Pushing on a wrench may be dangerous, as a
sudden loosening of the nut can lead to striking some part of the body against
the machine being worked on. Whenever considerable effort is to be applied to
a wrench, make sure that the footing is secure and take precautions against
stumbling, slipping and falling.
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Some wrenches are designed for a particular job, to tighten the nuts on the
handhole and manhole plates of a boiler, for example. Since the leverage of
such a wrench is proportioned to the strength of the studs and other material
being tightened, use the correct wrench, and do not add to its leverage by
slipping a piece of pipe over the end. Exceeding the designed leverage in this
manner can cause stripped threads and broken studs, nuts and other parts, andlead to the breakdown of a piece of machinery and injury to personnel.
21. Adjustable Wrenches.-A handy all-round wrench for light work is the
adjustable open-end wrench, such as shown in Fig. 19. One jaw of this wrench is
fixed; the other jaw is moved along a slide by a screw adjustment, the angle
between the jaw opening
FIG. 19. ADJUSTABLE OPEN-END WRENCH.
21
and the handle being 22 1/2. An adjustable wrench will not stand the hard
usage of an open-end wrench and must be used very carefully. It is important
that its jaws be closely adjusted to fit the nut, and it should always be used so
that the force of the pull comes on the solid, or stationary, jaw, as shown in Fig.
19.
Monkey wrenches, one of which is shown in Fig. 20, are useful in many instances,
when tightening or loosening pipe unions, for example, or where the exact size
of open-end wrench is not available. When using monkey wrenches, take thesame precautions
FIG. 20. MONKEY WRENCH.
as with adjustable wrenches. Always have the jaws point in the direction of the
pull.
22. Box-end Wrenches.-Some box-end wrenches have 6 inside faces, or notches,
but most of them have 12 notches, as shown in Fig. 21, this wrench being known
as a 12-pointor double-hexbox wrench.
FIG. 21. BOX-END WRENCH.
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There is little chance for a box-end wrench to slip off the nut, and it cannot
spread on the nut and cause undue wear. Because the sides of the box opening
are comparatively thin, the wrench is suitable for turning nuts that are hard to
reach with an open-end wrench. An offsetbox-end wrench is shown in Fig. 22.
When using box-end wrenches, and there is insufficient room to turn thewrench in a complete circle, it is necessary to lift it off the nut after each pull and
then place it back on in another position. In this case, therefore, after a tight nut
is started, it can often be unscrewed much more quickly with an open-end
wrench
22
FIG. 22. OFFSET BOX-END AND COMBINATION WRENCHES.
than with a box wrench. A combination wrench, as shown in Fig. 22, is therefore
helpful, using the box end for starting the nuts when loosening them, or for final
tightening, and the open end for faster turning.
23. Socket Wrenches.-Two typical one-piece socket wrenchesare shown in Fig.
23. These are heavy-duty wrenches, made with 4 inside faces for square nuts or
with 6 inside faces for hex-nuts. This type of socket wrench, however, does not
have the wide
FIG. 23. ONE-PIECE SOCKET WRENCHES.
adaptability of detachable socket wrenches, a set of which contains an
assortment of individual sockets of various sizes made to fit different handles.
There are several types of handles, such as the T-handle, ratchet handle,screwdriver-grip handle, and speed handle, the latter resembling a carpenter's
brace. A ratchet
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23
FIG. 24. SOCKET WRENCHES.
handle, a T-handle, an extension, and a 12-point socket are shown in Fig. 24.
To use a detachable socket wrench, select a socket that fits the nut, place the
socket on the projecting lug of the handle and then place the socket over the
nut. The socket is held on the lug by a small friction catch that engages when the
socket and lug are forced together.
The ratchet handle permits the wrench to be turned without removing it from
the nut, a gear shift often being incorporated in the construction so that the nut
can be turned in either direction without turning the wrench over.
24. Torque Wrench.-One type of torque wrenchis shown in Fig. 25. This tool is
used as a socket wrench handle in order to exert the desired amount of strain
when tightening nuts and bolts. As the torque wrench is pulled, the scale or dial
of the tool
FIG. 25. TORQUE WRENCH.
24
indicates how great a twist, or torque, is exerted, and the pull is continued until
the desired reading is reached. This is very important in many cases, enabling a
workman to tighten the bolts of a crankpin bearing, for example, to the exact
tension specified by the manufacturer of the engine, and to make sure that
cylinder-head nuts are all evenly tightened according to instructions. If nuts are
tightened with too much force, the bolts may break. In the case of a crankpinbolt, for example, with the engine in operation, such breakage would probably
cause serious damage. If cylinder-head nuts are tightened unevenly, stresses
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may be set up that lead to cracking of castings, stripping of threads, etc.
The accuracy of a torque wrench reading depends in part upon the condition of
the threads of the bolt or nut and on the lubrication of the threads. Readings are
more accurate when the threads are in good condition and well lubricated.
25. Spanner Wrenches.-Several types of spanner wrenchesare shown in Fig. 26.The hook spannerworks on a round nut which has a series of notches cut in its
outer surface. The hook, or lug,
FIG. 26. SPANNER WRENCHES.
25
is placed in one of the notches and the handle turned to loosen or tighten the
nut. An adjustable spanneris designed to fit nuts of various diameters. Pin
spannershave a pin instead of a lug, the pin fitting a round hole in the edge of
the nut. U-shaped spannershave either lugs or pins that fit in notches or holes in
the top of the nut or screw plug.
26. Special Wrenches.-Several special wrenches are shown in Fig. 27. The
Allen-type wrenchhas a 6-sided shaft that fits into the
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FIG. 27. SPECIAL WRENCHES.
hex-shaped recess of set screws and cap screws. The Bristo-typewrench has a
number of splines on the shaft, the design tending to reduce spreading. The
Spintite wrenchhas a hollow shaft with a hex- head, and is used for electrical
work. It should therefore have an insulated handle. The dial-wrenchis a special
wrench for removing and replacing the dials of electrical and computing
equipment.
26
FIG. 28. HACKSAWS.
27. Hacksaws.-The hacksaw is a tool used to saw metal, and consists of a
handle, frame and blade. Thepistol-griptype, shown in the upper part of Fig. 28
is adjustable to take various blade lengths. The straight-handledhacksaw shown
in the illustration is not adjustable, although it may be constructed with the
adjustable feature. It is also usually possible to position a hacksaw blade in any
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one of four positions, so that the operator can saw downward, upward, or to the
right or left, as desired. One such use, with the blade positioned at right angles
to the frame, is shown in Fig. 29.
FIG. 29. BLADE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO FRAME.
Hacksaw blades have holes in both ends and are mounted on the frame by
means of pins attached to the frame. The blade must always be mounted in the
frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle, and should be tightened
with enough tension to hold it rigidly between the pins.
27
Blades are made of high-grade tool steel or tungsten steel, and are available
from 6 to 16 inches in length. There are two types, the all-hardblade and the
flexibleblade. In the flexible blade, only the teeth are hardened. Thepitchof a
blade indicates the number of teeth it has per inch, pitches of 14, 18, 24 and 32
being available.
28. When selecting the best blade for a job, it is necessary to consider the type
of blade and the pitch. An all-hard blade is best for sawing brass, tool steel, cast
iron, and heavy cross-section stock. A flexible blade is usually best for sawing
hollow shapes and metals having a light cross section. A 14-pitch blade should
be used on machine steel, cold-rolled steel, or structural steel, as it will cut fastand free. The 18-pitch blade, which is the blade for general purpose work, is
used on solid stock of aluminum, bearing metal, tool steel, high-speed steel, cast
iron, etc. A 24-pitch blade is used for cutting thick-wall tubing, pipe, brass,
copper, and channel and angle iron. Use the fine tooth 32-pitch blade for
thin-wall tubing and sheet metal. Some of these uses are shown in Fig. 30.
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FIG. 30. USE THE CORRECT BLADE.
28
When selecting a blade, it is also necessary to consider the set, which means that
some teeth are pushed sideways in one direction and the same number in the
opposite direction, according to definite patterns. The set provides clearance for
the blade so that it will not jam and stick, and also prevents overheating the
blade. Since the blade has a thickness of about .025 inch, the set causes it to
make a cut about twice that wide. Three types of set are shown in Fig. 31.
Fig. 31. TYPES OF SET.
29. When preparing to use a hacksaw, secure the material in a vise, or with
clamps, if it is not already firmly anchored. It must be held firmly to prevent the
blade from chattering or twisting. Make sure that the hacksaw blade is the
correct one for the purpose and that it is in good condition. See that the teeth
point away from the handle, and check and adjust the blade tension.
It is often helpful to file a V-shaped nick at the starting point; the blade will then
start more easily. Hold the saw at an angle that will keep at least 2 teeth cuttingall the time, otherwise the blade will jump and individual teeth will be broken.
The right and wrong angles for various kinds of work are shown in Fig. 32.
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Start the cut with a light, steady, forward stroke. At the end of the stroke, relieve
the pressure and draw the blade straight back. After the first few strokes, make
each one as long as the hacksaw frame will allow, thus preventing the middle
teeth from overheating and wearing rapidly. Use just enough pressure on the
forward stroke to make each tooth remove a small amount of metal. As the
teeth point forward and the forward edges do the cutting, it is not necessary touse pressure on the back stroke.
When sawing alongside a scribed line, remember to stay just
29
FIG. 32. STARTING HACKSAW CUTS.
outside that line. Use long steady strokes, about 40 to 50 strokes per minute. If
hacksaw blades are worked too fast, the heat that is generated may draw the
temper and make the- blade soft and useless. Working too fast also may breaksome of the teeth, cramp and break the blade, or produce ragged and crooked
cuts. When near the end of the cut, slow down still more, so that the saw can be
controlled when the stock is sawed through. When finished with the saw, clean
the chips from the blade, loosen the tension, and return the hacksaw to its
proper place. A hacksaw should be hung up when not in use. It should not be
kept in a drawer with other tools or where metallic objects will strike the blade
teeth. Wiping the blade with an oily rag will prevent rusting.
When a saw blade is broken and a new blade is to be used, turn the work so that
the cut can be resumed on the other side, if possible. The reason is that the set
of the new blade is greater than that of the used saw, and the new blade would
possibly jam if work were continued at the same place. If it is necessary to use
the new blade exactly in the same cut, however, run it through the unfinished
part very carefully before attempting to complete the job.
30. Chisels.-One of the most valuable tools aboard ship is theflat cold chisel.
These chisels are usually made of octagonal
30
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tool-steel bar stock, carefully hardened and tempered, and are used for cutting
purposes where snips or a hacksaw cannot be used. They are also used to shear
off rivets, to smooth castings, to split rusted nuts from bolts, etc. As shown in
Fig. 33, the cutting edge is ground slightly convex. This causes the center portion
to receive the greatest shock, and protects the weaker corners.
FIG 33. FLAT COLD CHISEL.
Chisels must be sharp to give satisfactory service. The cutting angle should be
about 60, as shown in Fig. 33, and sharpening is best done on a wet grinding
wheel. However, if a dry wheel is used, the chisel should not be pressed too
hard against the wheel, or held there for too long a time. Too much pressure or
lengthy periods of grinding will generate sufficient heat to draw the temper outof the steel. A container of water should be kept at the grinder and the chisel
dipped in it after each light cut. This cools the metal and enables the grinding to
be continued. Remember that the chisel will not be safe to use if the cutting
angle is ground too small. On the other hand, if the angle is much over 60, the
tool will not cut properly.
31. When using a chisel for ordinary work, a hammer weighing from 1 to 1 3/4
pounds should be used. However, be sure to use a hammer that is heavy
enough for the job. When using a larger chisel, a heavier hammer must be used.
Hold the chisel in the hand with the head of the chisel close to the thumb andfirst finger, and grasp it firmly, but with the fingers rather relaxed. When the
chisel is gripped in this manner, the user will not be
31
hurt so badly if he should miss the chisel and strike his hand with the hammer.
Do not look at the head of the chisel while striking it with the hammer; watch
the cutting edge.
When cutting wire or round stock with a cold chisel, the following procedure is
recommended:
(a) Mark with a scriber or file, or with chalk or colored pencil, the point
at which the cut is to be made.
(b) Hold the work in place on the anvil or other suitable support. (It is
advisable to protect the anvil with a piece of scrap metal.)
(c) Hold the chisel as shown in Fig. 34, with the cutting edge on the
mark and the body of the chisel in a vertical position.
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FIG. 34. CUTTING ROUND STOCK WITH COLD CHISEL.
(d) Strike the chisel a light blow with the hammer, and then examinethe chisel mark on the work to make certain that the cut is at the
desired point.
(e) Drive the chisel into the work with vigorous blows. The last few
strokes, however, should be made lightly in order to avoid unnecessary
damage to the supporting surface.
(f) Heavier work can be cut in much the same way, except that the cut is
made about halfway through the stock from one side, then the work
turned over and the cut finished from the opposite side.
32. The cutting of sheet or plate metal with a cold chisel should be avoided
whenever possible, as stretching of the metal
32
invariably results. However, when no other means are available, the best
procedure is as follows:
(a) With a scriber, draw a straight line on the work where the cut is to
be made.
(b) Grip the work firmly in a vise with the scribed line even with or just
below the top of the vise jaws, as shown in Fig. 35. The waste metal
should extend above the jaws. In some cases it is better to place the
metal between two pieces of angle iron and clamp the whole set-up in
the vise. The angle iron then protects the tops of the vise jaws.
(c) Using a sharp chisel, start at the edge of the work and cut along the
scribed line, using the vise jaws (or the pieces of angle iron) as a base
for securing a shearing action. Hold the chisel firmly against the work
and strike it vigorously. Be sure to keep the cutting edge of the chisel
flat against the vise jaws.
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FIG. 35. CUTTING SHEET METAL WITH COLD CHISEL.
33. Chippingis the term applied to the method of removing metal from a surface
with a chisel, as shown in Fig. 36, which also illustrates the correct and incorrectmethods of preparing the cutting edges. When chipping steel, it is advisable to
lubricate the chisel point with light machine oil. This makes the chisel easier to
drive and helps it to cut faster than when dry. When chipping cast iron, chip
from the edges of the work toward the center to avoid breaking off corners.
34. After a chisel has been used for some time, the blows of the hammer will
cause the head to spread out until it looks like a
33
FIG. 36. CORRECT AND INCORRECT SHARPENING.
ragged mushroom. The spread-out head is rough, and will cut the hand very
easily. In some cases, pieces of the jagged edge may break away and fly off with
sufficient force to injure someone working nearby. The head of the chisel must
therefore be periodically ground back to its original shape, as shown in B, Fig.
37.
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FIG. 37. KEEP CHISEL HEAD GROUND OFF.
Always wear goggles when chipping with a chisel. Also be careful not to send
chips flying toward other workmen or into machinery. The safest method is to
have a guard (a piece of canvas of sufficient size attached to two woodenpedestals) placed so as to catch the flying chips. Keep the hammer and the head
end of the chisel clean and free of grease and oil to prevent the hammer from
slipping.
35. Special Cold Chisels.-If it is necessary to cut keyways or slots, the cape chisel
can be used. This chisel is like a flat chisel except
34
that the cutting edge is very narrow. It has the same point angle, and is held and
used in the same manner.
Rounded or semi-circular grooves should be cut with the round-nose chisel. This
chisel is also used to "draw back" a drill that has "walked away" from its
intended center.
The diamond-point chiselis tapered square at the cutting end, then ground at an
angle to provide the sharp diamond point. It is used for cutting V-grooves and
inside sharp angles. These chisels are shown in Fig. 38.
FIG. 38. SPECIAL CHISELS.
36. Files.-Files are hardened steel tools for cutting, smoothing, or polishing
metal. They vary in length, in shape, and in arrangement, or cut, of teeth, so as
to provide files for various uses. The terms commonly used to describe a file are
given in Fig. 39.
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FIG. 39. FILE TERMINOLOGY.
37. Files have either single-cutor double-cutteeth. The difference between the
two types of teeth is apparent when comparing Figs. 40 and 41. Single-cut files
have rows of teeth cut parallel to each other, the teeth being set at an angle of
about 65 with the centerline. Single-cut files are used for sharpening. tools,
finish filing, and draw-filing. They are also the best tools for smoothing the
edges of sheet metal.
35
FIG. 40. SINGLE-CUT FILE.
FIG. 41. DOUBLE-CUT FILE.
Double-cut files have criss-crossed rows of teeth, the double cut forming teeth
that are diamond-shaped and suitable for quick removal of metal and for rough
work.
38. In selecting a file for a job, it is necessary to consider its shape, which means
both the outline and the cross-sectional shape. Some of the cross-sectional
shapes of files are shown in Fig. 42.
FIG. 42. SHAPES OF FILES.
Mill filesare tapered both in width and thickness, and are available with either
square or round edges, or with one safe edge, that is, an edge with no teeth. Mill
files are used for lathe work, draw-filing, and other fine, precision work. They are
always single-cut.
Flat filesare general purpose files, tapering in width and thickness, and generally
used when a fast cutting tool is desired. Hand files, not shown, are somewhat
thicker than flat files, but their edges are parallel.
Square filesare tapered on all four sides and are used to enlarge rectangular-shaped holes and slots. Round filesserve the same purpose for round openings.
Small round files are often called rat-tail files.
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The half-round fileis a general purpose tool, the rounded side being used on
curved surfaces and the flat face on flat surfaces. When filing an inside curve, a
round or half-round file with a
36
curve most nearly matching the curve of the work should be used.
Triangular, or 3-squareor 3-corner files, are tapered on all three sides. They are
used to file cutters, acute internal angles, and to clear out square corners.
Special triangular files are used to file saw teeth.
A warding file, not shown, is extremely thin and has sharply tapered edges. Its
chief use is on work where space is limited. Knife fileshave one thin edge and
one thick edge, and are used on keyways, slots, etc. A raspis similar to the file
except that it has coarse teeth raised by a triangular punch, and is usually used
on wood.
39. Files are also graded according to the spacing and size of their teeth, or their
coarsenessandfineness. These grades are known as rough-cut, middle-cut,
bastard, second-cut, smoothand dead-smooth. Three grades of teeth are shown in
Fig. 43. The fineness or
FIG. 43. GRADES OF FILE TEETH.
coarseness of file teeth is also influenced by the length of the file. If the teeth of
a 6-inch, single-cut smooth file, for example, are compared with those of a
12-inch, single-cut smooth file, the difference will be noted.
40. The type of material to be filed, and whether it is a rough or finishing cut,
determine the grade of fineness that is required. Various typical situations may
be listed as follows:
37
(a) For heavy, rough cutting, a large, coarse, double-cut file is best.
(b) For the finishing cut, use a second-cut or a smooth single-cut file.
(c) When filing cast iron, start with a bastard file and finish with a
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second-cut.
(d) When filing soft steel, start with a second-cut file and finish with a
smooth file.
(e) When filing hard steel, start with a smooth file and finish with a
dead-smooth file.
(f) When filing brass or bronze, start with a bastard file and finish with a
second-cut or smooth file.
(g) When filing aluminum, lead, or babbitt metal, use a bastard file, or if
available, afloat-cut filemay be used. This file has large curved teeth
and works with a planing action. It is fitted with a special holder, as
shown in Fig. 44, and is sometimes known as a vixen-cut file.
FIG. 44. FLOAT-CUT FILE.
41. Never use a file unless it is equipped with a tight-fitting handle. If a file is
used without the handle and it strikes something accidentally or jams to a
sudden stop, the tang may be driven into the hand.
File handles are made of wood with a ferrule, or metal strengthening ring, on
the end, and a hole to receive the tang of the file. The usual way of driving the
handle on the file is to insert the end of the tang into the hole in the handle, and
then tap the end of the handle on the bench or some other flat surface. If the
tang of the file is considerably larger than the hole in the handle, the hole may
be enlarged by burning it out with the heated tang of a file. A piece of wet rag or
waste should be wrapped about the file up to the tang before the file is heated,to prevent its temper from being drawn.
The correct way to hold a file is with the handle against the palm
38
FIG. 45. CORRECT WAY TO HOLD FILE.
of the right hand, thumb on top, as shown in Fig. 45. Hold the end of the file in
the left hand with the fingers curled under it. When filing, lean the body forward
during part of the forward stroke and straighten up at the finish. The file mustbe held straight or the surface of the work will not be flat. Not more than 30 or
40 strokes per minute should be taken; too much speed will cause the file to
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rock, and the corners of the stock will be rounded off, as indicated in view A of
Fig. 46. Too much pressure will bend the file and tend to have the effect shown
in view B.
FIG. 46. TOO MUCH SPEED AND TOO MUCH PRESSURE.
Apply pressure on the forward stroke only. Unless the file is lifted from the work
on the return stroke, it will become dull much sooner than it should. (This does
not apply, however, when filing very soft metals, such as lead or aluminum. On
soft work, pressure on the return stroke helps to keep the cuts in the file free of
removed metal.)
42. When round surfaces are filed, best results are obtained by working as
shown in Fig. 47, a rocking motion being used.
Surfaces and edges are often draw-filedto make them smooth and true. Indraw-filing, hold the file at right angles to the work,
39
FIG. 47. FILING ROUND SURFACES.
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FIG. 48. DRAW-FILING.
as shown in Fig. 48, and move the file sidewise along the work. A single-cutsmooth file should be used. Pressure is heaviest on the stroke made toward the
body and very light on the return. Keep the hands as close together as possible
to prevent bending the file, and watch the ends and corners of the work, as they
are easily rounded. For a smoother surface than can be obtained by draw-filing,
wrap a piece of fine emery cloth around the file and proceed as in draw-filing.
When filing work that is rotating in a lathe, long, slow cuts give best results. The
work must be rotating at high speed. For rough work, a double-cut flat file is
generally used. For finishing work, a mill file gives better results, as it is a
single-cut file and has a shearing action. Too much filing of a piece of work in a
lathe, however, will, as a rule, spoil it by making it out of round.
40
43. A new file should be broken in by using it first on brass, bronze, or smooth
cast iron. Most of the damage to new files is caused by using too much pressure
during the first few strokes, so it is necessary to use a light pressure to prevent
tooth breakage. A new file should not be broken in on a narrow surface, such asthe edge of sheet metal, because the narrow edge is likely to break off the sharp
points of the teeth. A new file should never be used to remove the scale on cast
iron; always use old, worn files for removing such scale. A file should never be
used on material harder than itself.
During the operation of filing, small particles of the work are likely to clog the
teeth of the file and scratch the material being filed. This condition is known as
pinning. Pinning is sometimes the result of putting too much pressure on the
file, especially if it is a new one. To avoid pinning, therefore, be sure that the file
is broken in properly. Rubbing chalk on a file before using it will also help to
prevent pinning.
Pinning can also be prevented by cleaning the file frequently. This is done by
means of afile card, an example of which is shown in Fig. 49. When cleaning a
file, lay it flat on the bench and draw
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FIG. 49. FILE CARD.
the bristles of the file card back and forth across the file parallel to the cuts. If a
few chips are stubborn and will not come out, remove them with the pick that is
included with the file card.
To prevent scratching or cutting too deep when filing wrought iron, steel, or
hard fiber, apply a little oil to the surface of the file.
41
However, do not use oil when filing cast iron, as it causes the cast iron surface to
glaze over and become hard and slick.
44. A file is easily dulled by rough or improper handling, and files therefore
should not be stored in a drawer or box where they can rub against each other
or against other tools. It is best to store them, in separate holders, or in holes
cut in a wooden block. Do not use a file for prying or pounding. The tang is soft
and bends easily, the body is hard and extremely brittle, and even a slight bend
may cause a file to snap in two. Bending or pounding a file, therefore, will notonly injure the file but may cause steel particles to be thrown into the eyes. For
similar reasons a small rat-tail file should not be salvaged to be used as a prick
punch or center punch.
45. Drills and Drilling.-There are many occasions when it is necessary to drill
holes in metal, using a twist drill, a tool that does its work by slicing metal away
as it rotates. With holes up to 1/4 inch in diameter, the drilling may be done by
hand, using a hand drillor breast drillto hold and turn the drills. A braceis
ordinarily used when drilling holes in wood. These hand drilling tools are shown
in Fig. 50.
Twist drills are also used for cutting larger holes in metal, up to 4 inches in
diameter, but for such purposes are usually operated by power drilling
equipment.
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FIG. 50. HAND DRILLING TOOLS.
42
Twist drills are made of carbon steel or high-speed alloy steel. Carbon steel drills
are satisfactory for the general run of work and are less expensive, although
they may lose their hardness if heated excessively. High-speed drills are used on
tough metals and at high speeds. They will keep on cutting when red hot, but
should be cooled in still air; if cooled quickly they may crack or split.
The drill shankis the end that fits into the chuck of the hand drill, electric drill or
drill press. Straight-shank drills are used to drill holes up to about 1/2 inch in
diameter. Larger holes are usually drilled with the taper-shank drill. The
square-shank drill is made to use in a brace. The different shanks are shown in
Fig. 51.
FIG. 51. TWIST DRILL SHANKS.
Twist drills are available with either 2, 3, or 4 flutes (the spiral grooves formed
along the sides), but drills having 3 or 4 flutes are used for following smaller
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drills or for enlarging cored holes, and are not suitable for drilling into solid
stock. The spiral flutes provide several advantages:
(a) They give a correct rake angle to the lips, as shown in Fig. 52.
(b) They cause chips formed while drilling to curl tightly so that they
occupy the minimum amount of space.
43
(c) They form channels through which such chips can escape from the
hole.
(d) They allow the lubricant, when one is used, to flow easily down to
the cutting edge of the drill.
FIG. 52. RAKE ANGLE.
46. Drill Sizes.-The twist drills used most frequently are those made in fractional
sizes, from 1/64 inch up to 1 inch in diameter, although larger sizes are also
found aboard ship. The size of the drill is stamped on the shank. Because the
drills vary 1/64 (0.0156) inch from one size to the next, two other identification
systems have been developed for special sizes:
(a) Number drills, ranging from No. 80 (0.0135 in.) to No. 1 (0.228 in.).
(b) Letter drills, ranging from A (0.234 in.) to Z (0.413 in.).
Tables of drill sizes will be found in Marine Engineering Tables, issued later in the
course.
If the size number has worn off the drill shank, the size can be checked with a
drill gage, Fig. 53, for the number drills, with a drill standfor fractional drills, or
with a micrometerfor any kind of drill. When measuring a drill with a
micrometer, measure from
FIG. 53. DRILL GAGE.
44
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FIG. 54. TWIST DRILL TERMINOLOGY.
It runs the entire length of the drill between the flutes, gradually increasing in
thickness toward the shank.
49. Drill Lips.-It has been determined that for work on mild steel and for
general purpose work, the lips of a twist drill should be ground to a 59 angle, or
with an included angle of 118, as shown in Fig. 56. In this illustration the angle
is measured by a drill gage. (Note that both lips are exactly the same length.) If
the angle is too great, the point will be too flat to center properly; if the angle is
too small, the hole will be drilled less rapidly than it should be, and more power
will be required to drive the drill. If the point is on center but the cutting edges
are ground at different angles,
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Fig. 55. DRILL WEB.
the drill will bind on one side, as shown in the left-hand view of Fig. 57, and as
only one lip will do the work, that edge will wear rapidly. When the cutting edges
are not the same length, the hole will be larger than the drill, as shown in the
center view.
50. Lip Clearance Angle.-For most drilling, the heel of the drill should be
ground away from the cutting lips at an angle of from 12 to 15 at the
circumference of the drill, as shown in the right-hand view, Fig. 57. This angle isknown as the lip clearance angle. Examples of incorrect lip clearance grinding
are shown in Fig. 58.
The drill at the left, Fig. 58, has been ground without any lip clearance whatever;
in the center example, the lip clearance angle is so large that the cutting edges
of the drill have broken down because of insufficient support; in the illustration
on the right, the lip clearance angle is too small.
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52. Recommended Angles for Various Materials.-The following tabulation
states the lip angles and lip clearance angles that are recommended for
common materials:
Materials to be drilled Drill Angles
Heat-treated steels, drop forgings,
Brinel hardness No. 250.
125 included angle
12 lip clearance
Cast iron, soft90 included angle
12 lip clearance
Brass
118 included angle
12 lip clearance
Slightly flat face of cutting lips
Copper100 included angle
12 lip clearance
Wood60 included angle
12 lip clearance
53. Grinding a Drill.-After the instructions have been studied carefully,
considerable practice is still needed in order to learn how to grind a drill
correctly. To secure this practical experience, it is advisable to begin by selecting
a correctly ground drill; a 1/4-inch or 3/8-inch size would be suitable for the
purpose. Take the drill to the grinder, and without turning on the grinder,
observe just how the drill must be held in order to secure the correct shape of
the point and the desired angles. The way in which the drill is held against the
grinding wheel is shown in Fig. 59.
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FIG. 59. GRINDING A DRILL.
Next take a drill that needs grinding badly, and start up the grinder and try to
shape the point of the old drill to be exactly like the correctly ground drill.
Remove very little metal at first and examine the drill frequently in order to note
the progress made. Also take the same precautions that are explained in Art. 30
in connection with the sharpening of chisels. By working and observing carefullyit will soon become apparent how the drill must be held in order to secure the
desired results. Check the lip angle and lip clearance angle, and when the drill
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appears to be ground properly, try drilling a hole in a piece of soft steel scrap.
Note whether the drill cuts smoothly and rapidly, or whether it jumps and
chatters. Do the chips curl away evenly from both lips? Is the hole the right size?
Examine the heel of the drill; if there are shiny spots, it is indicated that the lip
clearance angle is too small. If the drill will not cut at all, it is probably because
there is no lip clearance. Be careful to keep both lips the same length, and have
the included angle as previously recommended.
Always protect drills from nicks and rust. See that they are ground properly
before putting them away, and then store them carefully.
54. Drilling.-When drilling with a twist drill, the following procedure is
recommended:
(a) Locate the exact position of the hole by drawing two lines
50
on the work at right angles, the lines crossing each other at the point which is to
be the center of the hole. Make a light mark with a prick punch where the lines
intersect, and check to make sure that the prick punch mark is located exactly
where they cross. Then use a center punch to sink the mark deep enough to
receive the point of the drill. Select a sharp, properly ground drill of the desired
size; insert the shank in the chuck and fasten it tightly in position. Grip the work
firmly in a vise unless it is stationary. Arrange to do the drilling horizontally, if
possible. Put a drop of lubricant, if needed, in the impression made by the
center punch. Place the point of the drill in the center punch impression and
begin drilling, making sure to keep the drill at right angles to the surface of the
work. Keep a steady, firm pressure on the drill.
(b) When the drill has started to cut and has made an impression larger than the
center punch mark, lift it from the work and note whether the impression is
concentric with the cross lines. If it is not concentric, as shown in the left-hand
view, Fig. 60, use a round-nose chisel to make a nick in the impression on theside of the center toward which the drill should be drawn. The chisel cut is
shown in the center view, Fig. 60.
FIG. 60. HOW TO DRILL BACK TO CORRECT CENTER.
(c) Put another drop of lubricant in the impression and continue drilling until the
point of the drill just breaks through the metal. Then ease off on the pressure
and drill slowly until the hole is completed. If the drill catches while finishing the
hole, work the drill back and forth carefully until it cuts through the work. When
the hole is completed, withdraw the drill immediately by pulling it back as it
continues to turn.
55. Portable Power Drills.-A portable electric drill is used in much the same
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way as a hand drill. The chuck shaft, or arbor, is
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geared to the motor to obtain the desired speed. Small drills are geared up for
high speed, but the larger drills are geared down so that the chuck will turn
slowly enough to prevent damage to the drill from burning. Portable power
drills can also be used for such operations as buffing, polishing, and grinding.
With the addition of a special attachment which converts the rotary motion of
the drill into a reciprocating motion, a portable power drill can be used for
making holes in concrete and similar materials. The same attachment can also
be employed to adapt the machine for lighting riveting work.
Except for the smallest units, the extension cable of portable electric drills
should include a ground lead from the drill casing, and a clip for connection of
the ground lead toground. The clip should be fastened to a grounded
conductor, such as the conduit at the outlet box, before the drill is placed in
operation. This precaution protects the operator of the drill from electrical shock
in case the insulation of the wiring within the power drill casing should fail,
resulting in a short circuit.
Portable electric drills are susceptible to short circuits because of their small
clearances and the metallic dust produced when they are used. These
conditions can be improved by periodically blowing through the motors withclean dry air. Since dampness is another reason that may cause the machines to
deteriorate, they should always be stored in a dry place when not in actual use.
It is also advisable that they be regularly tested for insulation resistance.
Before a portable power drill is used, the extension cable should be inspected
carefully to -make sure that it is not frayed or crimped to such an extent that
wiring is exposed. Care should also be taken that the cable does not drop or lie
in water. The operator of the drill should wear leather gloves and keep his
footgear dry, especially where dampness may be present.
56. Drill Press.-A small drill press, such as might be used aboard ship, is shown
in Fig. 61. This drill press has a separate motor which drives the drill spindle and
chuck by means of a V-belt.
One advantage of the drill press over the portable electric drill is that speed
control is provided. Four steps are usually found on the motor pulley and four
on the spindle pulley. The drill press in the illustration is arranged for high
speed, with the belt on the largest step of the motor pulley.
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FIG. 61. DRILL PRESS.
The feed pressure is easily controlled on this drill press by means of a feed
wheel with long handles. A depth stop is provided to stop the progress of a drill
at a predetermined depth, which is important when drilling holes that do not go
all of the way through the material.
When using a drill press, it is very important to hold the drilled material securely.Never try to hold it down by means of the hands, as the drill may catch or jam
and spin the material around at high speed, endangering everyone within range.
The best method is to use a drill vise or some other form of clamping device. A
drill vise, also a V-block and clamp used to hold round objects, are shown in Fig.
62. Use the drill vise for small jobs, and clamp larger pieces of stock to the drill
table.
It is usually advisable to protect the drill table by placing a block of wood
beneath the work, thus preventing the drill from touching and scarring the drill
table as it completes the drilling of a hole.
57. Heavy-duty Ratchet Drill.-When the hole to be drilled is too large for an
electric drill, and the piece to be drilled cannot be taken to a drill press, a
heavy-duty ratchet drill can be used. In order to use the drill, some arrangement
must be made to apply
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FIG. 62. DRILL VISE AND V-BLOCK.
1. ratchet sleeve
2. base
3. upright
4. adjustable arm
5. bolt
6. steel plate
7. bolt
8. drill
9. ratchet handle
10. ratchet
11. clamp
FIG. 63. RATCHET DRILL AND "OLD MAN."
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pressure upon it. The arrangement may utilize blocking, depending upon the
nature and position of the work, or a device known as an "old man" may be
used. A ratchet drill set up in an "old man" is shown in Fig. 63.
As shown in the illustration, the base of the device is bolted or clamped in
position, and the adjustable arm is placed at the proper height so that the
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pointed tip of the ratchet fits into one of the countersunk holes in the lower face
of the arm. The position of the arm is then adjusted so that the drill is lined up
properly, and the arm is bolted securely on the upright. By turning the ratchet
sleeve so as to screw it upward, the drill is held securely between the arm and
the work, and drilling can be begun. The drill is turned by pulling on the ratchet
handle. In order to feed the drill into the work, a rod is placed in one of the small
holes at the upper end of the ratchet sleeve, and by means of this leverage the
ratchet sleeve can be held from turning during part of the stroke of the ratchet
handle, thus lengthening the drill assembly and feeding the drill through the
work. The amount of feed given is determined by the nature of the work being
done, and can be judged by the amount of pull needed to move the ratchet
handle.
58. Pilot Holes.-A small hole, used to guide and mark the path for a larger drill,
is known as apilot hole. It is a good policy to drill these small guide holes for any
drill size larger than 3/16-inch, as it is difficult to start a large drill in a centerpunch mark, the large drill having a tendency to drift from the center. The pilot
hole guides the larger drill all the way through the metal and helps to keep it "on
the course." No special drills are required, just select the pilot drill according to
the size of the finished hole that is to be made, a 1/8-inch drill, for example,
being satisfactory for drilling a pilot hole for a 3/8-inch drill.
59. Keep a drill cutting all the time it is in contact with the metal. Apply pressure
steadily and uniformly to insure continuous cutting. Remember that both too
much pressure and too little pressure can cause overheating of the drill.
After a hole has been drilled, the burrsmust be removed. An easy way to
remove them is to use a drill about twice the diameter of the hole. Hold the drill
in the hand and rotate the point against the burrs. Do not burr a hole too much,
however, as the hole should
55
be a true cylinder and should not be countersunk at either end unless sospecified.
60. Countersinks.-A countersink is used to shape the ends of drilled holes to fit
screw, bolt, and rivet heads of the countersunk type. The 3-flute 82 countersink
is usually used, although other point angles are available for special purposes.
Countersinks are made in a number of sizes, but any one size can be used on
several different sizes of hole.
61. Counterbores.-A counterbore is used to cut recesses in metal surfaces for
fillister-head bolts and screws, and for similar purposes, working best whenused in a drill press or lathe. The pilot end of the tool is smooth, and is guided
by the hole drilled for the bolt or screw. A countersink and a counterbore are
shown in Fig. 64.
62. Solder.-Solder is used to join pieces of metal, to make metal joints and
seams leakproof, and to connect electric wires so that they will be good
conductors.
Soft solderis used most often in sheet metal and electrical work, and is usually a
combination of 50 per cent tin and 50 per cent lead, known as half-and-halfsolder. Solder is manufactured in both bar and wire forms, some wire solders
having hollow centers which are filled with acid or rosin corefluxes.
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Half-and-half solder begins to melt at a temperature of 358F, and becomes a
liquid at 415F. It does not have much strength, and should never be used
where heavy stresses will be applied to the soldered parts. Solders containing 55
per cent to 70 per cent tin are stronger and can withstand heavier stresses than
half-and-half solder, but no soft solder approaches the strength of the hard
solders.
Hard soldersare made of alloys of copper, zinc, silver, and tin. They will
withstand considerable stress, pressure and vibration, and may be used to
solder high-pressure pipe connections, gasoline and oil piping joints, etc. The
hard solders must be melted with a blowtorch or welding torch; soldering irons
do not conduct enough heat to melt them.
63. Soldering Irons.-Soldering irons, or coppers, are available in various
weights, but the size used should depend on the
56
FIG. 64. COUNTERSINK AND COUNTERBORE.
requirements of the work to be done. As a general rule it is best to select the
largest size that is convenient to handle. The points of soldering irons should be
rather blunt for efficient heat conduction, three different shapes being shown in
Fig. 65. Thepointedshape is used for utility work; the stubshape is used for flatseams that require considerable heat; and the bottomtype is best for soldering
the seams of pans, trays, etc. An electric soldering iron, with interchangeable
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tips, can be used for light work and is especially good for work on electrical
connections.
64. Blowtorch.-Soldering irons can be heated in various ways, but the gasoline
blowtorch is one of the most convenient means aboard ship. As shown in Fig.
66, blowtorches are usually equipped with
57
FIG. 65. SOLDERING IRON POINTS.
a hook and curved rest to hold the soldering iron while the point is exposed tothe flame of the torch.
Before using a blowtorch it is advisable to consider the danger of fire. Do not
light or use the torch near openings where explosive gases may be present,
where gasoline has been spilled, or where inflammable material may be ignited.
It is good practice to have a fire extinguisher handy whenever a blowtorch is
used.
1. soldering-iron rest
2. soldering-iron hook
3. valve
4. fuel pump
5. fuel pan
6. burner tube
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FIG. 66. BLOWTORCH.
58
In order to use a blowtorch, the tank must contain clean, white (unleaded)
gasoline, and the pump on the tank must be operated to build up sufficient
pressure to cause the gasoline to spray through the burner tube when the valve
is opened. A piece of sheet metal or other convenient means is then used to
shield the end of the burner tube and the valve is opened slightly, allowing liquid
gasoline to collect in the fuel pan. With the valve closed and the blowtorch
placed so that it is clear of inflammable material and is not subjected to violent
air currents, ignite the gasoline in the fuel pan and permit the flame from the
burning gasoline to envelop and heat the burner tube. When the burner tube ishot, open the valve slightly, so as to permit a fine stream of gasoline to be
discharged from the tank. The gasoline should vaporize immediately and burn
with an almost colorless, light-blue flame. Be sure to open the valve wide
enough to permit satisfactory operation. When the torch is burning
satisfactorily, the valve can be opened or closed slightly in order to adjust the
flame to the desired intensity. A blue flame indicates good combustion
conditions. While the torch is in use it is necessary to work the pump a few
strokes periodically in order to maintain pressure in the tank.
To extinguish a blowtorch, close the valve. After the torch has beenextinguished, it is good practice to loosen the filling plug and relieve the
pressure within the tank. When the pressure has been relieved, the filling plug is
tightened again. The valve is then opened slightly and left open. If the valve is
not left open, the metal around the valve will contract and the valve may stick so
tight that it will be damaged.
65. Fluxes.-A flux is a chemical preparation (powder, paste, or liquid) used to
keep the metal clean so that the solder will stick to it. If a flux is not used, the
heat will cause oxides to form on the metal surface and prevent the solder fromadhering firmly. A list of common fluxes and the metals on which they are used
is given in the following:
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Metals Fluxes
Brass, copper, tin Rosin
Lead Tallow, rosin
Iron, steel Borax, sal-ammoniac
Galvanized iron, zinc Zinc chloride
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Fluxes are either corrosive or non-corrosive. The commonly used corrosive
fluxes; zinc chloride and sal-ammoniac, corrode the metal if allowed to remain
on it after soldering. They should therefore be completely removed by a
thorough washing after the work is done. 'It is for this reason that rosin, a
non-corrosive flux, is used when soldering electrical connections. The rosin is
used in powdered form, or as a liquid core in wire solder.
Zinc chloride can be prepared by dissolving small pieces of zinc in commercial
hydrochloric acid, commonly known as muriatic acid. The zinc should be added
a little at a time until the bubbles stop rising, and a little undissolved zinc
remains in the solution. It is important to note that the gas released when these
bubbles reach the surface is hydrogen, which is highly explosive. It is therefore
advisable to practice the same precautions as with storage batteries, that is,
keep the room well ventilated and avoid the use of open flames.
The solution should be strained and then diluted to the correct strength by
pouring it into an equal amount of water. (Always pour the acid into the water; it
is dangerous to pour water into acid.) The resultant liquid is zinc chloride, also
known as "cut-acid" or "killed acid." It is recommended that a few small pieces of
zinc be placed in the liquid in order to neutralize any free acid that may remain.
As acid fluxes eat away metal, they must be stored in pottery or glass
containers.
Paste fluxes, commercially manufactured, are available in cans of various sizes.
These fluxes, which contain grease for counteracting corrosion, are substitutesfor acid fluxes.
66. Tinning.-Tinning means to spread a thin layer of solder on the surfaces of
the metals that are to be soldered together, causing the solder to adhere to the
metal and make a firm union with it. The purpose of tinning is to prepare the
surfaces so that they will unite readily in the process of soldering and make a
firm joint. It is recommended that all metals, except lead and tin, be tinned
before soldering. Lead and tin need only to be scraped clean.
Copper, brass and ungalvanized iron may be prepared to receive solder bycleaning the surfaces and applying zinc chloride. Galvanized iron or sheet zinc
should be cleaned with muriatic acid before the solder is applied. Where a metal
has become tarnished, it is necessary to remove the tarnish and expose the
bare, clean
60
metal before tinning it; otherwise the solder ordinarily will not adhere to the
metal.
67. Tinning the Soldering Iron.-The point of a soldering iron must be tinned
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before it will do a good job of soldering, tinning in this instance referring to the
process of coating the point with solder to prevent oxidation when heated. The
general steps in the tinning procedure are as follows:
1. File the faces of the point (or ru