• Oc T. 1 8, 1 go 1. J E N G I N E E R I N G. 537 THE STRENGTH OF DROP -FORGED adopt ed f or ob ta ining an exact section may of th e section (Z) and th e second mom ent (I) (or be of mter est . The c entre line c c of the hook moment of inertia ) were then fo und by the g raphic CRANE HOOKS. was 1:nark ed o ff by holding the s hank in a self - method describ ed in Ohapter IX. of the auth or's By Prof essor JoHN GooDMAN, M. Inst. C. E. centrin g lathe chuck, and afte r setting the hook in "Mechanics Applied to Engine e ring." A modulus W a ve rti cal plane, the centre line c c was marked on figure for the section is shown in Fi g. 2. The areas HEN visiting various works in the United State s with a. scr ibm ' £! block, t hen by means of a st rat' ght- f th t' db A I 1 · 'th 11 f ' ""' o e sec 1ons w ere measure y an ms er p ani- wS99 a s ma part y 0 students, in the summer of edge and sq uar e the sect ion line a b was marked meter. After fi nding the ar ea, second moment, 1 ' the author and pa rty w ere verY: co urt eous ly off. A mould was then prepared, and a ring of and position of t he ne utral axis for all th e sectioDB, shown ov er the magmficent drop-f orgtng works of 1 plaster of Paris was cast around the hook, having it wa s fou nd that the following expressions gave FI C. I. r .. I I I F IG. 3. FIG. 4. I ' --- L --- ----- ! I I ! I I : i I I : l I I : I J( i I I I ' I }l/ I ' N.A. I I I : I r- I I I I I I j I I I I I I I I , I I l , • I I I , ' I I I Ye I I I I ' I I I I ' FI G. 5. resul ts agre&iog : ve ry closely with tho se fo und The a. r ea. of tJhe section in sq ua.re inches (A) . .. ... . .. The dis tan ce of the ne utral axis from the co mpr ession skin (yo ) . .. - Ditto, tension skin ( y) ... The second mome nt (or mome nt of in et t: a)(I) in inch units .. . - 0.753 b h 0.545 h 0.455 h The next step was that of getting a complete set of pla ste r casts from the hooks in their origina l state in order to compare th em with th e same h oo ks after testin g. F or this purpose plaster-of-Paris moulds in two halves were made in the usual way in to which the liquid plaster was poured, wire irons having been previously placed in the moul ds in ord er to strength en the casts. Fi g. 3 is pre- pared from a photograph of the plas ter casts of t he b oo ks, and Fig. 4 from a photograph of the h oo ks themselves af ter t est ing. During the testino- it was n ot iced th at the scale peeled off in a very ing manner, and ther eby revealed the position of th e neu tral plane, also the lines of sh ear . The lines fo rmed by th e peeling of th e scale were, how- ever, not s uffi cient ly clear for phot ographing; the re - fore, in order to show th em up more definitely, one of the hooks was whitewashed bef ore testing. The is shown in Fig. 5, in which the position of the neu tra l plane is very clearly shown by the centra l band of white whe re the materi al was n ot severely strained, but t he whitewash peeled off on bot h sides of it, due to t he distortion of the mat erial. The hoo ks having been carefully placed in suit- ab le shackles in t he testing machine, resembling the links of a chain, the load was g radu ally in creased a nd at each increme nt of load the distance d ( Fi g. 1) was ve ry carefully measured to the near est '[A-o- in.; at first the stra in- i.e., the increase in the distance d- wa s very small, and was truly elastic. When th e load was rem oved, the hook re turned to it s original f or m. The load at which it ceased to act in this mann er, or when d was permanently increased, is termed the "elast ic limi t, (L) in the T ab les given on page 539. Messrs. J. H. \Villiams and Co., Brooklyn. At the sugge st i on of the au thor, the firm very kindly pres e nted a complete s et of th eir steel cran e ho oks to the Yo rk s hir e College, on the condition th at the hooks sho uld be caref ully tested, and that they s hould receive a copy of the resul ts. Bef ore mak ing any tests, acc ur ate measuremen ts w ere taken of the l eading dim ensio ns of the hooks, from which th e area and second moment (moment of ine rti a) of the sect ion a b taken through the back of th e ho ok (see F ig. 1) was obtain ed by a gt ·aphic meth od. Su ch a section is shown in Fig. 2. The o ne edge coinciding with the sect ion line a. b. After the plast er had set, thi s ring was sawn n ear ly throu gh in two places, and when pieced tog eth er t he ab ove-me nti oned edge was filed fl at , a nd th e ring was placed with its flat surface on a drawing- board, a fine h ard pencil was drawn ro u nd inside the ring, a nd thus t he exact f orm of the sect ion was tran sf erred to the drawing- paper. A card- board section was then cut to exactly fit the plast er ring. This was u sed f or ex perimentally fi nding th e position of t he cent re of gravity of the section, or th e positi '> n of th e ne utr al axis. Th e mod ulus After th e elastic limit had b een passed, th e strain incr eased mu ch more r ap idly than before with any given increase in the loa d. Th e ex act ma nner in which each hook be haved is sh ow n in the curves in Fi gs. 6, 7, 8, and 9, pa ge 638. At length a stage was reached when the h oo ks kept on opening without a ny fur t her incr ease in th e loa d. This is term ed the maximum load M in the Tables on page 539. Th e amount that each hook opened under the maximum loads can be judged fr om Fig. 4, but the c urv es in Fig s. 6, 7, 8, a nd 9 are n ot carried to t he ma xi mum loads in all instances. Th e s tre sses that occ ur in a hook section a b,
Transcript
•
OcT. 1 8, 1 go 1. J E N G I N E E R I N G. 537
THE STRENGTH OF DROP-FORGED metho~ adopted for obtaining an exact section may of the section (Z) and the second moment (I) (or be of mterest. The centre line c c of t he hook moment of inertia) were then found by the graphic
CRANE HOOKS. was 1:narked off by holding the shank in a self- method described in Ohapter IX. of the author 's By Professor JoHN GooDMAN, M. Inst. C. E . centring lathe chuck, and after setting the hook in "Mechanics Applied to Engineering." A modulus
W a vertical plane, the centre line c c was marked on figure for the section is shown in Fig. 2. The areas HEN visiting various works in the United States with a. scribm' £! block, then by means of a strat'ght- f th t' db A I 1 · 'th 11 f ' ""' o e sec 1ons were measure y an ms er p ani-
wS99 a sma party 0 students, in the summer of edge and square the section line a b was marked meter. After finding the area, second moment, 1 ' the author and par ty were verY: courteously off. A mould was then prepared, and a ring of and position of the neutral axis for all the sectioDB, shown over the magmficent drop-forgtng works of
1 plaster of P aris was cast around the hook, having it was found that the following expressions gave
FIC. I.
r ..
I
I I
F IG. 3.
FIG. 4.
},~. 2. I ' ~ --- - --- L --- ----- --~
-~--- ----1 -~ -! I I ! I I : i I I : l I I
: I J( i I I I ' I
}l/ I
' N.A.
I I
I
: I
r-I I I
I I I j I I I I I I I I , I I
l
,
• I I
I , ' I I
I Ye
I I
I I
' I I I I
'
FIG. 5.
results agre&iog graphic~lly :
very closely with those found
The a. rea. of tJhe section in sq ua.re inches (A) . .. ... . ..
The distance of the neutral axis from the compression skin (yo ). .. -
Ditto, tension skin (y) .. . The second moment (or moment of
in et t :a)(I) in inch units .. . -
0.753 b h
0.545 h 0.455 h
The next step was that of getting a complete set of plaster casts from the hooks in their original state in order to compare them with the same hooks after testing. F or this purpose plaster-of-Paris moulds in two halves were made in the usual way into which the liquid plaster was poured, wire cor~ irons having been previously placed in the moulds in order to strengthen the casts . Fig. 3 is prepared from a photograph of the plaster casts of t he books, and Fig. 4 from a photograph of the hooks themselves after testing. During the testino- it was noticed that t he scale peeled off in a very i~teresting manner, and thereby revealed the position of the neutral plane, also the lines of shear. The lines formed by the peeling of the scale were, however, not sufficiently clear for photographing; therefore, in order to show them up more definitely, one of the hooks was whitewashed before testing. The re~mlt is shown in Fig. 5, in which the posit ion of the neutral plane is very clearly shown by the central band of white where the material was not severely strained, but t he whitewash peeled off on both sides of it, due to the distortion of the material.
The hooks having been carefully placed in suitable shackles in the testing machine, resembling the links of a chain, the load was gradually increased and at each increment of load the distance d (Fig. 1) was very carefully measured to the nearest '[A-o- in.; at first the st rain- i.e., the increase in the distance d - was very small, and was t ruly elast ic. When the load was removed, the hook returned to its original form. The load at which it ceased to act in this manner, or when d was permanently increased, is termed the "elastic limit, (L) in the Tables given on page 539.
Messrs. J. H. \Villiams and Co. , Brooklyn. At the suggestion of the author, the firm very kindly presented a complete set of their steel crane hooks to the Yorkshire College, on the condition that the hooks should be carefully tested, and that t hey should receive a copy of the results.
Before making any tests, accurate measurements were taken of t he leading dimensions of the hooks, from which the area and second moment (moment of inertia) of the section a b taken through the back of the hook (see F ig. 1) was obtained by a gt·aphic method. Such a section is shown in Fig. 2. The
one edge coinciding with the section line a. b. After the plaster had set, this ring was sawn nearly through in two places, and when pieced together t he above-mentioned edge was filed flat, and the ring was placed with its flat surface on a drawingboard , a fine hard pencil was drawn round inside the ring, and thus t he exact form of the section was transferred to the drawing-paper. A cardboard section was then cut to exactly fit the plaster ring. This was used for experimentally finding the posit ion of t he centre of gravity of t he section, or the posit i'>n of the neutral axis. The mod ulus
After the elastic limit had been passed, the strain increased much more rapidly than before with any given increase in the load. The exact manner in which each hook behaved is shown in the curves in Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9, page 638. At length a stage was reached when the hooks kept on opening without any further increase in the load. This is termed the maximum load M in the Tables on page 539. The amount that each hook opened under the maximum loads can be judged from Fig. 4, but the curves in Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9 are not carried to the maximum loads in all instances.
The stresses that occur in a hook section a b,
• THE STRENGTH OF DROP-FORGED CRANE HOOKS. (For Description, see Page 537.)
• C1 • .I'J i .FT{} 6. / I
~ / ;. q . / ' ' I 1 J
,~ I (1·6 . I
/ I J .. i ms: !' · ,~ ( • TON. Ji TO NS. . i I I •
Fig. 1, are known as combined bending and direct stresses. The bending is due to the fact that the line of loading c c does not pass through t he neutral axis of the hook section. The cending moment M in tons inches on the hook section is W x , where \V
Working Tension J,.o!ld ln oo Section Tone. 1
is the load on the hook in tons and x the distance -of the neutral axis from line of loading. This produces a bending stress on the section, and thereby brings the material on the " off " side of the neutral axis at a into compression, and the material on the ' ' near , side of the neutral axis at b into tension. The maximum compressive stress thus set up will not in this case be equal to the maximum tensile stress, because the tension skin is not at the same distance from the neutral axis as the compression skin. The relation will be
Maximum tensile stress due to 'Lend incr v -
\V
t 1 1! 2 3 4 5
w -A
tons per sq. In. o.as 0.66 1.00 1.06 1.19 1.0i 1.16 1.20 1 26
The maximum intensity f of these stresses on the skin of the hook is given by the well·known formula
Maximum Load (JJfean of T1eo Hooks). - -
f = M Y or /o = ~ y~ I I
Work· Bending Total Skin log Tension Stresa. Stress. Factor
Load Tons.
OD of In Section. ~atety.
Tons. Moduli of Rupture.
--w Mo • )fo
1 ! .; T c L Mo - -A w w - -
to os tons to os tons per per
eq. in. per
sq. io. per
sq. in.
539
The end·rounding tool (sketched in Fig. 26) is fitted into the hole through the shank of the finis.h· ing tool.holder, so that as the cut comes to 1ts finish, this tool rounds off the end of the bolt.
For the third operation, a chamfering tool held in an open·sided tool post on the front o.f the crossslide is requisitioned to start t he cuttmg off and chamfer the head.
It now remains to screw the thread and cut off the finished bolt. The screwing is done with a selfopening die-head, held in the turret in the manner detailed in Fig. 27. '£o avoid breaking the dies or damaging t he work, this has to be held rather differently from a similar die in a small capstan lathe ; for it must be remembered that the feed is obtained from a cam, which is most difficult to set to exactly correspond with the threads of the die. To allow, therefore, for variation of the feed, the die is fitted wi th the plunger and bush illustrated. The shank of the die itself is fitted to the plunger, and the latter is turned to easily fit the bore of the bush. A keyway is cut in the bush, and a feather key is fitted to the plunger, so t hat they may slide relatively without rotating. Between the end of the plunger and the inside end of the bush there is a spiral spring, which holds the die forward a sufficient distance to allow it to follow its thread, whether variation in the feed be positive or negative.
where f is the tensile stress and f ,. the con1pressive stress, relations which are true to all intents and purposes up to the elastic limit, but are far, very far, from the truth at loads beyond the elastic limit. It is, however, convenient for purposes of eo m pari. son to make use of this formula for loads beyond the elastic limit ; we then use the expression ''modulus of rupture " in tension or compression, but it must be clearly understood that the modulus of rupture is not t he breaking strength of the material when tested in pure tension. This ques. tion is fully discussed in the author'A book referred to above.
The possibility of screwing true tAlreads with ~ self-opening dies has been much discussed; and 6 although some affirm that it is an impossibility, yet ~ it is the experience of many that, providing the 6 dies are correctly made, properly attended and kept 6 in a good state of repair, nny sufficient and reason~ able degree of accuracy may be obtained.* The
final operation in the production of the bolt is to out it off with a step parting-off tool, held in an open-side tool·post on the back of the cross-slide.
14. 7.4 4.11 7.1
10.9 6.7 6.0 6.8 6.3
In addition to the bending stresses the hook sec-
tion is subjected to a tensile stress t = W acting A
evenly all over the section. The result ing maxi· mum stress on the skin of the material is then
On the tension aide T = f + t = W x Y + ~ I A
0 h · ·d C ~ t W X Ye W n t ecompress10n at e =;c - = -1
- - A
These stresses at the elastic limit, maximum load and working load of the hooks, have been worked out, and are given in tabulated form below.
These results are not quite as regular as one could wish. The variation in t he stress at the elastic limit and maximum load are probably due to some hooks being annealed more than others, or to some leaving t he dies at a higher temperature than others. The material in the 1-ton hook is evidently of a higher tensile strength th~n that in the others.
The factor of safety as regards the maximum load is in every case quite satisfactory, and with the exception of the 6.ton hook, which had evidently been annealed, the elastic margin is ample.
The material in all the hooks was of excellent
quality as regards strength, ductility, and rough. ness, and none of them showed the slightest signs of cracking even when straightened to such an extent that the link shackle slid off. 'fhe hooks are well designed and are believed to be superior to any hand.forged hooks in iron or steel.
The author wishes to express his thanks to two of his students- Messrs. J. L. Wilson and R. E. Fawkes- for rendering very valuable assistance in carrying out these tests, also to the makersMessrs. Williams and Co. , Brooklyn-for presenting the hooks to the college.
THE TOOLING OF MACHINES. By J OBN AsBFORD, M. Inst. Me oh. E.
(Continued jr01n page 607.) Perhaps the duty to which automatic screw
machines are most often put is the making of bolts and studs. The time when bright bolts of small and moderate size were fo1·ged in bolt·forging machines, afterwards to be turned up and screwed, seems fast receding into the past ; for it is found that they can be more cheaply made by turning in automatic machines from bar the full size of the head. All the smaller sizes are made from bright
-- drawn hexagonal stock ; in fact, it is used for all Leading Dimensions of Hooks.
-
I
-
Working Load.
tons .1
f 1 1! 2 s 4 5
Working Lo d . a m Tons.
w
t * ~
1 1! 2 s 4 6
b. I • 1n. 0.63 0.67 0.66 0.91 1.05 1 29 1.60 1.66
1 1.78
I
Tons.
I L
0.78 1.10 1.15 3 67 3.47 6.65 8.40
10.00 8.27
sizes up to which such bar can be obtained • Most machinists are familiar with the construe
•
lt. A. z. 11· Ye. I.
• • • m. sq. 10. 10. • • m . m. tO. unit. s tion of tools for making small bolts in t urret lathes,
but there are not many shops in which automatic machines for turning bolts from the solid of so large a size as 1 in. are in use. It will therefore be an advantage to some to show the tools used for t his purpose. Fig. 24, page 640, is a sketch of a bolt 1 in. in diameter, 7 in. long, t urned from the solid and screwed up a distance of 4! in. The first operation is to take a roughing cut, to reduce
the stook to within close dimensions of finished size. For this purpose a tool such as is illustrated in Fig. 26 is used. With regard to this tool, it is sufficient to say that the body is made of cast iron, and · into it the mild steel shank is screwed. A hole is put through the latter for two reasons : to receive a piece of work that may be sufficiently long to extend into it, or to hold a tool for either drilling up or shaping the end of the object turned. Either one or more tool clamps may be attached to the holder, but for ordinary work one is sufficient. The form of steady which generally gives the most satisfaction is one that is made in two halves, because the steady surfaces can be more easily brought up to the work, and more truly set than if it is made so1id. The second operation in turning the bolt is to bring up another tool almost identical to the first, adjusted to take the finishing cut.
The series of operations for prod uoing studs differ considerably from those required to produce a bolt such as that just described. A stud requires to be screwed at both ends, and it t herefore has to be handled twice. When it is turned from the bar, the first operation is like the finish turning of the bolt, the same kind of tool-holder as that illustrated in Fig. 26 being used, together with an endrounder.
The second operation is to bring up the selfopening die·head to out the screw. A parting-off tool, shaped on its side to round off t he end of the stud and cut it off, is t hen brought forward by the cross.slide. This leaves the studs to size, but they s till have to be screwed at the other end. If this work is done on an automatic machine, a magazine is essential to feed in the studs, but it is a very simple kind of thing for that purpose. The design of t he one fitted by Messrs. Alfred Herbert is illustrated in Fig. 28. This magazine is attached to the guidebar, from which the chuck and stock.feed are usually operated. The chuck-glut is left the same as usual, but the one which works the stock.feed is considerably modified, being provided with a bracket projecting beyond the end of the machine, long enough to allow of sufficient movement to feed the longest piece of work the machine has to accommodate. lt will be noticed that at one side the magazine has an adjustable slide, so that it may be regulated to suit the lengths of the studs that are to be machined. The hopper is inclined at an angle of 16 deg., that the studs may descend by gravity into a guide-block placed at the bottom, which brings them into line with the hole through the centre of the spindle. The action of feeding is identical with that for the solid bars, a pusher.rod advancing and pushing the studs through the spindle ; thus there may be several such $ uds, end on end, between the chuck and the magazine. The illustration is of a hopper in use at the Glasgow Exhibition, on a machine screwing studs 1 in. in diameter and 7 in. long. An automatic machine with the hopper attached is illustrated in Fig. 29, page 641.
The small whirl illustrated in Fig. 30, page 641, is not an easy job for which to arrange the tools. Two automatic machines are required, the first one being large enough to take 1! in. stock. The first operation is to bring forward the tool illustrated in
* It is a more difficult matter to make a. die cub a thread of correct pitch without the a.id of a leader than many may think. The usual error is that the pitch is slightly less than it should be. This may be due to several causae, not the least of which is boo few threads in the die, a.nd that the rea-cting preEsure upon the die· threads which are to give the lead causes them to cut, The rem( dy is obvious.
•
•
540
Fig. 31. This centres the rod, recesses it for a depth of t in., and faces the end.
The obJect of r ecessing with a tool of this kind is to give the drill (Fig. 32) a clear start. This drill has to rapidly remove the metal to a depth of lf in. To keep it cool, and clear the cuttings from the hole, an oil supply is brought through the drill itself, right down to the bottom of t he hole. This drill is held in the shank of a box-tool similar to that in Fig. 25, and there is also a turning tool which is to do the rough turning while the drilling is going on. This completes the second operation.
For the third operation another box-tool carrying the oil-supply counter-bore (Fig. 33), and also the cutter (Fig. 34), is brought round by the turret. These rough out the counter-bore and rough turn the recess. The turret then brings up a plain steady-peg, which enters the bored hole and supports the work, while the roughing formed tool illustrated iu Fig. 35, held in a forward tool-holder, comes up and roughs out the groove and other parts of the exterior.
The final turret position, which corresponds to the fifth operation, brings forward the tool illustrated in Fig. 36. This is a reamer, which has its shank turned and screwed to receive a cutter head and a knurled nut. The cutter-head carries a shaped cutter which finishes the recess, while the reamer finishes the counter. bore to its correct size. The object of the knurled nut is. of course, to adjust the cutter in relation to the reamer. It only remains now for the final operation on the first machine to take p1ace, and that consists in advancing a cut -off tool held in an open-side toolp ost carried on the back of the cross-slide.
The articles have now to be taken to the second machine, and chucked by the ends just finished, so that the opposite end may be turned to shape and screwed. The actual tools for the turning and screwing are quite ordinary, the chief point about the second machine being the arrangement of a magazine feed. The articles are too irregular in shape to be fed from a magazine such as t hat already described for feeding studs through the hollow spindle; consequently they have to be fed into the eh uck from the chuck. end. The arrangement of t he magazine, together with the extra details that have to be fitted to the machine, are illustrated in Fig. 37, page 644. A half-tone view of the machine is given in Fig. 38. The 1nagazine arrangement consists of a horizontal V -shaped trough A, supported upon columns B, over the headstock of t he machine. Within this trough the articles t<> be turned are placed, and they are caused to traverse at the right moment along the trough by t he feed-rod C, and the feeding pawls or catches C1 C1• The movement of the rod is obtained from a cam D, attached to the edge of the cam drum which carries the cams for actuating the chuck and ordinary stock feed. This additional feed - cam does not in any way interfere with ordinary cams mounted upon the drum. A lever E transmits the motion from t he cam to the feed-rod C.
As the trough is a considerable vertical distance a way from t he chu?k- a ma~ter of 9. in. or 10 in.:-a carrier F is prov1ded, whiCh recetves the artiCle from the t rough, and conveys it into a suitable position for it to be push~d. into the chuck. . T~e carrier is attached to a shding head G, G, w h1ch IS
guided verticalJy on the columns H H , and those, in turn are supported by the casting that forms the front end of the trough. The vertical motion of the sliding head is derived. from a cam I, attac~ed to the side of the cross-shde cam. The motwn from the cam is con veyed through a weighted bell-crank lever J, the coupling-rod K, and t he levers L L (see side view). The carrier F is detailed in Fig. S9. Usually, ~rticl~s to be ~urned, such as the whirl under cons1deratwn, proJect somewhat from the chuck after they have been gripped; obviously, then, there .wou~d J:>e a tendenc~ for the carrier to foul t he arttcle 1n 1ts upward JOUrney. It must therefore be made so that it can clear the chucked article. In order to effect this clearance, the carrier is so mounted in the sliding head t hat i t can rotate about the centre line X, X. This effect is produced in the following manner : Calling the t urned part of the carrier which fits into the sliding head the shank, t here is n1ounted upon it at M an annular spurwheel, which is quite free to rotate about the shank. Attached to this wheel is a ratchet pawl N, which engages ratchet t eeth cut upon t he shank it~elf at 0 ; thus, when t he annular spurwheel JS caused to rotate, the pawl
E N G I N E E R I N G. [OcT. I 8, I 901.
will slip over the ratchet teeth if the rotation cause the spurwheel to make half a turn; and when is in one direction, but engage those teeth and it has done so, carrying the carrier with it through with it rotate the carrier if in the opposite the medium of the ratchet, it (the carrier) has direction. Further along t he shank there is a become right side up, the spiral spring at the same spiral spring P, its one end anchored to the sliding t ime being wound up. the spring catch Q acting on head casting, and its other to the carrier shank. t he detent . The feed-rod C pushes an article forIts arrangement in respect of the ratchet is such ward into the carrier, which is then lowered into its that when the carrier is rotated through the medium bottom position. The turret comes forward, and of the annular spurwheel and ratchet, the spring is presents the spring plunger (Fig. 40) to the carrier. put in tension. Provision is made to retain t he This firstly pushes forward the plunger R, and shank with the spring in that condition, when that in turn pushes the work into the chuck. lm-
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it has been so rotated, by the aid of a spring catchbolt Q. If, when the spring is in tension, the bolt Q is pushed inwards, t he catch is released, and the carrier F will rotate t hrough half a revolution ; and its arrangement is such that, when it has been so released, the carrier is upside down. Assuming, then, that the carrier has just been used, and the sliding head is in the lowest position, with the carrier inver ted, by the movement of t he cam I the balance weight lifts up the sliding head G t hrough the lever system. As it does so, the annular spurwheel, bared on its one side, engages a short rack held by a bracket in a convenient position. There are enough teeth in t his rack to
mediately the chuck grips the work, the catch-bolt Q is pushed inwards by the tool in t he turret, and instantly t he carrier, under the action of the spring P, rotates into its inver ted position.
Having described the magazine feed, it only remains to mention t he several operations by which the whirl hi completed. The shape of the whirl is such that, when lying upon its side, it would tilt downwards at one end, and consequently, when in the carrier, it would not point truly to t he chuck. To prevent this, a number of small shoes, as illustrated in Fig. 41, are prepared of malleable iron, shaped so that the article will fit on the top, and that the lower portion will rest steadily in the
•
OcT. 18, 1901.]
carrier. Thes~ little shoes a.re merely required to hold the work In the passage through tho ma.aazine feed; so after the work is in the chuck, and the ~a.rrier becomes inverted, the shoes are dropped Into the tray of the machine, whence they are taken to be used again. The first operation, then, is to fill the tro_ugh _of the magazine with the pieces of work rest1ng In the shoes, from which they are conveyed through the medium of the carrier and ~nto the chuck by the ~pring plunger (Fig. 40) held In the turret.
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ENGINEERING on the screw thread. \Vhen the chuck is opened with tll'e usual chuck motion near the tail end of the spindle, a piece of work such as this whirl does not readily fall out, because the actual chuck movement is so small ; it must therefore be ejected by a rod screwed upon the end of the stock-feed tube, in place of the usual stock c~ ips.
In the March 8, 1901, issue of E NGINEERING, page 318, an inclined turrot lathe made by Messrs. Alfred Herbert, Limited, was illustrated. That machine is exhibited by the firm at their stall at
54! Consider, first., the tools for machining the large
back gear for an 8-in. headstock (see Fig. 42). The chances are that the cored hole is somewhat out of centre, and it is t herefore necessary to put several tools through it to make it perfectly true. l t is usual to use two boring reamers, which bring the hole close to size and very nearly true ; and many people would be content to follow these with a finishing reamer, but if it is desired that the hole should be very accurate, it is necessary to interpose a. boring tool with a single cutting edge,
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For the second operation, a box-tool is brought I the Glasgow Exhibition, 11.nd it may there be seen forward by the turret to do the rough turning. turning up various gear-blanks, such as that illus-
The third tool is s1milar in shape, a~ it finishes trated in Fig. 42, page 544. The machine has been the turned part , and also carries a cutter to form specially designed for working upon castings, and it the recess at that end. The tapered portion has wiJl be of interest to many to know how the tools now to be shaped by bringing up a formed tool held are arranged on such a machine. If anything, the on the front of the cross-slide, during which time a tools on a heavy machine of this kind aro more steady bush, secured in a holder in the turret, simple than those used on the small machines, for supports the end of the whirl that has been turned there are two turrets- a large inclined one for ready for screwing. Without this steady bush it carrying the tools to do the internal machining, and is probable that the work would be wrenched out of a second four-sided one mounted upon the crossthe chuck. I t remains now for a self-opening slide of a separate saddle, for holding the tools to die head to be brought forward by the turret to put turn the exterior.
to accurately trne and size the work, making i t ready for the finishing reamer. With the gear ill question, the series of operat ions are as follow :
Firstly, chuck the casting by the boss in a. three., jaw chuck, and roughly bore the hole with a boring reamer, as illustrated in Fig. 43, heJd in the boring bar-holder detailed in Fig. 44. ' Vith a hole thati has to be finished 2 in. in diameter, this first cut would bring it to within -t~ in. of size. While this first boring operation is being done, the outside is roughly turned and faced with tools held in the square turret.
Secondly, a. similar reamer is brought up to take
•
542
out a second cut, which will bring the hole to within -rb~n in. of its size. At the same time the outside diameter is finished and turned by a tool in the square turret.
Thirdly, if the cored hole was out of centre, the iwo boring reamers will probably have been drawn slightly. To correct that, a boring bar with a single cutter, as in Fig. 45, is used to tak e a sizing cut through the hole. This boring bar is held in a similar bar-holder, attached to t he hexagonal t urret, t o those used for the boring reamers.
Fourthly, the final operation, so far as the hole is concerned, is to ream it out with a shell reamer (Fig . 46) mounted upon a floating holder (Fig. 47) held in the usual kind of fitting upon the t urret. It will be observed that t he reamer holder is to be "floating." This is to enable it to exactly follow t he l.o~e which has been previously bored, so
L
•
E N G I N E E R I N G.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (Continued from page 514.)
TaE PosiTION oF BRITISH CHEl\IISTRY AT THE DAWN OF THE TwENTIETH CENTURY.
IN his address to the Chemical Section, to which we now turn, Professor Percy }.,rankland, P h.D., M.Sc., F.R.S., of the University of Birmingham, dealt with the question : Are we progressing or receding, or are we standing still 1 from the chemical and general educational standpoints. The history of British chemistry, he said, was very remarkable, its achievements were almost entirely the results of private initiative, and the persons who had taken part in making this history were, with some notable exceptions, not servants of the State. Glancing at the 1881 volume, taken at random, of the Chemical Society's JO'l.t'rnal, he found that only 13 of the 75
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avoiding any slight error in the lining of the tools on the turret.
Fifthly, t he face has now to be finished with cutters held in the facing and turning tool-holder illustrated in Fig. 48. 1.'his holder is bol ted to the inclined turret; and, to ease the double tendency to force the casting out of the chuck and to spring the tool-holder, a steady-bar ·(not in drawing) is fitted in the centre of the holder, its end being correctly sized to enter the finished hole in the casting.
Sixthly, the one face of the wheel being finish~d, it. is turned round and re-chucked by the outside diameter, the jaws of the chuck being fitted with soft iron pads for the purpose. The boss and face are now roughly t urned by tools held in the square turret, the same as those used in the first opera-
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side is carried out In the same way and with similar tools to those used in the fifth operation.
(To be continue~.)
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original contributions emanated from Government labora~ories, and, what would surprise the scientific historian of some centuries hence, only four papers came from the '' ancient seats of learning," and three of them were by the same investigator. Giving a list of the opening dates of the university colleges in the United Kingdom, he pointed out that the greater number of these institutions were opened in the decade 1875-1884. They are the colleges of Leeds, Bristol, Nottingham, Sh~ffield, Birmingham, Liverpool, Dundee, ~ar~lff, Bangor, Finsbury, and .the Central Institut10~, all founded without assistance from the pubhc exchequer. During that period the total number of papers in the journal mentioned had shown a marked increase-from 422 to 671. Much work had therefore been done, although the founders and trustees often appeared to have imagined t~at. it was only nec~ssary to provide a spacious building, and to appotnt a s~ff of professors without due regard to the necessity of funds for an~ual up-keep, libraries, and assistance. I t
. had been learnt by bitter experience that the cost of efficiently maintaining institutions of high character was enormously greater than was at first supposed · and if fruitful research work had been done, alm~st from the first, it was due to the almost unaided devotion of the chemist. Such work had been carried on in Owens College, the largest and best equipped school of scienti~c chemistry in the British I sles · at the Y orkshtre College, Leeds ; at Bristol; ~t Mason College, Birmingham ; at
CANADIAN IRBIGA'l'ION.-The Canadian Pacific R~il~ay Company has under construction a. great scheme_ of Jt:rigation for the Canadian North-West. The obJeob 1s ~o con verb several million ac_res of land now dry and artd into good farming and grazmg ~~untry. T~e barr!3n lands lie between Calgary and Medtcme ~at, 1mmed1a~lY: to the north of the railway. The plan mcludes the bU1ldn~« of a dam at Bow River, a mile. east of 9algary. It w1 also be necessary to co~str~ct tnterseotiDg canal~. The rest is to be left to gravitation.
[OcT. 18, 1901.
Dundee ; at Aberystwith ; in the City Guilds Institute ; in some of the polytechnics ; and by the science masters of a few schools. For this devotion he found two interconnected principal causes: the fact that the majority of the chemical teachers had been t rained in Germany, and had been educated in exceptional cases only at the ancient seats of learning. The chemist was unfettered by an English uni varsity record ; he stood or fell by the work of his life, and not, as so many others did, by the reputation they had made in their years of adolescence at one of the ancient universities. The ~pirit of research had, however, now become endemic there also, and Oxford and Cambridge and the universities of Scotland and Ireland now sent a continuous streatn of original communications. Many of the eminent British chemists were to be found among men of leisure and men engaged in industrial pursuits. We should, further, not forget the Rothamsted Laboratory (agricultural), t he Research Laboratory of the P harmaceutical Society, the masterly work of Mr. W. J. Pope at the Goldsmiths' Institute, and the still crystallising University of London.
Much good had been wrought by the Research Scholarships awarded since 1891. The fund came from the surplus of the Exhibition of 1851, producing an annual income of over 6000l., which, on the advice chiefly of Lord P layfair, was spent in scholarships in accordance with the wise regulations of t he Commissioners. Sixty-five chemists, including three women, had already enjoyed t he privileges of these scholarships. Bearing in mind the rooted objections of t his country to expending any public money on higher education, it was marvellous that this money was so being applied instead of being dissipated, in the manner dear to Englishmen, by benefiting to an infinitesimal extent a much larger number of persons. But for the vertebrate character of the Commissioners, the fund would, indeed, in 1887, have been frittered away in grants to provincial museums, to get ''a few more glass cases for the masses to gaze at on wet days and bank holidays. , Professor Frankland then referred to the princely patronage of higher ed ucation by Mr. Carnegie, and to the circumstance that the City of Birmingham is levying a rate in aid of its university, as unquestionable signs of the times and of s~rious awakening. Pointing to notable examples of the best British work in t he field of chemistry, he could not forbear yet from drawing attention to the fact that the Berlin Chemical Society had during the past twenty years been receiving about five times as many original communications as the older London Society. Quoting a line by Schiller, that knowledge is a goddess to one, and to another an excellent cow, he was afraid that even now it was the cow, and not the goddess, that was in request.
In order that t he academic world might attract t he ablest men of ambition as well as the able enthusiast, it was necessary that the highest prizes for academical distinctions should carry similar social prestige, ren1uneration, and opportunities of exerting public influence, as were enjoyed by the leaders of other professional callings, '~ they should be at least equal to those of the Archbishop of Canterbury or of the Lord Chancellor." But the few very moderate prizes which had existed had deliberately been commandeered to more nearly equalise the value of the Chairs in all departments. This principle of equalising t he remuneration was inequitable and utterly unsound from a business point of view. If our Universities were really to be brought abreast of those of other countries, our Chairs should, moreover, be thrown open to the whole world, irrespective of nationality. That plan had been adopted by small nations as well as by the country which is pre-eminent for its academic strength. The electors to British Chairs would urge the linguistic difficulty. But he would appeal to the pupils of August Wilhelm Hofmann, the father of t he Chemical Societies both of London and Berlin, to whose genius British chemistry owed so much, to say whether his stimulating diseourse lost anything of its vigour and inspiration through the strong Hessian accent with which every word was saturated. He hoped that no narrow and short-sighted policy, disguised under that too often misused word " patriotism," would close the doors of our universities to the genius and ability of other nationalities.
One of the most urgent university reforms was, however, that greater facilities should be afforded for the migration of students from one university to
OcT. 18, 1901.]
a.nott er. The prt3sen t system linked the student with chains of s~eel to the university at which he matriculated, and that university was, perhaps, selected by the student's father because he had been t here, though he might be quite out of touch with university matters. Professor Frankland has evidently little sympathy with this sentimental attachment, and there can be no doubt that the freedom with which the Continental st.udent moves from o~e univer~ity to a~o~her in his own count ry, and, w1th certa1n restr1ctwns, all over the Continent, ~o study unde~ .diff~rent masters, is a powerful s ttmulant to or1gmahty and breadth of view. Dr. Frankland further ineists that the period of academic study should forthwith be extended to fi \·e year~ . But proposals were actually being put forward to enable persons attending evening classes to qualify thereby for university degrees. ''Let us beware of introducing the half-time system- a deplorable makeshift, even in the elementary school- -into the university !" That higher education which he urged would cause heavy expenditure, but it could not be left to private generosity. The work would benefit all classes, not only of t his generation, at least as much as the acquisition of territory at a distance of 8000 miles from homP, for which purpose the nation were apparently willing to pay at the rate of I! million sterling per week for an indefinite period. To contend that higher education did not benefit the masses was quite erroneous. The poor had a far greater stake in t he prosperity of our home industries and commerce than the rich, and highe'r education and true universities were among the most {)otent factors in breaking down the hereditary stratification of society.
SOME POINTS IN CHEMI CAL EDUCATION.
Since higher education was the keynote of Professor F rankland's address, this paper, by Professor J oji Sakurai, LL D., of Tokio, J a. pan, which was likewise well received and discussed, finds its proper place here. Considering the vast progr ess general chemical knowledge had made in the last decades, our adherence to the old descriptive way of teaching chemistry was to be deprecated. The author of the paper would arrange for lecture experiments to illustrate the laws of chemical dynamics, the theory of solution, &c., but would dispense wit h a good deal of the descriptive matter, which the student could look up in text-books. Reverting to the controver&y whether atomic weights should be based upon t~e ~tandard 0 ~ 16, the view now taken by the maJOrtty of chemtst~, or upon H = 1, he expressed the opinion that some of the advocates of the latter standard were influenced by the consideration that atomic weights were taught and had to be taught befor~ the student was introduced to molecular weights. That was wrong, however, since actual experiments first gave the student some conception of the molecule. He disapproved also of the term ' ' physical chemistry.,',' for what .he preferred to st~ le '' general chemistry, because 1t was not a spectal branch of chemistry, but the foundation underlying the whole study. His remarks were, on the whole, meant for the pure chemist as well. as f?r t he technical chemist, and concern educatiOn 1n general, because properly-taught chemistry had a high educational valu~. But t~e pr~sent method, with its isolated deta1ls, was httle hkely to attract the student. P art of the fault was due to the fact that t he professors were overburdened with work. Professor Kipping, F .R. S., of Nottingham, afterwards accentuated this point; adequate payment of the assistants was quite as essential as salaries of 2000l. for the professor for which other spe~k~rs pleaded ; therein lay a good deal of the supe~wnty of Continental teaching. Professor Sa.kura1 also expressed the opinion that. the time given to anal~tical practice might be shortened and . su?h deta.tl left to later periods ; a grasp of the.prmct_Ples was of more importance than mere technteal sktll.
These latter remarks were likely to be misunderstood and both Professor Tilden, F . R.S., of Lond~n and Professor Harold Dixon, F .R. S., of Owens 'College, emphasised the necessity . of. a thorough training in qualitative and quant1tahve analysis, without which the st~dent 'Y'ould not acquire the indispensable practical sklll. . They did not encourage research work, therefore, m the early career of the chemist. Professo~ Tilden agreed with the views expressed by the Prestdent and Professor Sakurai concerning the inducements held out to young chemists ; the salaries of professors 9f chemistry were too low.
E N G I N E E R I N G. Dr. E. F . Armstrong, professor of chemistry at
the University of Berlin, pointed out that there seemed to be some misunderstanding about chen1istry teaching in Germany, and Dr. P. J. Ha.rtog, of Owens College, confirmed this. A kind of practical test examination had in some German laboratories to be passed before research work could be entered upon, and in any case experience in qualitative and quantitative analysis, and in preparation work, with which t.he pharmaceutical chemist is expected to be thoroughly familiar, had always to precede research work. Professor W. J. Pope, F.R.S., thought preparation work more suitable for the young chemist than early exercises in physical chemistry, which might lead him (Jff into speculative ground. Professor Frankland adjusted the b311ance by pointing to the changes which analytical laboratory practice had undergone as the fi eld had widened.
THE CoAL-TAR I NDUSTRY.
In this paper, Dr. A. G. Green, of London, gave an interesting review of the relative progrel:!s of the English and German chen1ical industries during the past fifteen years. He had selected the coal-tar industry as his special subject because that industry affected so many other branches and might well be chosen as charc1cteristic. The coaltar industry, the manufacture of aniline dyes, originated in England ; but it did not develop there. Fifteen years ago this country was still supplying the raw materials, though no longer holding its own.. Then Germany learnt to secure the byproducts of coke ovens, which were a novelty for that country, and its chemical manufactures took a rapid 'rise in generaL The value of German chemical production was estimated at 47,500,000l. in 1897 ; the coal-tar industry alone probably might be valued at 10,000,000l. In 1885 Germany exported 4646 tons of coal-tar colours; in 1899, 17,639 tons ; in 1895 theEe ex ports represent ed a value of 3,500,000l. These figures did not include alizarine. The German coal-tar colour industry was concentrated in six large firms. Together these firms commanded a capital of over 2,500,000l. ; they employed E.ome 500 chemists, 350 engineers, 1360 clerks and other officials, and 18,000 labourers. The example of the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik, of Lud wigshafen, has so often been quoted that the repetition of their figures may almost appear tedious. In the years 1896 to 1900 the number of their employes had gone up from 4800 to 6735, including 148 chemists and 76 engineers ; and their capital-900,000l. in 1889-has almost been doubled. The benevolent institutions of the works spent almost 15, OOOl. in 1899. Exact figures concerning England were difficult to obtain ; but hardly more than 500, OOOl. were invested in the British coal-tar trade, and not more than 30 or 40 chemists and 1000 men were employed altogether. The export and import figures compiled by Dr. Green are very instructive. In 1890 England exported tar colours to the value of 530,000l., in 1900 only 360,000l. ; whilst the imports had gone up from 509,00dl. in 1886 to 720,000l. in 1900. The Bradford Dye,rs' Association used 10 per cent. of British-made colour s ; 80 per cent. of German make, 4 per cent. of Swiss make, and 6 per cent. of F rench make. Dr. Green also pointed to the indirect advantages which this splendid development conferred on Germany ; that stimulus to scientific research was lost to England, and the cause of the decadence was the apathy towards higher education. Dr. Green finally referred to the success achieved by German chemists in the preparation of artificial indigo to the ruin of the Indian growers of this dye, and to other chemical industries which were threatened. Glasgow had to listen to many a note of warning during the time of the Engineering Uonference and the British Association, notwithstanding her successful Exhibition.
DuTY-FREE ALcoHoL. In this paper Dr. W. T. Lawrence, of Dorking,
advocated, not a general abolition of the duty upon alcohol, but a remission of the duty paid by chemical colleges for alcohol used in their laboratories. Such duties were remitted in other countries, and the matter was by no means too insignificant to be discussed. Owens College, Manchester, paid about 50l. annually, and that was a large item for the funds of many technical colleges, and crippled research work. The student who wants alcohol in any large quantity has some-
543 times to recoYer his alcohol by redistill-ition, and might better employ his time. Professor Thorpe, F.R.S., had a difficult position as chief of a Government laboratory in opening the discussion. While fully sympathising with the proposal, he could not help pointing out that the country must be protected against any evasion of the law. Foreign countries taxed a multitude of things; here the public expenditure had to be covered by raising duty on a few articles, among which tobacco and alcohol had been classed for good reasons. Methylated spirit was, moreover, essentially alcohol, and its small percentage of methyl alcohol did not render it unfit for many laboratory purposes. After Professor A. Michs,el, of Boston, had mentioned that the United States remitted the duty paid, on the request made by the President of the Intitution, the Section agreed to a motion, proposed by Professors W. H. Parkins, Jun., and H. Dixon, to appoint a committee with the object of petitioning the Treasury concerning the removal of this hindrance
I
to research.
E sTIMATION OF ARSENI C IN B EER AND FooD A RTI CLES.
Mr. W. Thomson, F.R.S.E., of the Royal Institution Laboratory, Manchester, brought this question before the Section. Malt was dried on wire cloth or perforated t iles by the gases from a large coke or anthracite fire in the room underneath. Coke contained more arsenic than anthracite, and coke was generally employed in the Manchester district, which had suffered most under the terrible disease of last year. Scotland, where comparatively more alcohol was consumed as whiskey, had been almost free from t he so-called alcoholic neuritis. Arsenic and alcohol seemed to have a very deleterious comoined effect. For the .detection of arsenic he recommended to destroy all organic matter by nitric acid and a little sulphuric acid, and finally to apply J\1arsh's test. preventing the separation of the "arsenic mirrors" in two rings, which sometimes occurred by passing a little ether or petroleum vapour through the apparatus. As he had found arsenic in every sample of malt he had examined, and believed that this contamination of beers must have gone on for decades, he proposed that the Royal Commission should limit the quantity of arsenic that could be tolerated. No appreciable trace of arsenic should be found in 50 cubic centimetres of beer (a small wineglassful), but he admitted that this rule would condemn almost all English beers. The methods of malt-drying could be improved, however, by adopting a roasting process.
Mr. H. Stopes, of Hampstead Heath, protested in indignant terms against the improper remarks about drying malt. Air-dried malt was not palatable; contact between the combustion products and the mal~ was indispens~ble ; but he had constructed a double-floor kiln in which contamination with arsenic was not to be feared. The fault rested not with the malt, but with the · 60 or 70 per cent. of substitu tes employed. Glucose contained arsenic and sugar, and was further mixed with antiseptics, salicylic acid, boracic acid, formalin, &c., and other injurious ingredients. The best BaYat i~n beer was brewed from malt only, and the glucose beer of Manchester was the worst beer known. Mr. Thomson stated in reply that he had found many sugars free from arsenic, and that his analytical process would destroy kakody 1 and other organic arsenic compounds about which he had been interpellated. Why not brew beer altogether from sugar 1 interposed Mr. Stopes. Mr. Thomson saw no objection.
Professor Adrian Brown read a. paper on '' Enzyme Action," concerning the disputed character of the action of invertase and other inorganic fer· menta.
THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF MXTALS.
Mr. G. T. Beilby, of Slateford, Midlothian, stated in this important paper that, according to microscopic examinations of metallic surfaces produced by breaking, tearing, filing, rolling, drawing, hammering, or polishing, metals appear in two forms: (a) as minute scales; (b) as a transparent, glass-like substance. These two forms of metal substance occur in all the metals examined, including gold, silver, platinum, cobalt, nickel, chromium, iron, copper, lead, bismuth, antimony, tin, cadmium, magnesium, aluminium, and zinc; further, in the zinc and tin alloys of copper, and in galena.. The forms of the metal substance do not appear to de-
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pend in any way on the particular mechanical or thermal treatment to which the metal has been subjected. The scales of (a) do not vary much in size in the different metals ; the diameters range between a~n and 4~u- millimetre, the thickness i~ probably less than 1 .f0 u-millimetre. Form (b) is seen as a transparent film on metal surfaces which have been exposed to pressure. These films have characteristic colours ; gold appears green, iron and platinum blue, nickel olive green, copper red. When the metal is pressed or hammered upon a hard polished surface, or a mirror polish is produced, the scales (a) pass into the form (b). Files or cutting tools also leave the cut covered with a more or less continuous film of (b). The scales (a) are seen im bedded in this film by reflected light, but sometimes the film (b) is too thick and the colour too deep for this examination; the actual thickness of the films had not yet been established. The transparent film (b) can again be converted back into (et) by mechanical or cheiJU.cal means. The persistence of the scales (a) under all kinds of mechanical and thermal treatment, the remarkable uniformity of their size and appearance in crystalline metals like bismuth as well
as in malleable metals, thair reappearance from the form (b) -apparent ly unchanged, seem to afford fair ground for the conjecture that they represent in some way definite units in the structures of metals. · -
A further paper on the
ACTION OF AID!ONI.A ON MET AT.S AT H IGHER TEMPERATURES,
•
by Dr. G. G. H enderson and Mr. Beilby, was, un-fortunately, crowded out. The noble metals and copper, iron, nickel, and cobalt became completely disintegrated when t reated with ammonia at temperatures up to 900 deg. Cent., the ammonia being decomposed during the action, which is remarkably quick. Iron and copper rods, t in. in diamet er, were completely penetrated to the centre in thirty minutes, and the disintegration went on almost indefinitely afterwards. Oopper was reduced to a fine spongy powder in eight days ; platinum became covered with platinum black; malleable iron tubes became brittle like porcelain when treated with ammonia at 800 deg, Oent. for a week. The authors ascribe this brittleness and similar effectsgenerally attributed bo other elements- to the pre-
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sence of nitrogen. The action of the ammonia would ha explained by the alternate formation and dissociation of nitrites.
THE NATURE OF ALLOYS.
Messrs. F. H. Neville, M.A., F.R.S., and C. T. Heyc3ck, M.A., F.R.S., both of Cambridge, reported on behalf of this Committee that they are engaged in a verification of Roozeboom's theory of solid solution in its application to copper-tin alloys. When these alloys are cooled from a temperature at which they are completely liquid, evolution of heat is observed not only at the freezing point, but also at one or more temperatures far below that of solidification. This is well seen in the cooling curves of Sir William Roberts-Ausben and Dr. Stansfield. The present paper concerns the temperature regions between the solidus and liquidus curves of Roozeboom, and a. new method of obtaining records of the structure of alloys at different stages by cooling them slowly and then chilling them, by dropping the alloy into water. When an alloy had solidified before the moment of chilling, the subsequent changes were generally very minute, often sub-microscopic. The chilling seemed to admit of distinguishing the large-scale structures (primary combs) already existing from the minute structures formed during or after the chilling. The paper could not profitably be abstracted without going into details and reproducing diagrams.
Professor Willy Marckwald, of Berlin, gave a demonstration on
RADIUM,
one of the most radio-active metals, whose radiations or emanations penetrate through metals, though the loss of mass is inappreciable, and infect everything in the laboratories in which the experiments are conducted.
Two papers, one by Dr. J . H . Gla.dstone, F.R.S., and Mr. G. Gladstone, on the "Hydration of Tin, including the Action of Light." and the other by Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. J . Hibbert on ''Transitional Forms between Colloids and Crystalloids," deal with a different aspect of the problems concerning the state of aggregation.
•
SALT SEPARATION AND OcEANIC SALT DEPOSITS.
In this paper Dr. E. F . Armstrong, professor of chemistry at the Berlin University, explained the Application of the Equilibrium Law to Salt Separation and the Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits, and described a model exemplifying the Emccessive changes observed when mixed inorganic salt solutions are gradually concentrated. Nature affords us many examples of drying-up or dried-up sea basins, which help us not only to crude table salt, but also to Glauber salt (e.g , in the J{ara. Bugas Bay of the Caspian Sea), and other products. If the compositions of such natural solutions are known, Dr. Armstrong's model would show us the order and the relative amounts in which those salts will be deposited.
DISTRIBUTION OF CHLORINE IN Y ORB: SHIRE.
Mr. W. Ackroyd, of Halib.x, read a su pplementary paper on this .subject, which he brough.t before the Bradford meeting last year. The ehlonne contents of the river water increase as we go from sources of t he rivers in the west and north-west to the east and south-east, where, in the Chalk W olds, the upturned edges of the. ch~lk ~b.sorbs a. vast amount of rain water, wh1eh Is utilised by many communities in the East Riding. The increase is from 0. 7 or 1 . part i~ 100,000 to 1. 7 or 2 pa.~ts . The normal chlorine IS affected by manufa.cturmg centres, and high winds from the sea send up the chlorine figures for the rainfall. A second paper,
THE INVERSE RELATION OF CHI.ORINE TO .RAINFALL,
deals with an interesting, and so far over-looked, feature. Sea breezes, Mr. Ackroyd points out, are ~a~t laden. A. Ga.utier has found as much as 22 milhgrammes of salt per cubic metre .of air, ~nd this invisible salt is washed down aga.1n by rains, and returned to the sea. Minimum amounts of rainfall are marked by maxima of chlorine .contents in the rain water and vice ve1·sd. Bellucci has calculated that 38 lb. of sea salt are deposit~d every year per acre at Perugia. Ita~y, 75 .mtles from t~e coast ; and in the Pennine Htlls the deposit from the Irish Sea. would amount to 172 lb. per acre. Thus inland lakes may o~e much . of their salt to t he sea. As the evaporatiOn of basins
•
E N G I N E E R I N G. without outlet, like the Dead Sea, proceeds, sodium chloride would be deposited, while the more soluble magnesium chloride and the bromides remain in solution and become more and more concentrated. In this way Mr. Ackroyd accounts for the high percentage of bromides in the Dead Sea. ; bromide springs are not known in the district. Some salt is also brought to the lakes by solvent denudation of the soil. Considering, however, that there is only one atom of chlorine to 417 of sodium in the earth's crust, and 1 of chlorine to 3 of sodium in river water, the author concludes, from observations made in Yorkshire. that tbe cyclic sea-salt circulation forms an important factor in the physiography of the earth. This aspect of the question he discussed in the Geological Section.
SEW AGE BACTERIA. BEDS.
Professor Letts, D.Sc., and Mr. R. F. Blake, of Belfast, dealt in this paper with the Chemical and Biological Changes occurring during the Treatment of Sewage by the so· called Bacteria Beds. These beds were supposed to act as oxidising agents, absorbing oxygen from the air during the rest, and transferring it afterwards to the sewage when the beds are filled, the transfer being effected by the micro-organisms which established themselves on the surface of the beds. These organisms were generally regarded as nitrifying microbes. The authors find, however, that only small quantities of nitrates and nitrites are produced in relation to the unoxidised nitrogen disappearing, the percentages being 39 for Manchester, 15 for Sutton, and 7 for Leeds sewage. The greater portion of the nitrogen must therefore disappear in some other form, and might escape as nitrogen or an oxide of nitrogen (chemical change), or be absorbed into the tissues of animals or vegetables, which might remain permanently in the beds (biological change). Analyses of the original sewage and of the effluents showed the absence of oxygen in either substance, and an increase in carbonic acid gas while the sewage was on the beds, and also an increase in the nitrogen; most of the nitrogen would, however, appear to escape. As regards the biological explanation, most bacteria beds swarmed with worms and minute insects, some of them forming a thick layer resembling soot on the effluent.
Dr. Glaister, of Glasgow, was not satisfied with these investigations ; the age of the bed had certainly to be considered. Dr. S. Rideal, of Westminster, also spoke on the paper, which suitably introduced his own on .
HUMUS, AND THE IRREDUCIBLE RESIDUE IN THE TREATlt1ENI' OF SEWAGE.
The term ' ' humus," Dr. Rideal explained, is very comprehensive. The primary nucleus of these substances was probably non-nitrogenous, as they could be obtained from sugar and other nonnitrogenous materials by the action of heat, acids, or alkalies ; most humus, however, did contain nitrogen. After reviewing the extensive, but not very satisfactory, literature on the subject, Dr. Rideal gave analyses of the residues from the bacterial treatment of the Exeter septic tank, the first contact bed of Hampton, and the black floatina particles from. Stodda.rt's continuous filter at K;owle, Bristol, 'as well as of estuary mud. The small quantity of peaty deposit, called burntout ash by Cameron, but more generally known as irreducible residue, was of the nature of a. humus, practically inoffen!i>i v~, and of. a~ricultura.l value. Like peaty ~att~rs 1n general,, 1t .ent:our~ge~ the nitrifying actiOn In the fi~al ~x1dat10n? bemg 1tse~f slowly oxidised to carbonic aCid and nttrate. This humus would partly account for Dr. Letts's loss of nitrogen.
' S uLPHURIC AciD AS A TYPII · ID DisiNFECTANT.
In his second paper Dr. Hideal rem~rked that, as it was known that a small quantity of sulphuric acid inhibited the growth of the bacillus typhosus, the recent outbreak of typhoid in South Africa had induced him and Dr. Pa.rkes, of Chelsea, to look for some chemical, mineral or organic acids or salts which would sterilise potable water for soldiers in the field. Lime or carbonates were quite unsuitable ; sulphuric acid and the acid sulphate of sodium, which would be preferable as mor.e portable proved suitable ; one gramme of the bisulphate' would render a pint of water safe from typhoid infection after 15 min~tes' conta:ct.. As regards the disinfection of typhoid st.ools .In Isolation hospital£~, 3 grammes of sulphunc aCid would
[OcT. 18, 19or.
be required per gallon to neutralise the alkalinity of the sewage ; and one more gramme would kill the typhoid germ. Profe~sor Letts added that sulphuric acid was undoubtedly a remedy against diarrhce11.
THE Nol\IENCLA.TURE OF THE IoNs .
In this p~per Professor J. Walker, F.R.S , of Dundee, proposed definite affixes for distinguishing the electrolytic ions as derived from various compounds. Thus kations would be marked by the simple ending ion, as sodion, barion, &o., dots over the symbol indicating the number of electric charges carried, one dot for Na, two for Ba, two for diferrion (from ferrous salts), three for triferrion (from ferric salts), &c. The ending anion, with dashes, would indicate that the ion is derived from an oxide salt-a. sulphate, e.g., would give sulpha.nion SO;', osions like SO~" would be derived from sulphites, idions like S ' from sulphides. Complex ions would be hydroca.rbanion HC03' ,
and dihydrophosphanion H 2 P 0 4" , &c. Both Professor Frankland and Professor Divers, F.R.S., of J{ensington, recommended some such terms. If they had been adopted in the earlier days, the gross misunderstanding between free sodium ions which we assume to exist in solutions of common salt, and sodium atoms, might possibly not have arisen, as Professor Walker justly remarked ; last year's discussion on ions at Bradford afforded a rather sad example. Professor Ostwald having approved of the use of these terms for a new translation of some of his writings, they are likely to come into general use.
ELECTROLYTIC CoNDUCTIVITY oF HALoGEN A c iD SoLUTIONs.
This communication by Dr. J. Gibson, of Edinburgh, concerns solutions of hydroiodic, hydrobromic and hydrochloric acids at high concentrations. The acids possess a maximum conductivity for a certain concentration, and stronger and weaker acids differ notably in their chemical properties. The author has, however, succeeded in calculating the conductivity of the concentrated acid from experiments on dilute acids.
Dr. Farmer read a paper on ''Methods of Determining the Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salts. "
Dr. T. R. Pa.tterson discussed the " Influence of Solvents on the Rotation of Optically Active Compounds."
THE FLAME CoLORATION AND SPECTRmi OF NICKEL CoMPOUNDS.
Dr. P. J. Ha.rtog announced an observation of his, which, as Professor Smithells, F. R . S., of Leeds, afterwards remarked, did not appear to have been made before, although nickel salts had been experimented with for years. Dr. Hartog noticed that nickel acetate imparts to the Bunsen flame a. momentary purple tinge, which then gives way to a. persistent red coloration. When the flame is divided in a Smithells' burner, the inner cone shows these colours; whether they are due to nickel seems somewhat uncertain.
THE GENESIS OF MATTER.
Professor Arthur Michael, of Boston, Mass., argued in this paper t'hat, at the birth of matter, two forms of protyle corpuscles might have existed of opposite polarity, and ~ndowed with the sum total of their chemical energy. Besides chemical affinity, he only needed gravitational energy. The original particles would be at or near absolute zero temperature. Gravitation would bring the particles together until the chemical affinities came into play, and the particles combined under enormous evolution of heat. As non-metals had a greater power of resisting heat than metals, he imagined that non-metals would be formed before metals. Professor Micha.el also contributed a. pn.per on ''The Process of Substitution," in which he took the view that chemical substitution might be a re-arrangement of molecular grouping in accordance with chemical affinities ; o.nd a third paper on the '' Three Stereomeric Cinnamic Acids."
SPEOTROSOOl'Y.
Of the Committee Reports placed before the meeting, we mention in the first i~stance those on the "Relation between the AbsorptiOn Spectra and the Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances," containing paper~ by Professor W. N. H a.rtley, F.R.S., Dr. J. J. Dobbie and Mr. Alex. Lauder, B.Sc., and by Messrs. Lemoult, Camichel, and Bayrac,
•
Ocr. r8, rgo1.]
and a long table of the substances whose absorption spectra have, so far, been studied. Further, the fifth and last report on the "Bibliography of Spectroscopy., Professor McLeod is Chairman, and Sir \rV. 0. Roberts-Austen is Secretary of this Committee, which issued its first report in 1881, and now leaves the tnatter in the hands of the compilers of the "International Catalogue of Scientific Papers. ,
There is also the report on" Wave-Length Tables of the Spectra of Eleme11ts,, and reports were presented by the Committees on '' Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives , and on "Isomorphous Benzene Derivatives."
A very comprehensive and instructive report on the " tructure of Orystals,, drawn up by Mr. W. Darlow, of Great Stanmore, and Professor H. A . l\1iers, of Oxford, was presented to the Geoloaical Section. "
Pressure on our columns has prevented our noticing a number of mathematical, physical, and chemical papers.
(To be continued.)
THE NEW SUBWAY IN NEW YORK CITY.
BY C.eu.rttES P&ELINI, C.E., New York. (Continued front page 510.)
'J~UE first section of the subway, extending from the City Hall to Chambers-street, was sublet to the Degnon McClean Contracting Company. The general plan called for a loop round the Post Office, with a station in Broad way and Barclay-street. It was intended that the loop should be doubled-decked, the lower tracks being for express trains ; but when the Rapid Transit Commission was authorized to extend the road over to Brooklyn, the increased facilities thus offered for the passage of trains led to the adoption of a simpler plan. The subway now makes a smaller loop (Fig. 33, page 456) under City Hall Park for switching the local trains, while the expresses will effect their switching in a straight line under Park-row, where the subway is provided with four tracks. From this point, it will bs continued to Broadway and South Ferry, whence it will reach Brooklyn by means of a tunnel under the East River. In consequence of this extension, the present subway really begins at Centre-street Station, near the entrance to the Brooklyn Bridge.
The plane of the loop rails is 40 ft. below the surface near the south-east corner of the City Hall ; it then descends gradually, reaching its lowest grade at Park-row, just at the en,d of Mailstreet. The loop-line then passes under the four tracks of the main line, after which it begins to curve upward, until it again reaches the grade of the subway at Bridge Station. This single.track line, passing under the south-east corner of ~he City Hall, widens out 4;o make room for a ~tat10n with a single platform for the accommoda~10n of passengers. Here passengers may get tra.tns for the Bridge Subway Station, whence ~hey may continue on the north-bound local tra.u1s, or be transferred to the north-bound ex press trains.
This single-platform station will be the principal feature of the loop as well as one of the most attractive points of the whole subway. The lo?p near t.he City Hall follows a regular curve, whtle the outer line of the platform follows a curve concentric with the loop, but of longer radius. Th.e single-track line is covered. by. concrete .se!Dtcircular arches, and the stat10n ttself by stmtlar arches of greater span, ~pringing up from the same inner line of the loop (~'ig. 35). By Mr. Parsons' direction these arches were built so as to rest between ribs, which in turn lie radially to the curve . The contrast of these complicate~ arches and vaults, springing from different potnts and running in different directions, nat~rally suggested the idea of a Romanesqufl decoratiOn, so that all the arches and Yaults within the station are orna.mented with tiles of various colours artistically arranged in accordance with t~e Ro.manesque style of architecture. As the statiOn wtll at all hours be lighted electrically, we can imagine the fine effect produced by reflection from the polished surfaces of the enamelled tiles. The subway will be reached by a straight and ornamental staircase built on City Ifall Park, near Broadway. .
The soil in the first section of the subway 1s loose being composed chiefly of loam with a bank of sa~d underneath. Various methode have been employed in its construction~
E N G I N E E R I N G. The excavation for the loop around Oity Hall
Park is carried on by the open-tunnel method, the sides of the tunnel being supported by sheeting planks which are held together by horizontal beams laid parallel to the line of the road, the horizontal beams being kept in place by crossbeams. The earth is r emoved by pick and shovel, and raised by means of stiff-legged derricks of ordinary construction, operated by compressed air.
The loop is lined with concrete in the following manner. On the floor of the excavation is laid a stratum of well-rammed concrete, 4 in. in depth, then waterproofing, followed by another layer of concrete, 1 ft. deep. The side walls are built of concrete, 2 ft. 9 in. wide, while the semi-circular arch is also of concrete, 15 in. thick at the crown, and strengthened at the branches by concrete work sloping down from the crown. The waterproofing of the lower stratum of the foundation floor is turned along the sheeting planks, which will remain in the ground, and then above the extrados of the arch, t hus forming an impervious cover all round, which must keep the entire structure perfectly dry.
The specification requires that the waterproofing sha.ll be done as follows : On the upper surface of a bed of concrete, made as level and smooth as po~sible, there shall be spread a l~yer of asphalt, and on such asphalt there shall be immediately laid sheets or rolls of felt ; another layer of hot asphalt shall be laid over the felt ; another layer of felt, and so on until not less than two such layers of felt nor more than six be laid with asphalt between each layer below and on top. The felt shall bo composed of asbestos or other equally nonperishable material dipped in asphalt and weighing not less than 10 lb. to the square of 100 ft.
The single-track arched line near the east end of Mail-street will pass under the four tracks of the subway built along and under Park-row, at a box section formed of steel beams and corrugated iron roof, lined and filled in with concrete. After passing the four tracks, the loop will resume its semi-circular section ; and, travelling upwards, will again become part of the standard four-track subway near the Bridge Station.
On account of the great traffic on Park-row and at the foot of Brooklyn Bridge a. portion of the four-track line, extending at present to a point opposite Ann ·street, but to be continued later to Broadway, is built without interfering with the heavy traffic of the street. On both sides of the four surface car tracks open ~uts have been made, with small narrow headings excavated cross-wise. As soon as these headings are entirely opened under the tracks of the surface car, " needles , or beams-14 in. by 14 in.-are placed across, being temporarily supported by small timbers and wedges resting upon the unexcavated earth. Then shafts 6 ft. by 6ft. are sunk under each end of every needle, and when the plane of the foundation of the proposed subway has been reached, vertical columns or props 12 in. by 12 in. are placed in the shafts to support the ends of the needles, whilst in the middle they are supported by temporary timbers. The earth is then removed from both sides towards the centre, and more props inserted until, when the earth has been entirely removed, each needle is supported by five props. The needles are placed 10 ft. apart.
It is only when all the earth has been removed from under the car tracks, and the road well supported by the needles and props, that the construction of the subway begins, with a concrete foundation bed covered with waterproofing. On this is laid a thick stratum of concrete, in which are embedded the foot-blocks of the steel bents. The bents are then put in position, after which the concrete arches are begun. On the steel beams, small pillars of brick masonry are afterwards built, and it is these pillars that hold up the surface road while the needles are being removed. All the spaces are afterwards filled in with well-rammed earth, so as to form one continuous mass with the roof of the subway, thereby preventing any sinking.
All the work is done by pick and shovel, and as the soil is loose and the traffic on the road heavy, the headings or shafts are heavily timbered the moment a portion of the earth is taken away. The earth is removed from the open cut at the east side of P ink-row by means of a stift'-legged derrick, and from the cut on the west side of Park·row as well as from the edge of City Hall Park, by ~ cableway not mor~ t~an 250 ft. in sp~n, operated by a LidgenTood h01shng and conveymg
•
547 engine. The engines of the derrick and those of the cableway are operated by compressed air.
The Bridge Station, so named on account of its proximity to the entrance of the Brooklyn Bridge, will be one of the most important of the entire subway. It will serve both for express and local t rains ; the former will have island and the latter side platforms. It will be similar in principle to the other express-train stations, such as at 14th, 42nd, 59th, and 95th ~treets. As the work has not yet been begun, it calls for no description at present.
(To be continued. )
NOTES FROM THE UNITED STATES. PniLADEI,'PHIA, October 10.
TnE developments in the steel industry of the past few days have been surprising to both buyers and sellers, particularly with reference to the volume of inquiry for 1902. This ha.s special reference to the steel rail demand, which from all evidences will vastly exceed the requirements of the current year. The construction for the past twelve months' fiscal year foot up 4600 miles. The construction work for the main line work will be still heavier, and a larger demand will come from sidings, repairs, branch lines, and the like, the aggregate of which can now only be guessed at . Six or seven new main lines are now being projected, the surveys for which are being brought to a close. One of these is Senator Clark's new roa.d between Salt Lake and Los Angeles. The new English road across lYiexico is another. Our Burliogton ro9.d is fighting its way into the north-west. Instances of this kind could be multiplied. There are also urgent inquiries for engines, cars, and general railway equipment during the past few days, which further indicates that the pressure for equipment as well a.s machinery and electrical supplies for power-houses of trolley lines will assume a larger magnitude than w~s figured out as recently as a month ago. Outside of steel rai1s the entire market is very strong, and an actual advance in quotations in some lines has been made. We are expecting in a. few days 1100 tons of sheet iron from Belgium a.s a result of the recent strike. This is only one of a number of eh ipments from abroad, but apart from this the American mills will be able to take care of their customers. Some of the mills of McKeesport are obliged to run on Sundays to keep up. The American Bridge Company is now energetically consolidating its scattered bridge-building plants a.t Pittsburgh. Within seven days four new and extensive steel works have been projected. In fact, it looks as though the fever of expansion had seized steelmakers, and it would be easy to sound the alarm that this fever of expansion is carrying producers too far. That remains to be seen. There is a.n urgent demand for all kinds of bar iron, scalp, and muck bars as well as bissick and Beesemer bars. The outlook is most lfa.vourc~.ble for continued and most profitable activity, and it is improbable that this statement will have to be modified for a long time to come.
S&WAOE AT BRADI<'ORD.-At the Bradford Town H&ll, on Monday, arbitration proceedings took place with reference to a claim of Mr. W. Watson against the Brad· ford Town Council for 500l. The Mayor (Mr. W. C. Luptoo) was the arbitrator; and Mr. T. T. Pa.ine, of London, sa.t with him a.s legal assessor. Mr. Wabson'e oa~e was, that by agreement dated July 27, 1899, he under· took to carry out certain experiments in sewage treatment a.t the corporation works at Frizioghall, to trea.b 77,000 gallons per day for a. pe~iod of 60 days, to prod1:1ce an effluent equal to that produced by the corpora.tton treatment~ and to use in ce.rrying oub this treatment one· tenth of tne space ocoupied by the corporation in treating a similar quantity. If the work was oa.rried out to its se.tisfacbion, the corporation was bound to pA.y Mr. Watson 500l., or the matter was to be referred to the Mayor as arbitra.tor. A great ma~s of eviden~e was given pro and con. The award w1ll be made m due course.
THE YORKSHIRE COLLEGE ENOINEERING SOCIETY, LEEDa.-The sixteenth session was opened on Monday, the 14th inst., when ProfessorGoodman delivered a lecture on the" Life and Work of John Eriosson," who was born in the Swedish province of Vermland in 1803. As a boy he worked on the Gotha Canal. He early showed con• siderable ability, and made a name through his mechanical devices. He joined the Swedish army, where he ma{}e a study of artillery. Subseque~tly ~e c~:~.me to England, entering theserVlce of Mr: Bra.1t~wa1te, wh_o sn~seque~tly took him into partnersh1p. HIS mecham~al ~vent1?ne and improvements were many and var1ed, moludmg amongst them the stea.m fire engine, the deep-sea lead, and the screw propeller. He entered for a 600t. _prize in a Iocomoti ve competition, coming in second, after Stephenson. He succeeded in running his en~ne a.t the rate of 60 miles per hour. In 1839, John Encsac;m went to the U nited States, where he ma.de t~e first bu1lt-up gu~. '.rhe ship Monitor, which played _so 1mpor~ant ~ part m ~he American Oi vil War, was built from hl8 destgns. He d1ed at the age of 86.
OcT. 18, xgo1.] •
E N G I N E E R I N G. 549
HIGH-C PACITY RAILWAY WAGONS.
CON~ TRUCTED BY THE DARLI GTON \V A :rON AND l~NGINEERING CO~IPANY, LIMITED, DARLING TON .
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cylinder through the central aper ture. The vaporiser is so designed as to completely vapor ise the oil during its flow by gravitation from the oil receiver. 1'he supply of oil may be regulated by the governor and adjusted by hand, the vaporiser always being at atmospheric pressure and in communication with the cylinder through a pipe having a simple non-return vt~.lve situated therein. T he air required for combust ion is drawn through the same valve, and the quantity regulated by hand adjustment.
Figs. 4, 5, and 6 give three views of the governor on this motor, from which it will be seen that the governor is of the inertia type acting on a throttle Yalve. Exact adjustment is not necessary, as the engine works well between wide limits of adjustment. The exhaustion of the products of combustion is effdcled by means of a valve on t he £ame axis as the cylinder, and paseiog through the vaporiser.
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The er gine exhi bited will develop 20 brake horse-· capacity of veh icles, and stated his opinion that power ; the consumption, we are informed, being one " so long as the present light trains, with large pint of piraffin per hor~e·power per hour. propor tion of de9.dweight, and costly repairs and
renewah prevail, so long will English r9.ilways find it impossible to handle heA.vy freigh t in volume at low rates." WAGONS OF HIGH CAPACITY F OR
BRITISH RAIL vV AYS. D uRINO the past four years Messrs. Sheffield and
Twinberrow, civil engineers, of Newoastle-on-Tyne, have devoted much attention to the reduction of the cost of t ransport by rail; contribut ions dealing more especially w1t h the working of mineral traffic have appeared in E NG I NEERING, June 9, 1899, and November 23 aod 30, 1900. Mr. Twinberrow also contributed to the .Minutes of P roceedings of the Insti tution of Civil Engineers in 1888 a paper on "Flexible ~Theelbases of Railway Rolling Stock," in which he drew attention to the economies to be effected by increasing the
Believing that many owners of rolling &tock would welcome the introduction of larger units if the regulations of the Rail way Clearing House- which practically confine them to the use of 10-ton wagonswere modified , they determined to teat the matter by the constr uction of some pattern vehicles. They accordingly arranged with the Da.rlington Wagon and Engineering CompJ.ny, Limited, for building the wagons shown by t he engravings above. These vehicles have now been examined by a number of railway experts, and were promptly approved by the officers of the North-Eg,stern Railway for traffic ex-
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perimentally on their lines. The wagons are of two types-the one is fitted with double hoppers with steep slopes a~ranged so a.~ tol be self-clearing, with the ~east P?~stble expense 1n unloading, the other is p_roVIded wtth a fiat floor of * in. plates and ordinary ~1de d?ors, though end or bottom doors may be fitted 1f destred.
In preparing the designs it was determined to employ_ standard rolling-mill shapes and fiat plates ex: clu~mg as far as possible special pressed forms' and s~u~hed work, thus facilitating manufacture and provtdmg_ for the prompt and easy renewal of damaaed p_arts 1n th~ course of maintenance ; it was also ;on~tdered destrable that all material necessary for holdt~g. ~he load should contribute to the strength and rtgtd~ty of the atruct~re. The separate underframe was m conseque~ce dtspensed with, the sides being formed as pla.t.e gtrders, connected by main transoms over each bogte and by head stocks of channel section · the fiat floor ~s also supported by lighter intermedia.t; transoms restmg on angle brackets riveted inside the sills and firmly united to the vertical stanchions forming the stiffeners of the sides. The end plates of the hoppers a;e united by long~tudinal members formed of two plates rtveted together m the form of a. wedge with the apex vertical, affording a pa_ssa~e beneath them for the passage of brake pull rods, tram ptpes, &c. The external staying of t~e ends of the hoppers is clearly shown, the two hortzontal a~gles which run back from the footplate over the m&In transoms to the sloped plates are intended to receive the cylinder of the power brakes ~hen such are adopted, as will probably be the case ID ~uture. The. r~vets are closely pitched throughout to ~nsu~e close JOints for ~he purpose of avoiding corrosiOn. ID _parts not accesstble to the paint brush; the ma.tertal 1s cleaned of adherent scale by dipping and scratch-brushing before painting.
The doors of the hopper wagon are moved horizo.ntally by means of wire ropes and a small handwmch ; they are mounted on large rollers which are accessible fo.r lubrication and are so plac~d as to be free from grit or dust from the load. Their security un~er loa~ does ~ot depend upon any form of latch which mtg.ht fail through improper replacement or. by ac01de~t, the degree of opening may be adJusted to dtscharge ballast, &c., at any desired rate, and they may be closed to retain the remainder of the load after any desired quantity has been discharged.
A departure from previous practice has also been made in the design of the bogies ; those hitherto used under freight cars are of two types ; the older pattern has the side frames rigidly bolted to the axle-boxes and united by a pair of transoms; it supports the load by means of short helical springs under the ends of a. bolster which has a centre plate at the middle point, upon which the car is supported by means of a transverse bolster under the sills; excessive rolling of the body on the centre plates is prevented by the introduction of side bearings between the bolsters. The bending moments on the bolsters are very severe, and their depth is limited by the small vertical space available; the necessary freedom for transverse tilting of the bogie is allowed for by leaving some play between the faces of the side bearings, at the expense of the stability of the body, and when this play is reduced by the deflection of the bolsters under heavy load, the tilting must be accommodated solely by the widely spaced springs; these, are, however, of very limited flexibility. The alternative design provides for the attachment of the centre plate directly to the bogie transoms, the frames being supported by a spring over each a.xlebox ; the side bearings are equally inefficient in this case, if a desirable amount of freedom is given to the bogie, and it is difficult to find rQom for springs of sufficient flexibility, e~pecially for the compound arrangement which is very neoesea.ry in order that the wagon may be efficiently eupported both in the light and the loaded conditions.
In getting out the new design it was considered desirable to avoid any rigid connection between the bogie frames and the axle-boxes, and any freedom for rolling on the side bearings ; it was also decided that the springs should be placed in series in order to improve the flexibility and afford easier xiding; one set of springs should, moreover, be compounded to act with maximum efficiency, both in the empty and the loaded conditions; it was also found possible to reduce the bending moments on the bogie and main transoms by about 50 per cent. by carrying the whole load on aide bearings placed 18 in. di!tant from the centre pivots without seriously impeding the angular motions of the truck.
It will be noted that there is a helical coil immediately over each a.xle-box; the bogie transoms carry two large radial plates supporting boxes which enga.ga with the space between the body transoms, each box contains a spring compounded with inner and outer coils.
It has further been observed that bogies of short wheelbase are apt to travel in an inclined direction with respect to the gauge of the road, with one leading flange bearing hard against the rail, and tending
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by th~ indu~ed friction to prevent the bogie from re~urnmg to Its norm~l posi~ion after leaving a curve; thts has the effect of mcreasmg the tractive resistance and accelerating. the wear of the flanges. Messrs. Sh~ffield ~nd Twmberrow ~ave accordingl.v connected thetr bo~tes. to the f~ame lD a manner which insures ~he a.pphca.t10n of a directive force to the truck, tend· mg to return same to its normal position. It will be noted that each corner of the frame is tied to the ?o.dr by m?ans of a radial link, which is under an nutial tensi~n due to th~ horizontal helical spring ; the l!l'tter yields to permtt a virtual lengthening of the hnk to a.cco!D~oda.te lateral and angular move~ents. The b.ogi~ 1s propelled by the leading pair of l~nk.s, the t.ens10n lD which is normally in stable equi· hbrmm WI~h the resistance at the wheel treads. When ~ntering a cun·e the pressure at the flange has to I?rovtde for the further compression of the check spr1~gs, ~mt the amount of the additional pressure requtred lS very small, and comes gradually into play as its virtual leverage at the commencement of angular deflection is considerable. The impact due to entering a sharp turnout or sudden <>hange of curvature is also reduced by the lateral movE)ment of the bogie under the control of the links.
A centre pin is fitted to the bogie as a safety check
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under tractive and buffing forces are controlled by suitable springs.
The North-Eastern Railway, we may add han1 placed an order for a train of these 32· ton hopp~r cars, to be completed as soon as ~ossible, for trial in the export coal trade to Blyth. This will afford an opportunity,to tes~ t~e merits of large wagons on a "short haul; ~nd .It 1s h~ped to prove that this length of le~d, whilst mcreasmg the cost per mile as compared with long unbroken runs, does not prejudicially affect the percentage of saving.
THE REDHEUGH BRIDGE. WE this week publish illustrations of further details
of the Redheugh Bridge, across the River Tyne between Gateshead and Newcastle. A general view of the structure was shown in the two-page plate of our issue of October 4last (Figs. 1 to 4). Reference to this will show that the bridge consists of two spans of 248 ft. each and two of 168 ft. each. Details of the steelwork of the larger spans will be found in Figs. 5 to 16 w bilst the corresponding portions of the smaller sp:ma are ill~strated in Figs. 34 to 48 on our two-page plate this week, and on page 552. It will be seen that the depth of the truss is about one-seventh the clear span
to prevent the bogie from leaving the body in the event of a car being derailed or overturned. The hole through which it passes is formed with sufficient clearance to avoid contact except in case of accident.
The designers consider that the capacity of eightwheeled cars for use on normal gauge rail ways should not be less than that of these examples ; as the gross weight of the hopper wagon is only about 45 tons, the sidings at collieries and other works will usually be of sufficient strength, but it is obvious that larger cars to carry 50 tons, and having a gross weight of about 64 tons, or 16 tons per axle, will have a lower tare weight and less first cost per ton of capacity. They have prepared a complete series of designs of hopper, box, flat, and other cars, both for minerals and other special and general traffic, and from 30 up to 50 tons capacity for standard gauge railways, and from 28 tons upwards for metre and 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The makers inform us that the price of the 30 and 32-ton cars compares very favourably with that of an equivalent capacity in standard 8 or 10-ton wagons, whilst the cost of maintenance for equal service rendered must be very greatly in favour of the high-capacity type.
The buffers and couplings with which these cars are fitted are of ordinary type ; but the heads of the buffers are elongated to obviate interlocking when working with vehicles of various proportions on sharp curves ; the couplings are of large dimensions to meet the increasing tractive force of more powerful engines, the economical employment of which will be facilitated by the introduction of large wagons. The designers, however, recommend the adoption of their equalising and compensating buffing and draw gear, in which the buffer stems are rigidly united by a crossbar within the frame, permitting angular movement about a centre pivot, which is so placed as to ensure even contact of the buff~r heads with those of a standard wagon on all cul"ves; the movements of the cross-bar
in t.he case of the larger trusses, and about two· thir~eenths in the case of the ~hore spans. These prop~rtiOns are much more rat10nal than is always met wt.th, th.e ~hallow trusses f~voured by some engineers bemg dtst~nctly u.neoonomtc~l. . The ~racing, it will be Reen, IS pecuha.r, but this Js partially explained by the system adopted in erecting the structure. This was done cantilever fashion, by building out from the piers, the upper chords of the two adjoining trusses being temporarily connected together. There would, of course, have been a saving of wei.ght if this con~ection ha~ been permanent, rend~rmg the wh~le br1dg~ a contmuous girder ; but Enghsh a!ld Amenca.n engme~rs distrust this type of constructton, though we bel1eve that there is no instance on record of the failure of a well-designed continuous girder. In the case of the piers between the unequal spans, kentledge was used as required to correct the difference in weight of the cantilever arms on opposite sides of the pier as the work proceeded. The new bridge being built round the old, the latter afforded a '' steadiment" for the new trusses in their uncompleted condition, so that the comparative narrowness of the piers constituted no danger to the cantilever system of erection. As stresses during this building-out process were in many members of the truss the reverse of what they became after completion, stiffening either temporary or permanent of the members normally in tension was required. In the case of the lower chord this stiffening was made permanent, and this chord turned into a girder, since, as will be seen on reference to Figs. 5 and 6, the cross-girders are not connected to this chord at panel points, but at intermediate positions. To further assist this chord in carrying the bending strains thus introduced, the main panel of the bracing is subdivided as shown.
The trusses, it will be seen, are riveted, a.nd therefore laok the "purposefulness," if we may use the term,
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oharacter~stio of the pin-connected structure. In the l~tter, t1e-bars are narrower than struts but in rt veted trusses t~is i_s usually ~everseo, for con~truotive r easons, so that m stde elevat10n the ties appear stouter tha n t he s truts.
_The roadway, as s hown in Fig . 7, is 21 ft wtde, _and th~re are t wo pathways, e a.oh about 7 _ft. wtde ~u t s_1de the t russes. The gas and water ptpes are, 1t wtll be seen, placed outside the parapets a~d are supported ?n extensions of the footpath but.ck et s: In a. futu~e 1ssue we shall g ives illustra tions of the pters, and wtll complete our description o f the struct ure as a who~e.
FOREIGN COMPETITION. To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
Sm,-I ~a.;e been ~uoh interested in the perusal of Mr. R'lnkm d lette r _1n your . i3Sue of the 11th inst., page 62~, on the sub)ecb of fatr play to British trade. U n~onscwu~ly, perha.p~. he ha.s pub his finger on the spot wh~ch part10ularly a.ffect3 the locomotive trade and whtle other branches of engineering may have thei~ ow~ expon_e~ts, I venture to empha-sise the justice of ~1r. Ra_n~m s rema~ks from what appears to me to be the Br1t1sh locomot1 ve makers' point of view. Concurren~ly with ¥r. Ra.nkin's letter there a.{>pea.red
n. p~ragra.ph 1n the da.tly press to the effect that S tr C. B. Elhobt, the Cape Colony Railway Commissioner has placed ~ork to the v~lue _of l,OOO,OOOl. in the U nited States, ~ncluded therem bemg an order for twenty-nine locomobtves. ~ere our home makers asked to compete for these engtnes, and was there any attempt made t o s~e whether they could be obtained in this country ? Wh~le er<;lers can be placed right away for American engmes, . tb ~sually tak~ several months to prepare the speetficatwn on ~ htch the home makers are to tender, and thus Ame!1cans get credit for their speedy o~bpub. Fur~hEr, whtle. the Americans get their orders Without outs1de c~~pebttion, the . home makers have to stand the compettt1_on of Amer10ans and Conbinentals for the work for w~tch they are allowed to q uote. It is also s_tated that S~r 0. B. . Elliotb remarked that the matertn.l to be had m the Umbed States was superior and !llore adapted f~r Cape nse. So far as locomotive work lS concerned, thts stateme~b is s~ absurd and so absolutely ~m true that we do not beheve S1r C. B. Elliott ever made It.. T_he co.mpleted article is infinitely superior as oupplied m th1s country, and if the parts are in the least degree below the best that the world can produce it is the _fault of the Westminster engineers, who take c~re to spe~tfy, and s~e that th~y get, materials which satisfy their most s tr10gent requtrem.ents both analytically and mechanically, and if, in t heir opinion, better could be had thev would see that it was got. '
While_! have i~t~oduced t_he na.m~ of th~ Cape Government ratlways, 1b Is not wtth the mtent10n of pointing them out a-s blacker than their neighbours. The same applies all round. Take the Indian railways as a further example of those who are evincing an awakening love for American ~~rk. Are the consulting engi~eers prepared to p~b Br1t1sh ~akers on a level footmg wtth their Am~rtcan compe~1~rs ? Would they accept an American ~ng_me fr?t;n Br1t1sh makers'? If so, why _do they not mvtte Bnttsh makers to tender for Amer10an engines pure and simple, and dispenee with inspection to the same extent that they do in America ? If the American engine is good enough for the work, then let British makers build it ; but if the Westminster specification is necessary to secure a. working job, then let American work to ib. D o nob compare the incomparable and then abuse the man who has been judged by the false standard.
Then there were the Midland Rail way, the Grea.b Northern Railway, and others in this country who went to America for their requirements. Did they give the British makers a chance to compete for American engines? They did not, hub they in common with the Cape peopl~, the India. Office, and others are, or were, all prepared to accept trash from America whilst they insist upon British makers working to an ironbound specification.
In the meantime ibis subject of common r emark that we have heard the last of American engines on home railways, and the time may come when we shall hear the same in regard to the Indian and colonial railwayP, as we have beard from Egypt, Japan, and other countries. But this is aside from the question. The point we are debating is fair play. Let it be assumed that the American engine is admuably adapted fori ts work in all our colonies and dependencies. Then why should nob home builders have a chance of building it on the same conditions ? There is every reason to maintain that British .makPrs could compete successfully against America with fair play. But can that fair play be got ? I have no hesitation in saying that it can not under present conditions. Westminster eng ineers migbb make a pretence of inviting tenders to an American spEcification, but it would be impossible to get them to dispense with inspection. In America they have to take whab they can geb. It is useless to say that they geb their specifications carried out there. Those who are conversant with the facts know that they do not, and bhab American makers will nob depart from their own system during the course of manufacture to ~ease any consulting eng-ineer with theories of his own. Because it is America, W estmin.ster bows to the inevitable, and accepts what they would reject at home. If American methods were a.ccept€d from home makers, the home oubput could be greatly increased, and thus the initial cost would be proportionately reduced. Do away with W esbminster inspection, and a further saving of one-sixth to one-eighth of the cost might be effected.
The long and the short of it is this : If home makers were t o be put on a level with American makers, the first
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step would be to do aw~y wibh the Wesbminster engineers. Is t~ere any equtvalen t for Westminster in the 8ta.tes ? Brmg the home makers into direcb contact wibh ~he purchasers, . as t~e Americans are brought, and there IS nob~ ma.ker_m tbts country_ who would nob be willing to d es1gn engmes to the requ1rements placed before him and ~ho w~~ld not g~e.rantee his work and stand or fali by ?ts condtbt~ns of pnce _and delivery as againsb America. F au play ! fair play _! fatr play ! That is the burden of the song .. D o not t1e the hands of the Briton and let t~e Amer10an P?mm~l him, and then have the British pi ess all cack~mg m chorus about the superiority ~f the man wtth the free use of his hands. There ts hardly a. day passes without leaders in our Press ab~ut. the decline of British trade. Well, the infenonty of the British locomotive maker has yet to be pro~ed, and ib is likely to be a happy day for him when he IS brought face to face with his American rival on absolute~y the same terms.. Our home makers a. re able to fill t~etr ~hops mea.nw~tle to overftowin~, and the surplus 1~ gomg to _America.; but when quteter times come agatn, and the rtvals again get in_to grips, it remains to be seen whebher home makers will not retain their ascendancy, even handicap~ed as ther have always been, and aP,parently always wtll be, wtth the incubus of Westmmster.
I ~av~ n_ot t~uched on the subject of patriotism because I thmk tb 1s netther fair nor necessary to bolster up the c~e by n.ppeal to that sentiment. If the British locomot~ve make~ cannob compete with his rivals on eq_ual terms g~ven a. f~tr ~eld and no favour, it is bime for htm to tor~ hts energtes toto some other channel; but he cannot be expec~ed to run a. race, and carry a. heavy weight> besides, agamst compet1tors who are stripped and carry nothing superfl.uous. In the ~ase of South Africa., however, there is a. sp~01al _feature, vtz., tha._t the British work~ng man is sendmg hts brothers and his sons, aye, and gomg himself ~o sec1;1re that the colony retains the privilege of possessIng ratl wayt~, ~nd a. small sense of the commonest ~ratitud~ should Impel a consideration of his case. South Afnc~ cannot act with the same freedom as our other colomes. I am, &c.,
FAIR PLAY. October 15, 1901.
MODERN PRACTICE IN RA.ILWAY SIGNALLING.
T o T HE EDITOR 01!' E NG INEERING. Sm.., - We notice in your issue of the 11th ins b. at
the commenc~ment of~ paper by Mr. Timmis. read before the Internattonal E?gmeering Oongress at GlMgow this year, a. s tatement wtth reference to the hydraulic system of railway signalling, in which be states that "it cannot ~o~pete wit~1 the pneumatic and electric sr.s tems, so that tb 1s nob a.dVL~able to take up time in descnbing it."
We are qutte at a. loss to understand upon what grounds Mr. Timm1s makes thab statement; for as a matter of faob the hydraulic system does compare most favourably with all ot~~r power systl~ms, both in respect of efficiency, durabthty, economy 10 first cost, and in maintenance· 250 installations are now in daily work, comprising in th~ aggregate between 3000 and 4000 lever~, and all these installations are working efficiently and satisfactorily.
We.shall be . very much ?bliged if you can find room for th1s lett~r m your next tssue, because, if Mr. Timmis's statement 1s allowed bo pass uncontra-dicted it may do our busineS!s and interests some damage. '
Thanking you in anticipation, we have the honour to remain, Sir, your obedienb servants,
SAXBY AND FARMER. Lii\IITED, C. HoDGSON, Managing Director.
Pt~.tenb Railway Signal Works, Canterbury-road, Kilburn, L ondon, N. W., October 14, 1901.
MODERN FRENCH ARTILLERY. T o ·rHE E niTOR OI<' E NGINEERING.
Srn,-Your issue of July 19 gives the description of a new pattern of field guns on the " Schneider-Canet' system. the main features of which are the following:
(a) The gun is carried and ~uided in a cradle in which it slides, the arra.ngE1ment con taming along-travel hydraulic recoil cylinder, with independent air recuperator, the long recoil having for its object to prevent the raising of the carriage when the gun is fired.
(b) A mechanism is provided for adjusting lateral trainin~, through the sliding of the carriage on the axle.
(c) The gun contains a. deuble elevating mechanism, with short eye-piece, the system being generally styled independent sighting-line or independent rear-sight.
(d) A ribbed shoe brake forms part of the system, the shoes being ea.sily fitted underneath the wheels at the tread, and by anchoring into the ground, insure the stability of the gun during firing; said brake serving also in the ordinary way when the gun is wheeled from one place to another.
(e) Two seats are provided on the traiJ, namely, one for the gunner, and one for the man &t the breech. the two men being able to remain seated owing to the fixity of the carriaFe.
Until now I found it expedient to abstain from putting forward my claims to priority with regard to these arrangements. which have been copied from those of the new French 75-millimetre gun, the type of which was invented by me ab the French Artillery Works at Puteaux, the final adjustment having been carried out by Major Ste. Olaire Deville. The Minister of vVar, howt;ver, taking into account thab the exterior arrangements of the gun in question are now known as a whole, since the gun has been pub in the service, has authorised me to make the besb of my rights to priority in the matter, and I a.m able
55! to certify that the gun I invented at Puteaux, as far ba{}k as 1894, was as follows :
(a) It was a. quick-firing gun, carried and guided in a cradle a~ra.ng~d with hydropneu_matic recoil, with ve ry long tra:veJ, msurmg the perfecb fixtty of the carriage during firm g.
(b) It contained: a mechanism for adjusting lateral training, by the sliding of the carriage on the axle :
(o) a double elevabing mechanism, with short eye-piece forming a.n independent rear-sight ; '
(d) a wheel brake, with riobed oboes, easily placed under the wheela when the gun was pub in battery and anchoring into the ground, to insure the lateral stability of ~he carriage during firing, the brake acting also in the ordmary manner ;
(e) two seats, from which the gunner and the man at the breech could work; a shield protecbing them.
In short, bhe characteristic feature of the field gun invented ~Y me is the long-travel recoil; I firsb started both th1s and the combinabion of long recoil with the other arrangements above referred to some of which are original arrangements, while the others were more or less known already. I was therefore the first in a positio~ to build a very powerful and, in the same time verr hght ~eld gun, with carriage and sighting line w~1ch remamed completely immobile during horizontal ~nog, for. a. power ~f over lQO ton-metres, the rapidity 10 the firmg exceedmg twenty rounds per minute even when altering the angle of elevation. '
I therefore claim tlie priority with regard to the means I ha.ve invented for securing this result.
Yours faithfully, A. DEPORT.
134, Bd. Pereire, Paris, October 11, 1901.
THE LOSS OF THE "COBRA." To THE EDITOR oF ENGINEERING.
. SIR,- I _have seen 8ir Hira.m Maxim's letter of the 9th mst., pubhshed by you, and concluding with the statement that " the gyroscopic action of the turbines and the screws could nob have contributed in the least degree to the breaking in two of the Cobra.. , . It may be well to admit at once that both my brother tgnoramus and myself have bad in mind a kind of action or effecb,_ which Sir Hira.m Maxim might not define ~ gyroscopic .. T~e word was used for the sake of brevity, and the matter 1s, 1t -w:ould appear, much too important to be conf~sed by quest10ns of verbal definition. If Sir Hira.m JYia.xtm me~nt that the word "gyroscopic , was improperly used, that ts a matte~ of smal_l consequence; but if he mean~ that the f~c~ of rap1d rotat10n of heavy masses, rotating as they dtd m the Cobra, could not have contributed in ~he least degree to her breaking in two ; that is to say, tf he puts forward a statement that the rapid rotabion of a heavy mass about a central axis will not bring about a sta~e of things of which the effect would be to oppose a resistance to some deviations of the axis, then he is putting fot~a.rd a _st~teme~b which he must have forgotten venfy, for 1b 1s not m accordance with facb.
The experiment ~s an extremely easy one to try, and ~!though the effecb 1a, of course, enormously increased by t?crea.se. o~ speed and of ma~, a. simple bicycle wheel, hghb as 1t 18, and turned only at a speed which can eas ily be produced by hand, is sufficient apparatus.
. It ~eems due. to the importance of this mabter and to Str Huam Ma.xtm's very great reputation that he should leave no doubt as to what he really did mean to say.
Very respectfully your@, · EDW. vV. SERRELL, Jun.
Paris, October 15, 1901.
To THE EDITOR oF ENGINEElnNG. Sin,-I have rea"Cl with considerable interest the points
brought forward by "Ignoramus , in your issue of October 4, and of Mr. Serrell in your issue of October 11 in regard to the gyroscopic effect of the rotating masse; in the Cobra. I have also read wibh interest the remarks of Sir Hira.m S. Maxim, which hardly seem satisfactory under the circumstances.
The resistance of the heavy rotating masses in the Cobra against being moved from normal plane of rotation is, in all probability, a matter for more or less ex~cb calculation1 rather than comment. Now that Sir Htram has, of his own accord, placed himself in the list of "competent readers , on this question, it would be interesting to have his figures as to the actual resistance to change in plane of rotation developed by the rotating machinery in the Cobra. This is the only l'ort of reply which can put "such matters sufficiently plain so tba.b even an ignoramus would be able to understand it."
Yours respectfully, E. F. CASSEL.
56, Broad-street Avenue, E.C., October 16, 1901.
KtONDYKE TELEGRAPHY.-An all-Canadia.n Government telegraph line has now been brought into operation from Vancouver to Dawson City. The line is 2200 miles in length. Part of the route followed is over that of an abandoned -line originally projected for the Collins overland route in 1865. The object of this abandoned line was to connect America with Europe, but the successful laying of the Atlantic cable in 1866 brought the enter-· prise to a. standstill. The line starts at Vancouver, and touches Ashcroft, Quesnell, Hazelton, 'l'elegra.ph Creek, White Horse, and Dawson City. At the Alaskan boundary it connecbs with a projected American Government line from St. Michaels. A branch line ta'QS Forb Simpson for the convenien~e of incoming Dawson steamers.
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552 E N G I N E E R I N G. [OcT. 18, 1901.
THE REDHEUGH BRIDGE BETWEEN NE\VCASTLE AND GATESHEAD. MESSRS. SANDEMAN AND ~10NCRIEFF, l\1M. INST. C.E, ENGINEERS; IR \VILLIA.1\I ARROL AND CO., GLA GO\\', CONTRACTORS.
(For Description, see Page 550.)
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OcT. 18, 1901.]
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(l llttst?·ated.) . ........ . .. 699 Electric Lifts, Western of The British Association .. .. 642 F rance Railway .......... 658 The New Subway in New Iligh-Speed Railways ...... 568
York Oity (Illustrated} .. 647 Notes from the North ...• 669 Notes from t he United Notes from South York· S~fttes 547 shire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 - ...... .... ...... ..
Headecb's Heavy-Otl Motor Notes from Oleveland and at the Glnsgow Exhi bition the Northern Oountles .. 569 (Illustrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 Notes from the South· West 560
Wagons of High Oapaoil;y Miscellanea .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 for British lta ll\rays (ll· Crane Weighing Machine at lustraud) .. . . .. .... . ... 649 the Glasgow Exhibition
Foreign Competition . . . . . . 661 Explosion of a Vulcanising Modern Practice In Ro.il way Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Sign1lllng ............ .. 561 Small Screws ...... .. .... .. 663 Modern French Arti llery . . 561 Launches and Trial Trips . . 663 The Loss of the" Cobra" .. 651 Improved Rapid Group The "Cobra " Disaster .... 663 Flashing Lights (Jllus.) .. 564 Ru3slan Coal . . . . . . . • . . . • . . 565 cc Engineering " Patent Re-The Trade of Siam .. .... . . 666 cord (RlU8trated ) . .... ... 666 With a Ttoo-Pagt Engtaving of THE REDHEUGH BRIDGB
BET WEEN N E WC.ASTLE AND GATESHEAD.
ENGINEERING. FRIDAY, OCTOBER 1 , 1901.
THE "COBRA" DISASTER. THE verdict of t he court-mart ial given on
W ednesday last will be read with sincere regret by every one; at least every ?De w~o lov~s England. It will n ot be s upposed that 1n saymg t h1s we regret that that the surviving members of the crew of that ill-starred vessel should be acquitted of blame, for that conclusion was never a matter in doubt for a momen t. The man who might, under possible continaencies, which did not arise, have been blameworthy went down with his. ship, and nothing occurred throughout the dtsastrous voyage t hat could reflect blame on him. I t is not necessary to say more of a brave seaman who died at his post. The custom of holding a co.urt-ma.rtial on the survivors of a wrecked vessel 1s a useful ono, even though, as in t~i~ case, i t is n~ more than a formality. So long as 1t 1s un1versal, 1t attac~es, in itself, no suspicion of blame ~o those tr1ed, and therefore the facts connected w1th a wreck can be impar t ially sifted without the loss of prestige that would accrue if even a prirna f acie case had to be made out against the survivors before they could be brough b to trial. Mr. Percey could never have had much anxiety about the issue, and no o.ne c.an doubt that t he verdict is, so far as he and hts shtpmates are concerned, absolutely logical and just.
The following is the text of the verdict of the Oourt:
"The Courb, having taken the evidence of Chi~f Engi· neer J. J . G. G. Percey and that of the re~amder of the aurvivore, and having weighed and con~1der~ th,e whole of the evidence before them, ~nd that H1s MaJesty s ship Cobra foundered on the mornang of the 18th day of September, 1901, while on passage from the ~yne to Portsmouth. The Court has come to the conclusiOn that His Ma.jeety'(ship Cobra. did nob touch the ground nor
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553 meet with any obstruction, nor was her loss due to any error in navigation, but was due to structural weakness of the ship. The Oourb also find that the Cobra was weaker than other destroyers, and in view of that fact it is to be regretted she was purchased into His Majesty's service. The Courb fur ther finds bha.b no blame is attributable to Chief Engineer J . J . G. G. Percey nor the re maining survivol'!, and fully acquits them. ,
The President added that the Courb desir£.d to express their opinion that the handling of the dinghy after the a..ccident was worthy of all praise, and Torpedo Coxswain Franl)iS Barnea deserved great credit for the way in which be acted on the trying occasion.
The P resident then returned I\r!r. Percey his sword, remarking that be had great pleasure in doing so.
It is in the judgment passed on the vessel herself that there is cause for regret. \Ye are told that the Cobra was below the proper standard of strength for destroyers, and should not have been accepted for the Royal Navy. The statement will be greedily seized on by some as a condemnation of the public department which we would fain see the most efficient in the whole range of the Government ser vice, and of a private engineering and shipbuilding establishment of which we have always thought- and with j ustice-we have most occasion to be proud. It will be a matter of regret if the impression conveyed by the sweeping terms of the verdict leads to exaggerated feelings of alarm. Our Navy has been so largely successful that a single disaster comes as an unexpected evflnt, and all are apt t o measure the force of a calamity by its rarity. It is t rue the Cobra disaster does not stand alone -excepting in its unhappy loss of life- but those other mishaps which have revealed the weakness of destroyers in a less tragic manner are part of the same error. 'l'he unparalleled fleet of noble ships that has been built up under the auspices of Sir Williaru White and Sir J ohn D urston, and their r espective staffs, has been so uniformly admirable that the country has come to expect perfection as a matter of course. Use has made us callous to the fact that our dockyard-built ships. equally with our contract-built ships, are triumphs of naval architecture and marine engineering which the navies of all the world have copied; but we pay t he penalty of pre-eminence ; for a disaster in the Royal Navy is more noised abroad than a. dozen similar calamities elsewhere. It is, perhaps, because our disciples think they may be subject to the same defect.
The facts concerning the loss of the Cobra have been fully canvassed of late, and there is very little in dispute. The vessel was built by Messrs . Armstrong, Whilworth, and Co., in order to try t he Parsons steam turbine. Mr. Watts has told us that the idea was to frame the design of the vessel so that she would pass Admiralty inspection if the Government wished to purchase her. She was, however, mainly experimental, and was a larger and more highly-powered vessel than any of her class, which had up to then been added to the Navy, her length being no less than 223ft. 6 "in. Her machinery, too, came out 30 tons heavier than was anticipated, the total weight being 183 tons. These figures may be compared with those for two former destroyers built at Elswick for the Royal Navy - the Swordfish and the Spitfire-which were 200 ft . long, and had machinery weighing 110 tons . It is worth noting that the extra weight of the Cobra's machinery was est imated to give her 60 per cent. more power than there was in the Swordfish.
From the evidence given at the court-martial, it would appear that the scantling of the S wordfish was retained for the Cobra, but that the latter was made a. foot deeper, thus, of course, adding to the strength of the girder formed by the hull. This extra foot of depth was calculated, according to Mr. Pine, the Admiralty constructor who surveyed her before her purchase, to add 17 per cent. to her longitudinal strength. Whatever the intentions of the designers were, however, the Admiralty officials did not take quite t he same view for on being officially surveyed with a view to p~rchase, it was reported that the scantling n eeded strengthening. A large quantity of material was therefore worked into the structurenearly all, we believe, in the deck construction. We are informed that the amount was 7 tons, but the quantity seems so large for a vessel of this type that on e has some difficulty in accept ing the statement. In any case the deck proved strong enough, for it did not give way until the lower flange of the girder , the bottom of the ship, was ruptured. As t he vessel sank she doubled up, the deck- to use the expression of one of the survivors- folding up
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554 like a hinge; whilst the lightship man who saw the catastrophy spoke of two funnels crashing together as she went down.
The first accounts received, no doubt, were calculated to lead to the impression that the wreck was due to the veesel striking the bottom, and, indeed, the first official report stated that the Cobra had gone on the rocks. When t he position where the vessel foundered was more clearly defined, it was evident this could not have been the case, as there are no rocks marked in the vicinity, and, indeed, the depth is too great even for the vessel to have touched the sand and shells which here form the shallower spots to which the Dowsing Lightship acts as a warning for much deeper-draught craft. In short, touching the bottom is out of the question. But it is held by some that the Cobra struck a wreck, and the damage done to the bottom started a rent which developed into the severance of the whole skin through subsequent wave action. Of course, there is nothing to disprove this t heory, but we fear it rests on very slender hypotheses. Unfortunately, too, it does not need any such explanation to account for the collapse of the hull, if we may take the witness of other destroyers.
In the official publication issued by t he United States Intelligence Bureau is a statement respecting the destroyer Seal, built at Birkenhead for the Royal Navy. In April last, it would appear, this vessel was struck by a heavy sea when cruising in the Bristol Channel. It was thought at first by those below that she was in collision, for the blow was so violent that, in the language of the report, her back was broken, and she was unfit for further service. " Her deck was cracked clean across, admitting daylight to the fire-room, and the side-plating was split for 18 in." The report further states that the trouble is ascribed to '' the unsuitability of torpedo-boat destroyers to knock about in weather that causes larger vessels to take shelter."
A more recent case is that of the destroyer Crane, built at J arrow. Within a week or ten days ago, she, according to reports in the newspapers, had to put back to Portsmouth because her deck had buckled badly, and we were further informed that the defect was so serious that the vessel had to be put out of commission for repairs. Yet another case, reported in the press within the last few days, is that of the destroyer Vulture, built at Clydebank, which also, it is stated, had to put back to Portsmouth on account of structural defects developed through stress of weather.
If these repor ts are true-and we need hardly say we shall be only too pleased if we can be allowed to contradict them- there is no getting a way from the fact t hat some of our destroyers at least are dangerously weak in their construction. Few, we think, will hold t he view expressed by Mr. Parsons, in giving evidence before the courtmartial, when he said he thought the Cobra was intended to be a fair-weather boat ; or that destroyers should not be able" to knock about in weather that causes larger vessels to seek shelter." These craft were distinctly intended to accompany the fleet · and craft of this size cannot, if they are to be any good, keep in t he neighbourhood of a port of refuge. They must be able to take the sea and keep the sea in all weather~.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
by measurements from the actual vessels. A close inspection must also be made of the whole structure to find whether there are any unexpected places of weakness, due to improper working of material, to uncompensated deck openings, or to bad disposition of parts. For instance, bulkheads should be attached to the hull structure so that the stresses they transmit would be well distributed ; and care should be taken that no abrupt and sudden changes of strength occur. Some of these vessels are reported to have midship cross-bunkers in conjunction with wing bunkers. The bulkheads to the latter forn1 an important element of longitudinal strength. It would be interesting to know whether these fore and aft bulkheads are continued through the crossbunker or not. The riveting of lightly-plated vessels is a matter upon which a good deal depends. To properly close cold rivets in torpedoboats is a very different matter to the ordinary hot riveting in inch plates. There is no need here to point out the need of close good riveting to obtain the strength due to friction of parts pressed hard together. Further plates that are properly trued before erecting also give most strength to the structure. There is a great deal more than mere appearance to consider in that most difficult art-light plating. All these and a hundred other points must be considered in the construction of torpedo craft. 'l'heh design and their building are special branches of the naval architect's profession and t he shipbuilder's craft, proficiency in which is only obtained by long study and extended experience.
Mr. Watts stated in his evidence that calculations made showed that the greatest stress on the steel of the Cobra's hull could not exceed 9 tons to the square inch. This would, of course, be on the usual assumption that the vessel was on the crest or in the trough of a wave her whole length, but presumably the calculations only referred to static conditions. The steel in this vessel appears to have been of the ordinary type, with a 28 to 30-ton tensile strength, the new high-tensile material which has been applied to some vessels since built not being used. The margin of strength allowed in t he Oobra would therefore appear to be less than that which was considered desirable in some of the earlier craft. It will be remembered t hat Messrs. Thornycroft and Barnaby, in their now famous paper read 5iyearsago before theinstitutionof CivilEngineers,-¥gave 6.4 tons per square inch as the stress upon the material at the section where the greatest bending moment occurs in one of the earliest destroyers. Probably that may be considered a strength in excess of actual requirements, especially as it contemplated the vessel in a position it might never assume. Still the circumstances are quite possible, one might say even probable, taking the whole life of the ship. Sir William White, in his Manual of Naval Architecture, says that with a stress of 8 to 9 tons per square inch for iron, strengthening by additional material becomes necessary, and allows 25 to 30 per cent. greater strength for steel than iron.
It is, however, needless to say that the whole question of longitudinal strength, when one deals with the case of a ship progressing among waves-the actual condition met with- is one of extreme complexity. Attempts have been made by many competent authorities to deal with the subject, but naval architects, as a rule, do not consider the problem has been solved in a way that gives quantitative results. The accelerating forces due to pitching and scending and other causet:; cannot be estimated with any degree of certainty, and the calculations can only be taken to give comparative data. In the case of the Cobra, the evidence of the diver who examined the wreck was to the effect that there was a bulge in the plAting ; and if this were caused by submerged, or partly submerged, wreckage, the conditions upon which calculations would be made would be entirely altered. It is true the bulge was of small extent, but Mr. Watts was justified in assuming that in the separated after part of the hull, which was not found, it might have been of greater magnitude. Whether scantling in these special vessels should be made stout enough to allow of a considerable bulging in of the structure without endangering the strength of the hull to resist hogging and s~gging strains under extreme conditions is a matter to be determined by those who direct the amount of risk that should be run; thatjs, the naval officer. The naval
There is no reason why well-designed and wellbuilt destroyers should not d.o so. To design. vessels of this importance that are habl~ to have the1r backs broken if they meet a wave of therr own length would be a piece of foolishness that no compete~t naval authority has ever contemplated ; and certa1nly the Admiralty would never be justified in asking sailors to venture to sea in such craft. However, the proposition is too far-fetched to be worth discussing, especially as ther~ is no need to contemplate t he need for such cautwn. A thorough overhaul of the destroyers throughout the Navy will, we presume, be undertaken. It is no good blinking the fact that errors have been made or else too much has been taken for granted. These small steel craft have proved themselves so tough at times that an impression has grown up that they can hardly be injured ; and though that may be true if. they are properly put toget~er, the proce~s IS. o~e needing the greatest sktll and care, wh1eh, It 1s to be feared has not always been at command. The necessa;y calculations will ha v~ to be u~dertaken to discover whether a suffiCient margtn of strength in the scantling has been left fo~~ safety, * ).'rocee~ings of Institution the data being obtained, not from drawings, but . cxxu., Sess10n 1894-5.
of Oi vil Engineers, vol.
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[OcT. 18, I90l
architect can only give professional instruction and abide by t he decision of the ultimate authority.
We must not forget, however, that torpedo craft have been built which have proved themselves able to stand the roughest usage. There is the wellknown case of the Thornycroft torpedo-boat Hugin, built for the Swedish Navy, which ran on to jagged rocks at high speed, and r emained with her afterend from nearly amidships unsupported, without damage to her structural form. Our pages have contained from time to time particulars of many torpedo boats and torpedo-boat destroyers having made distant voyages to all parts of the world, meeting often with the extremes of bad weather, without damage of any kind, notably twelve destroyers built for Japan, six by Messrs. Yarrow and six at t he Chiswick yard, which made the voyage out without mishap.
A matter that may have affected the result of the Cobra's last voyage was the fact that certain weights, in shape of armament and stores, were not on board. This was not considered of great importance by some of the professional witnesses at the court-martial, but the fact is worth noticing. As the ship gave way owing to sagging strains, any weight left out of the end compartments would be liable to aggravate the evil effect by the ends being too floaty. Naturally a ship should not depend on movable weights for safety, but, as these weights might be usually on board in any given craft, it shows how a vessel may possibly often go through bad weather, and yet come to grief at last. The Cobra at full-load draught was 490 tons displacement ; her total coal storage was 106! tons, and when she left the Tyne her displacement was 468 tons. 'Vhat coal was on board, and what was its position at the time she foundered, doubtless cannot be ascertained, but the fact would be useful to know. The absence of 22 tons weight would, Mr. Perrett stated, increase the buoyancy at the ends, but as the amount was equally distributed, he did not think it would materially increase the tendency to sagging. Again, it would be interesting to have definite figures in regard to this point. Another detail that can hardly escape notice is the fact that the girders unde1· the boilers were buckled through heat, a fact noticed by Mr. Pine, who surveyed the vessel for the Admiralty. This witness, a first-class Admiralty constructor, was of opinion that the vessel was quite fit for any service because she had had at least half a dozen trials at sea in very bad weather, but bad shown no signs of straining. He also bore witness to the very high-class nature of the riveting and workmanship. Mr. Deadman, a chief constructor, also considered the alterations to the vessel were satisfactorily made, and that the hull was well built, so as to be capable of meeting all contingencies of service as far as that class of vessel was concerned. He stated that the design rested with the contractors. It is not the practice of the Admiralty to tie down those who build destroyers to any special sca.ntlings, although a minimum is specified. Under these circumstances it is evidently incumbent on the Admiralty to take care t hat contractors entrusted with the building of these vessels should be firms who have the necessary knowledge for the business, as well as a trained staff of workmen skilled in the special work. The desire, doubtless laudable in itself, to "extend the area of competition" is, perhaps, accountable for a good deal of the trouble that has arisen in connection with these craft.
It is to be hoped that the large body of persons who take a laudable, but often not very instructed, interest in the Navy will not give way to excessive panic on account of what has occurred. As we have said on previous occasions, torpedo craft are a necessity to the complete efficiency of the Fleet. They may, or may not, prove as efficient in actual war as their supporters and admirers maintain ; but the torpedo is a weapon of such immense possibilities that no navy can afford to ignore it. Speed is the first essential to successful torpedo operations, and speed means lightness. There is no doubt in the minds of those who have most experiE:'nce in the construction of these craft, that, on scantlings now common, staunch and safe Yessels can be built, fit to make long ocean voyages and keep the sea boldly in all weathers. To do this, however, the design, materials, and workmanship must be absolutely of the best, and to secure these ends the Admiralty must put a good deal of confidence in their contractors. That does not imply there
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should be any relaxation in inspection or tests· but rather that more flexibility should be shown i~ taking suggestions. The overseers sent down from \~7hitehall are all good men and trustworthy, but they have not had the same special training in this complex form of const ruction that has fallen to the lot of the firms who make the work their whole study and who build so largely, not only for our ow~ Government, but for the other naval powers.
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Still the Donetz is not badly off. The I{oslovVeronezh-Rostov Railway connects the anthracite mines of Zisichousk, in the eastern portion of the basin, with the general network of Russian railways, and considerable quantities go that way into the interior. By means of tho I{harkov-Nicolaiev and Lozovo-Sebastopol rail ways the Black Sea ports are made accessible ; and the connection of the fields with the iron ore deposits of the I{rivoyRog by means of the Ekaterininsk rail way is
RUSSIAN COAL. fraught with vast possibilities of expansion to both the iron and the coal interests. The railways
THE ~emporar~ remission of the duty on coal im- themselves are good customers, for they take ported Into certa.1n parts of Russia is a clear proof not much less than one-third of the whole output. ~hat, from one cause or another, the domest ic supply The Moscow coal region is 400 miles long and over IS unequal to the demand. As a fact, Russia is and 270 miles wide, extending over the Governments for long. ha~ b~en a larg.e i~p~rter of English coal, of Tver, Moscow, l{alouga, Tula, and part of the and. the lDVIta.twn to bnng It 1n free of duty is an Governments of Novgorod, Smolensk, Riazan, oh~1ous comm~nt on the shortage of the native Vladimir, and Tambov. Few mines are producing art10le. Certainly, the quantity that may be im- now in this locality ; the quality of the coal is not ported and the places of consumption are dictated ; good, and the cost of working is high, for the but a Government that is above all solicitous for the colliers find it difficult to compete with Donetz protection of its own industries would not permit coal. The so - called Polish basin is situated the introduction of any imports on these easy terms at the south-western corner of Poland, and emwere the necessity not very great. Even now when braces a portion of the Bendinsk district of the depressi?n reigns i~ many manufacturing c~ntres, Government of Petrokov, and of the Olekoushsk the dut ies are remitted only in approved cases. district of Kelitz. It is a continuation of the soLast year, when trade was very active, there was a coal called P olish-Silesian basin. The area of the entire famine in the country, and not only were the duties basin is about 2600 square miles, of which 1860 susp~nded, b':lt other encour~gements were given to are in Prussia, 450 in Austria, and about 350 in the 1mportat10n of the foreign article. It seems Poland. The portion worked for coal covers about odd at first thought that these conditions should 900 square miles, of which 400 are in Prussia, 300 exist in a cou~try boasting o.f a coal-bearing area in Austria, and 200 in Poland. The seams and the next only to Chma and the United States and which quality of the coal are not uniform. In Poland, can show all varieties of fuel. But the empire is the Reden seams-the middle of three groups, and very extensive, and though coal is found in n1any known in Germany as the Sattel-Flotz-have a parts, it is mined on a large scale in only two loca- thickness running from 28 ft. to 49ft. ; but as they lities- South Russia, which produced 691,500,000 extend wes~ward, the vein is divided by interlayers poods out of last year's aggr~gate of 985,200,000 of dirt , first into two, then into three, and lastly poods; and Poland, which produced 250,700,000 into four separate seams. At the western expoods. In the Urals 22,500,000 poods were t remity, near Zabrzhe, the Reden group conobta.ined, and in the Moscow basin 16, '700,000 tains coking coal, and the lower seams of the poods; the Caucasus bringing up the rear with upper group give gas fuel. Nearer to the P olish 3,800,000 poods. Seeing that Lodz and Warsaw, in frontier the Reden coal is no longer coking, but it P oland, are among the centres recently permitted is still serviceable for gas-making. In Poland the to receive foreign coal duty free, it is a fair Reden and overlaying seams give neither coking inference that the Polish supply is inadequate. nor gas coal. Until within very recent years the After all, 250,700,000 poods is only equal to exploitation of coal in Poland was conducted on a little more than 4,000,000 tons, and that the old easy, but wasteful, plan of letting the roof quantity will not go very far in such busy fall in. But the thickness of the seams led to centres of textile and other manufacturing activity many accidents, and naturally there was enormous as these. The Donetz basin, in South Russia, is wastage. Moreover, the disintegration of portions equal to a much greater production than at present, of the seam and the spontaneous combustion of but it is remote, and not much of its coal goes north, the coal led to numerous fires. Present methods because the cost of carriage is high in ~pite of the approximate more nearly to the modern, but they railway facilities granted. Poland can be better are not all that might be desired. supplied from Prussia, and the northern parts of Coal format ions occur on both sides of the Urals. the empire from Great Britain. By the same token, On the western side they form an almost uninterEnglish coal has now lost a good part of its outlet rupted band, extending along the greater porti:on in the Black Sea, and Donetz coal has even been of the strata. On the eastern slopes the occurrences sent beyond the Bosphorus. As far back as 1892, are generally in small narrow and interrupted bands Mr. P. Stevens, the English Consul at Batoum, and patches, sometimes jammed between massive pointed out that foreign coal had been superseded crystalline rocks. In their mode of stratification in that market by coal from the Caucasian fields the coal measures of theW estern U rals present close and the basin of the Don, both of which are inferior similarity to those of the Moscow district . The in quality to English coal, but which can be sold at coal is poor. On the eastern side the most ima trifle under the prices that English coal fetched. portant coal-bearing area extends for a distance of But in the Baltic it is not easy to see how English about 70 miles towards the south ; the more fuel is going to be supplanted by Russian. northern deposits containing poor soft coal and
It is possible that, when the Donetz coalfields some anthracite, and the southern coking coal. have been further developed, we shall see more The railways, iron and salt works, are the best competition with English fuel in the Mediterranean. customers, and a small quantity goes down the These fields are more than equal to the demands of K ama. In Western Siberia the only district that the iron and other works which have been esta- is extensively worked for coal is Kusnetsk, in the blished in South Russia in recent years. They cover south-eastern corner of the Government of ·romsk, an area of fully 20,000 square versts, and one of between the Salairsk and Altai mountain ranges. their features is the variety of the fuel produced- The field is divided into two parts by the River from soft coal to anthrA.cite. The latter, however, Tom ; it is 280 miles in width and 70 miles in is not very plentiful, and the output has shown length, or about 19,600 square miles in area. This a very marked decrease in recent years. Of bitu- loca]ity does not contribute nlUch to the needs of minous fuel, t his part of Russia contains an untold the country. It is r emote from the big centres wealth. In the western portion alone, in the of consumption, and the local demand is not conGovernment of Ekaterinoslav, 45 workable veins siderable. The Siberian Railway promises to be a have been discovered, having a total thickness of customer in the future, but the coal is not of very 112 ft., and about 415 milliards of poods awaiting attractive quality. exploitation. The eastern area is even richer. The The great railway ought to do something for the extension of railways during the last quarter of a development of coal production in Siberia. It will century has opened up t his fi eld very effectually, be remembered that the commission 11ppointed to and has not only made a South R ussian iron in- study the economic geology of the country along dustry possible, but, as we have seen, has per- the line of the railway turned its attention first of mitted exportation to the Mediterranean. The all to the coal deposits, with a special eye to the capabilities of the Donetz n1ines are checked by fuel requirements of the road, and it was prom.Pt the limited market. The iron works are the best i~ locating about 50 groUJ:>S o~ workable coal or hgcustomers; and the big consuming centr~s of the n1te beds: II?- Western Sibena, betwe~n the Ural North are too remote to permit of large sh1pments . . and Alt~1 chatns, there are no coal OI petroleum
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555 deposits along the railway, while timber is scarce. The commission therefore organised explorations on a large scale, extending to the shores of the Okhotsk Sea. On the JGrghiz Steppes coal of good quality was found at Djaman-Taou, and at Taldyskoul. The coal of these districts may be conveyed by the Irtish and I chin Ri verR to Omsk and Petropaulosk, important stations on the Siberian railroad. In the Yenisei basin there are numerous deposits, especially in the valley of the Y enisei River, not far fron1 Krasnoyarsk, where the !ignites of tertiary formation commence, a better coal being found along the banks and at the mouth of the Lower Tounjouskat. Large deposits of free-burning lignite occur in seams of 6! ft. thick along the banks of the Oka, a tributary of the Angara, especially near the confluence of the Zima. Coal is found at several points on both slopes of the Baikal chain, especially in the Angara V alley, to the north of Yakutsk. Seams also occur on the south-west shore of Lake .Baikal, at the mouth of the Mourine, and in other places. The Amour Valley, and those of several of its tributaries, are rich in coal.
THE TRADE OF SIAM. ALTHOUGH Siam at the present time is not very
important from the point of view of trade and engineering, and is consequently rather apt to be overlooked in the collection of information ~bout countries in the Far East, it is still very deserving of attention, not only from a political and social point of view, but also on account of its growing importance in industry and commerce. I ts position relatively to Burma and China makes it impossible to overlook it in its political aspects, while to the student of sociology it presents an interesting study as the only country in the world in which the monarch is a professed Buddhist, and in which religion is the chief factor in the formation of the lives of the people. We cannot, of course, enter into details of these aspects of Siam, although it is very necessary to note them. From a commercial and engineering point of view, however, the importance of Siam is increasing, and its progress ·should be observed as one of the factors which are influencing conditions in the Far East. As we have frequently pointed out, affairs in that part of the world are in a transition stage, and polit ical and industrial forces are being brought into action which will not only mightily affect affairs in the various countries directly concerned, but will also react on industrial and economic conditions in Britain, and it therefore behoves us not only to study the facts, or, as they may be called, the natural history of the case, but also its dynamics or natural philosophy. In the present condition of affairs in the world it is highly desirable that engineers should enlarge their ideas of their work and apply their knowledge of science to some of the wider problems which are arising, and the neglect of which may render all their engineering efforts of no avail.
Siam has hitherto been known in the commercial world chiefly for its teak and its rice. The former is of great importance from an engineering and shipbuilding point of view, and although the measures which have been taken by the · Sianlese Government for the protection of this valuable timber will probably reduce the quantity which is yearly exported, they will make the supply more constant and at the same time ensure its continuance. On the other hand, the development of the railways, which is being pushed forward by the Government, will increase the export of rice by opening up new areas which are being brought under cultivation. The want of adequate means of communication has hitherto prevented a rapid growth of commerce ; but still, in spite of that, it has increased in ten years from 3,800,000l. to 5 664,359l., at which latter figure it stood at the e~d of last year. That year only showed an increase of 844'7l., as compared with the previous year ; and this is account~d. for by a partial faih~re of the rice crop, the restriCtiOn of the export of rice being always accompanied b~ a c?rresponding restriction of imports. We will giVe a few of the most impor tant points in the latest consular report on the trade of the district of Bangkok.
We need not enter into details concerning the rice trade as these do not interest many of our readers b'ut one point may be noted which is very charact~ristic of what is taking place in other departments of trade in the Far East. A powerful •
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co!D bination. has recently been formed of German mt.llers of S1am r~c~, fo~ the purpose of keeping pr1ces down, and It 18 s~nd that they have obtained control of a local German-owned rice mill. This taken in conjunction with the fact that the regula~ boats from Bangkok to Singapore are nearly all German., and .that the tw? principal lines of steamers connecting Smgapore wtth the German rice ports --the . Nord~eutscher Lloyd and the HamburgAmerlcan Lines- are German also, now gives Ger!Dany a preponderating interest in the export of rtce to Europe. In fact, British rice-exporting firms n1ay be said to be no longer engaged at all in the European trade.
~eak, accordi~g to th~ Customs House figures, agatn shows an 1ncrease m the quantity exported and a slight increase in the value · but the Consui thinks that. these figures are. exaggerated, and he prefers to gtve those of a prominent local authority. These show that in 1900 the amount of teak exported was 38,332 tons, and the calculated value of 252,557l. 10-:J. Assuming these values to be correct, the export was destined to the following countries:
Of the direct European shipments, 11 sailina ships, mostly under the Scandinavian flag, carried 5720 ton~ ; and stea~ne!s owned or chartered by the Dan1sh East As1atic Company carried 5077 tons more. The bulk of the business in teak both in the forests and in Bangkok, remains in the bands of B ritish subjects. The value of t eak intended for Europe was about 10l. per ton f.o.b. The prospects for the present year in the teak trade are exceptionally good. Measures have been taken by the Siamese Government for the proper preser vation and cultivation of the teak forests and there is now a very efficient forest department administered by British officials borrowed by the Siamese Government from India and Burma. The cultivation of woods, other than teak, is encouraged, to supply the large demand which is now being made for building purposes. The other exports are marine product s, pepper, silk, and miscellaneous goods.
The total value of imports from foreign countries was 2,576,5i0l., ~n increase of 44,403l. over 1899. If, however, t he value of treasure be deducted from both years, the increase is 218,836l. Cotton goods show a slight falling-off, from 424,352l. to 409,058l., the decrease being 15, 299l. Ten years ago the value of the cotton goods imported was 319,581l.
Steel, iron, and machinery, which increased in 1899 very largely, maintained their rise, the value being 169,346l. , an increase of 11,930l. over the previous year. The prop ortionate share of the countries participating was approximateJy as follows:
Per Cenb. United Kingdom .. . ... ... . .. 46.40 Singapore ... ... ... .. . .. . 3L.20 Germany ... ... . .. .. . ... 9.60 America . .. ... • • • ... ... 5.10 China ... ... • • • ... . .. .. . 1.90 Hong Kong ... ... . .. .. . .. . 1.70 Other countries ... ... ... .. . 4.10
-100.00
The frequent fires which have occurred in the Bangkok rice mills of recent years have called for a constant supply of rice milling machinery, which is practically all supplied by one British firm. Kerosene oil is now mostly imported from Sumatra. The import was d\vided as follows :
Cotton yarns have fallen off by about 8000Z. The bulk of the import is British. Cycles show a drop from 17,546Z. to 7291l. The. market was ov~rstocked in 1899, and of course pnces fell. Amer1ca has t he firdt place in the imports .with 4679Z., and the United Kingdom the next, w1th 1314l. worth of direct imports.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
Coal was imported to the extent of 11,599 tons valued at 16,852l. It was divided as follows : '
Tobal .. . .. . ... ... 11,599 As a large part of the goods imported into Siam
passes through Singapore and Hong Kong from man.y .countries, it is impossible to give exact statistics as to the countries of origin.
The amount of shipping in the year 1900 shows a sli~ht falling off, owing to the continued depresslOn of the rice export. British ships, which entered to the number of 396 in 1898. and had fall.en to 301 in 1899, only numbered 169 in 1900, wh1le German vessels rose from 78 in 1899 to 195 in 1900. This further great decrease in vessels flying the British flag was due to t he sale to German owners of the H olt line between Singapore an~ ?3angkok (the vessels still running under the Br1t1sh flag for a large part of 1899, but having all ceased to do so before 1900), and the transfer to the same nationality of the Scottish Oriental Steamship Company's line, which took place in 1900. The differ ence in the figures will be even more marked in the report for 1901, for some of the boats flew the Brit ish flag for a considerable period in 1900. French and Danish shipping are each represented by one small steamer, the former making fort nightly trips to Saigon, and the latter to t he Malay Peninsula. .
The Siamese Government is steadily pushing on its railway system, and during last year railway communication was opened betwee~ Bangkok and Korat. This marked the completion of the first of the State railways undertaken by Siam. The construction of this railway was commenced in March, 1892. The first section of it, from Bangkok to Ayuthia (71 kilometres) was opened in March, 1897, and this was extended to Gengkoi (54 kilometres further on) by the end of the year. The railway has been an expensive one in human life. Literally thousands of coolies-Chinese, Laos, · Siamese, and some Indians- have died upon the construction. Of Europeans engaged upon the work it is said that at least thirty died in the country, and of these nineteen were Brit ish. The route of the rail way passes by the thickly-wooded mountain range of the Dong Phya, which is always infested with dangerous fever. l{orat is about 130 miles from Bangkok as the crow fli es, and by rail 164 miles. Its trade, like that of Bangkok, is mainly in the hands of t he Chinese. The Lop buri line, which branches off from the main Korat line at Ban P adji (90 kilometres from Bangkok), has also been opened and is now working. It is 42 kilometres long, and is the coromencementof the line which, it is hoped, will eventually connect Bangkok with Chiengmai. The construction of the line to Ratburi and P etchaburi, on the west of the Bangkok River, is also progressing. This will be of metre gauge, the lines already referred to being of standard gauge. In addition to these Government rail ways there is a talk of several small private lines which are to be built. The construction of one in the Prabat district has commenced and others are projected .
While rail way construction in Siam has progressed regularly in rocent years, sufficient attention has hardly been given to the construction of roads and the maintenance and development of the excellent system of canals already existing. One considerable district has been immensely altered and improved in productive power by the construction of a long canal with many tributaries. A Dutch expert has recently been engaged to advise the Government upon irrigation, and it is evident that the authorities recognise the necessity not only of develo.Ping the railway system, but also of paying attentiOn to irrigation and water transport, and seem determined to place Siam in the forefront of the rice-exporting territories of the Far East.
In many other ways Siam is progressing. The ad vent of the cycle has done a great deal to cause an improvetnent in the roads, ~s many of the officials and the well-to-do pubhc have become thoroughly imbued with t he cycling craze, and their influence has been exerted towards the improvement of the roads. During the past two or three years the development of Bangkok has been very rapid in the building line, and a con-
[OcT. 18, 1901 . '
siderable part of the town has been reconstructed. Electric lighting and tramways have been introduced, and in many other respects the appliances of Western civilisation are being taken advantage of.
THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS .
(BY OUR SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT.)
THE great interest taken in the proceedings of the Buffalo meeting of the Society of American Engineers was maintained to the end, despite the sweltering heat of the dog-days. President Steinmetz enlivened matters by spicy introductory remarks and by an occasional interjection which usually served to throw a beam of light on the dark points of the matter in debate. His smiling countenance was an outward sign of the in ward joy which he fel t at the success of the Convention, as was also the radiant energy of his active and courteous secretary, Mr. Ralph W. Pope.
The representatives of foreign electrical societies vied with their American brethren in the attention with which they listened to t he reading of the abstracts of papers and the discussions which followed. M. Paul J a net was a conspicuous figure among the foreign delegates, as his high ofticial posi tion in the French capital very well warranted. Rising at the last session of the Convention, and speaking in the name of his colleagues, he expressed his admiration for all that he had seen and heard. H e was surprised by the high scientific character of some of the papers, and t he thoroughly practical spirit of others. M. J an et assured his hearers that his three weeks' fellowship with American electricians enabled him to add considerably to his intellectual equipment. In the plants which he had visited he recognised that the hardest and most complex problems in electrical engineering were being attacked, and with success. The power-house at Niagara was to him a monument to the ability and ingenuity of man, just as it was a practical demonstration of the fact that electrical engineering has taken its place to-day among the most exact of the exact sciences. There is nothing merely empirical about it, for everything rests on a sure scientific basis. Tell the engineer the requirements of a locality as well as the natural facilities which i t affords, and he will figure out to a nicety the dynamo-electrical machinery to be employed.
M. J a net concluded by assuring his hearers that they may always rely on a warm reception from any and all the members of the French Societe Internationale des Electriciens, which he was proud to represent on t hat occasion. It is needless to add that these remarks, delivered in eloquent French, were duly appreciated by t he large body of American engineers present.
When this episode, which seemed pleasing to every one, was over, Dr. P errine described some elements of design par ticular to long-distance transmission. The most important part of such designing, he insisted, referred to the regulation of all the variables of the transmission. In working short lines, even with alternating currents, the regulation as the load changes is determined almost completely by the resistance. Occasionally, when heavy currents are employed, the inductance effects have to be considered, and generally the mutual induction from and to other lines becomes an important factor, while the effect of capacity on the regulation is unimportant.
H owever, it must be remembered that the importance of the least factor-the capacity-increases with the quantity of t he charging current. This quantity depends not only on the capacity of the circuit, but also on the voltage and periodicity employed. With long-distance lines, the capacit y becomes the predominant factor.
Next in importance in its effect on regulat ion is inductance, for it exerts a direct influence on the reaulation of the system as the load changes. The m~re nearly the line capacity is balanced by outside inductances, the more important become the effects of self·induction, except where the load is absorbed by synchronous motors, rotary transformers, or other apparatus capable of operating with a leading power factor.
In concluding his remarks, Dr. Perrine pointed out that the highest possible potent ials are necessary in order to restrict the investment in very long transmission lines. When the volts rise above 30,000, certain phenomena in the problem of in-
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OcT. 18, 1901.]
sulation become important, which below that voltage could sa~ely be neglec~ed. V oltages up to 30,000 can readily be dealt wtth by means of insulators of gl~ss or porcelain, having a diameter not exceeding 7 1n. When the voltage rises to 30,000, the insulator3 must have a diameter of 12 in. or 13 in., and be held 7 in. or 8 in. above the crossarm.
A more striking difficulty in handling high voltages arises from surface tension. With high voltage and small wires this gives rise to brush discharges and high-energy loes, independent of the leakage which t!lkes place over the surface of the ~nsulato~s, being essentially an escape to surroundJog bodtes from the whole surface of the wire. T.his again leads to the important conclusion that htgh-potentiallong-distance transmission cannot be carried out successfully unless the power to be t ransmitted is itself large, so as to warrant t he use of conductors of considerable s ize.
Following Dr. Perrine, President Steinmetz rose to give a brief description of investigations which he had carried on for several years on the effect of the exponential term that occurs in the general equation of the alternating current, viz.,
A e-a. '~> . Under certain condit ions of the circuit, this term may give rise to a number of superim· posed oscillat ions of different frequencies and intensities which may have for resultant an excessi~ely high ~nd destructive voltage. In describing thts very smgular phenomenon, Mr. Steinmetz stated that the first time he noticed it was when making a series of observations on the effect of opening a high potential circuit with different types of circuit-breakers on an artificial line. This line consisted of inductive coils, and about half a mile of high-potential cable, with a spark gap between needle points connected across the system in order to measure an instantaneous rise of voltage. If the needle points were brought so close together that a discharge occurred bet ween them, then on short-circuiting the system, an extremely high voltage was invariably induced. It was concluded from this and other observations that a shortcircuiting high potential arc in free space, in a system containing self-induction and capacity, is a self-interrupting phenomenon which may cause very serious high-potential effects. This phenomenon can be observed on any high-potential limited power transformer by an entire change in the character of the arc between the high-potential terminals when inserting capacity by way of shunt.
Mr. Steinmetz did not cover blackboards with the forty equations contained in his investigation, and to only a few of them did he find himself compelled to refer. He preferred to describe the phenomena observed and the conditions of the circuit, and to describe them in the commonest terminology at command. 'l1he investigation led him to three conclusions : (1) That the most important source of destruct ive high-voltage phenomena in high-potential circuits containing inductance and capacity, are not resonance phenomena, but rather the electric oscillations produced by a change of conditions in the circuit, such as closing or opening it ; (2) that all such phenomena are essentially independent of frequency and waveform of impressed electromotive force, but depend upon the conditions under which the circuit is changed ; and (3) that the electric oscillations which occur in connecting a transmission line to the generator are not of dangerous potential, but the oscillations produced by opening the transmission circuit under load may reach destructive voltages, and, further, that the oscillations caused by interrupting a short-circuit are liable to reach voltages far beyond the strength of any insulation.
Mr. Steinmetz gave this brief analysis without referring to his paper. He has a clear voice and facile expression, and attracts attention by his magnetic personality. Though he speaks with a alight touch of a foreign accent, his dict ion has the right ring in it , and his phraseology is always scholarly. He has a great fund of humour and can thoroughly enjoy a joke, whether perpetrated by himself or by others.
Mr. Charles P. Steinmetz is the author of a recent work on electrical engineering, which has met with great favour in American colleges.
Among the other subjects discussed at the Buffalo meeting was ''Power Factor Indicators," by Mr. W. H. Browne; "Some Fundamentals of Electric 1\fetere, " by Mr. C. D H aakins ; and
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E N G I N E E R I N G.
"The Induction Motor and Rotary Converter, and their Relation to the Transmission ~ystem," by Mr. C. F. Scott.
It will be obvious from what precedes that the m em uers of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers did not go up the State to enjoy a summer vacation on the shores of Lake Erie or the woods of Canada, but rather to do some long listening, hard thinking, and arduous discussing. When two o'clock came round every day, one was not surprised to see them strolling through the grounds of the Exposition to one or other of the gates with inelastic step, and laden with papers which had formed the burden of the morning's intellectual work.
To gauge rightly the volume of work that was expected to be done, we must bear in mind that the programme sketched out by the officers of the
ociety included visits to the Niagara F alls Power Company, where attention was specially invited to the revolving field and alternating-current generators of 50,000 horse-power capacity ; the rotary converters of 1500 horse-power and static transformers of 15,000 horse-power; t he Canadian Niagara Power Company, with alternators of 1000 horse-power; the Pittsburg Reduction Company, with direct·current generators of 12,000 horsepower; the Carborundum Company, with static transformers and induction motors of 2000 horsepower; the Niagara Electro-Chemical Company with rotary convertors of 900 horse-power; the Cataract Power and Conduit Company, with watercooled static transformers of 21,000 horse-power ; the Tonawanda Power Company, with oil-insulated, self-coo1ing transformers of 3000 horse-power, rotary converters operating railways, of 1400 horse-power, and induction motors driving lighting generators of 300 horse-power.
Long as this is, it does not end the list of installations catalogued for the benefit of the visiting engineers, who, being rightly supposed to be of an eclectic disposit ion, were not expected to be guilty of indulging in overwork. For the relief of normal mental strain, congenial means were at hand in the quiet contemplation of the Falls, in the Gorge route, with its precipitous banks and foaming waters, as seen by day and by night, and also by the spectacular illuminat ions of the buildings and grounds of the Exposit ion, provided by the ingenuity of Mr. Henry Rustin, chief electrician of t he Pan-American Exposition.
The opportunity thus afforded for studying the achievements of electrical engineering, and the industrial applications of electric energy in sit'lt and on a grand scale, was unique; and the authorities of the Society are to be congratulated on the efforts which they made, and the success which they achieved in rendering the Summer Session of 1901 memorable in the annals of the Institute.
NOTES. THE BRIGHTON ExPRESS LINE.
IT has been stated that the Brighton Corporation have been offered the privilege of financing the proposed electric rail way to Brighton, and although we have no authoritative information on the subj ect, we have no doubt as to what they will do. Even the most ardent advocate of private enterprise in opposition to municipal trading could not raise objection. The statements published of the immense possibilities of t he line are so attractive that one cannot resist the temptation of analysing them; especially as it will save prospective speculators so much of trouble if not also of vexation. There is nothing inherently impossible in the scheme, so far aa engineering science is concerned; but the crudity of the information available precludes any definite statement on this score. A careful consideration of the cost of lines similarly laid down, the high speed, so glibly spoken of in the descriptions of this line, taken in conjunction with the expense of acquiring metropolitan property, tend to the view that the capital will not fall far short of 5 millions sterling. Even for the moderate return of 3 per cent. - and only a Municipality can afford to speculate for such a return- the net receipts would require to be 150, OOOl., and assuming that the traffic could be worked for 50 per cent. of the gross revenue-again a liberal estimate- the total receipts would have to mount up to 300,000l. This means that each mile of t he rail way would require to earn about 6350l. per annum, while the passenger receipts from English railways with the immense
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557 metropolitan earnings, and the intramural traffic in other large towns, only secure 2544l., and the average for the United Kingdom is 2076l., including excess baggage, horses, &c., or barely onethird of that necessary to pay the return of 3 per cent. on the Brighton line. The fares with the Utopian tra veiling facilities proposed are to be 5s. first-class return and 3s. third class; and looking to the preponderance of the third class to Brighton and back in the kingdom-there are 90 third-class passengers for every 100 travelling-the average fare will be about 3~. 6d.; and thus it comes that, to earn the return we ha,•e already mentioned, practically 5000 passengers must be carried each of the 365 days of the year. This may seem a small number for a summer's day ; but there a re the long winter months to reckon upon. I t must be remembered that there is not the constant t raffic of commerce as in the case of Liverpool and Manchester : all passengers will be on the intermibtent business of pleasure. Moreover, there is to be no suburban t raffic ; and it seems doubtful if passengers for intermediate stations are to be carried. Again, there is want ing the goods and mineral traffic, which constitute such a large and profitable source of revenue on ordinary lines. Indeed, the rail ways of the United Kingdom take 2447l. per mile open from this source, which makes all the difference between success and failure. We note that comment is made of the fact that the names of the financial backers have not been disclosed. In reference to the report that has appeared in the daily press that Mr. H. Parshall has undertaken the charge of t he electrical part of the work, we are authorised to publish a denial.
THE AuTOMOBILE CLUB's TRIALS. The last issue of A utomobile Olttb N otes and
Notices contains a report of the recent 500-mile road trial in Scotland. These trials extended over five days, the longest day's run being 116! miles. The Automobile Club have always discouraged " scorching, " and hence in making a wards no account has been taken of speeds exceeding the legal limit . On the other hand, every delay arising from any cause but traffic requirements was counted against the car in awarding marks. The maximum number of marks attainable was 300 per day, and one mark was deducted for each minute's delay. Two cars went through the whole trials without the deduction of a single mark. One of these was an Argyll Voiturette, entered in Class A, and therefore valued at under 250l., whilst the other was a 9 horse-power Napier car. The most frequent cause of trouble was failure of the ignition, whilst the steam cars lost a good number of marks through having to stop to take in water. Tyres seem to have caused little trouble, as we note only two cases of delay to which this cause is assigned. This, however, cannot be held to show that the tyre difficulty no longer exists, as no doubt most of the tyres used were new at the commencement of the trials ; and since high speeds were not aimed at, the tyres were not subjected to any specially severe test. In view of the fact that ignition and tyre troubles constitute the principal sources of trouble in motor cars, the club had arranged, in addition to the car trials, special t.rials of igniters and of tyres. Several manufacturers competed in them. 'fhe Sims-Bosch magneto igniter gained full marks, running perfectly throughout, and was awarded a gold medal; whilst a diploma was awarded to the Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company for a set of tyres fitted to a 12 hon~e-power car weighing 22 cwt. and carrying four passengers. The tyres proved in good condition at the end of the trials ; but it was considered that these did not last long enough to form a thorough test, and it is suggested that the company should enter a set for a 3000-mile run at the expense of the club, when, if sat,isfactory results were obtained, an award of a medal would be made. In making a wards for cars it was found necessary to separate the steam and petrol cars, as the two kinds are hardly comparable. The steam cars run more smoothly, and are much less noisy than the petrol cars ; but the latter are far more economical in fuel. In the end a gold medal was awarded a 5 horse-power petrol car, entered by the Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company, and also to a Locomobile steam car. The silver medals in this class fell to the lot of the New Orleans Motor Company, and of Messrs. De Dion Bouton, Limited. In Class B, in which cars valued between 250l. and 350l.
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ss8 we~e _entered? a silver medal only was awarded, the re01p1ents b e1ng t he Motor Manufacturing Company. In Class C, for cars valued at between 350l. and 500l. , the gold medal was taken by the W olseley T ool and M otor Car Company, and the silver m edal by the Motor Manufacturing Company. In Class D, for cars valued at more than 500Z., the gold medal was a warded to Messrs. G. F. Milnes and Co. Limited, and the silver medals to the Roadway Autocar Company, Limited, and the Motor Power Company, Limited. It is interesting to note that F~ench cars ~ave taken a secondary place in these tr1~ls, the h~~hest awards for pet rol cars being ga1ned by Br1t1sh· firms not working under French patents.
ELECTRIC LIFTS, WESTERN OF FRANCE RAILWAY.
Tl:iE new station of the 'Vestern of France R9.ilwa.y, at the end of the Esplanade des Inva.lides, will soon be. opened for the main line service ; several of the Bntta.ny trains will run int o it, taking at VerEa.illes th~ " _In~a.lid~s· Versai_lles " el~ctric rail way with siderail dtstrtbutt.ons. H1the!to 1t had only been used for suburban trams, and, owmg to the increased traffic expected, it has been found necessary to put down special apparatus for ~el.~ing wit~ the luggage. Among these a re two electr1c hfts, whtch connect the main hall of the station on the road level with the lines which run below. The necessary current is taken from the corn pa.uy's general electric system, which is three-phase, at 5000 volts, 25 periods, on lelYing the generating station, situa ted at Moulineaux-Billancourt a. distance of 4i miles from the InYalides rail way station.
The high·tenaion three·phase alternating current is led to t~e !ail way station ~hrough underground cables, where 1t 1s transformed m t o continuous current for lighting and for working various motors, in a. substa tion containing static transformers, which lowers the tension to 200 volts, and rotary sets of two machines keyed on one same shaft, one a. three· phase 200·volt motor and one a 120-volt continuom~-current generator, which supply the electric lifts. The latter are interesting in that they take exclusively a 120-volt current for all the relays, rheosta.ts, and commutators, the working of which, when starting or stopping the lifts, b oth in the upward and downward travel, is automatic throughout, simply by the action of press-buttons.
Weight of load taken .. . Travelling speed per second Total height of travel ... Dimensions of cage . . . . ..
1200 kilogs. (~645 lb.) .200 m. (7t in.) 4 m. (13 ftt.)
2. 5 m. x 1.5 m. (8ft. 2 in. x 4ft. 11 in.)
Heighb of cage ... . .. 2 m. (6 fb. 6 in.) The mechanical part of the lifts consists of an iron
framing, strongly stayed, and in which the cage is guided; a platform is provided on top, on which are placed the dynamo, commutators, resista.nces, &c. The cage is built up of plates and angles, with an oak flooring; it is suspended on a plate-chain, which turns over a. pulley a nd carries at the other end a counterweight, which balances half the deadweight, cage, chain, and accessories, and half the weight of the load. The cage is suspended to a second safety chain, which, should the first chain happen to break, would limit the falling speed to about three times normal speed, by means of a centrifugal device, on which the safety cha in is wound. This device is in constant working, and comi.sts mainly of a casing, on the sides of which weights press leather bands, whioh act as brakes. When a given speed is exceeded, the centrifugal f<;>rce causes these weights to act. An automatic working trellised guard and railing are provided ou both leYels. .
The rotation of the dynamo is transmitted to the pulley shaft through a. speed·reducing arrangemen t, containing a steel endless screw and a helical wheel of gun-metal. The electric motor is 8 horse-power, amply sufficient for working the lift. I t is of the tetrapola.r type, and runs at 650 revolutions per minute. It is with two exciting circuits, one shunt and one in series. The motor starts in series, then through the automatic rht:osta.t the inserted resista.nces are progressively out.circuited ; the series inductors are then cut out, and shunt exciting remains alone for normal work in g. The automatic rheostat is, moreover, arranged in such a way that when it is not on the starting key the action of the press-buttons has no effect on the commutators.
The stoppage of the lift at each level is automatic by means of contacts, which, on being met by the cage, produce a r eYerse action of the commutators. Should these contacts not work, and should the cage continue travelling, it would meet supplementary contacts. In extreme cases, the cage would work a. make-and-break on the main leader.
Besides the necessary combination for starting and stopping the lift, the automatic commutators give also the following connections when it stops : The motor
E N G I N E E R I N G. [OcT. 18, 1901.
armature is short-circuited through a resistance, a.nd ~he extra break-induC'ed current of the shunt exciting IS absorbed by the circuiting of a non-inductive resistance.
standstill. He can therefore give all his a.tbention to the track and signals. The apparatus are so arranged that starting and braking is carried out withoub any shooks a?d gradually: the driver cannot, moreover, start a.t ~ ht~her speed than that for which the macbine.q were butlb. The cables and lines in the car are so plaood tbab there is absolutely no danger; in the event of a. short?ircui b, the current is automatically cob out by the meltmg of a. safety fuse. No ourrenb enters the car itself, and al~ parts are meballically connected together and with the rails.
The_ commutators are b1lancing apparatus which fStabh~h the contlcts by the plunging of a. metallic finger 1n mercury, or in metallic foil for low intensity. There is oue of these apparatus for each d irection of travel, and each commutator switches in or out by t he action of the press- buttons or contacts, through electro-magnets excited by branch lines from the main leader.
The nse of electriciby is surrounded with many advantages, nob only for long distance travelling, hub also for suburban a.t;td inter-urban service; electric tra-ction may even be sa1d to be the only means with which to ?Ope ~ith the constantly increasing traffic on existmg _hnes. On the latter, however, the running of smgle cars would nob meeb the situation and brains musb be resorted to, formed of several' cars, the first and the last being motor oar~, the train being hauled by the car which is in front. The motor cars being made to carry passengers as well as the trailing car3, ~ larger nu~ber of paB!!engers can be dealt with than 18 the case w1th steam traction. Besides this with electriciny a. larger tractive power is available, the 'trains can be started and stopped quicker, a. more rapid succession in the trains can be secured, increasing the traffic largely for a given time.
The two lifts have now been working for several months, and have given every satisfacti')n.
HIGH-SPEED RAILWAYS. By MR. 0 . LASORE.
A REPORT on high·speed electric railways and main railway lines:-the q?estion of the day~was read ~y M r. 0. LMche, chtef engmeer of the Allgememe E lektrtciHi.tsGesell~chafb~ a.t the mee.ting of the Railway Intelligence Commtttee, neld a.t Berhn on the 8th inst.
The writer pointed out that faster and more numerous means of communication were rendered every day more and more imperative, owing to the large development of commerce and industry in various countries; owing also to the commercial intercourse which exists between the several countries, and to the extent of exchanges between commercial and industrial centres. Travelling is too slow, by reason of the speed now ruling and time losb in waiting for subs~quenb trains. Single ca~s running ab high-speed, succeedmg each other at short mtervals and travelling from one .:hief town. to another, would meeb a. great need, as also would a. raptd traffic, under the same conditions and at stated intervals, from large towns and industrial ce?tres to ~h~ open country. This want can be filled by usmg electrlCtty as the source of power. Electric motors which contain no connectins- rods and cranks to produc~ shocks and vibrations, are highly suited for great speeds. The absence of smoke and dust, and the possibility with single cars of having a view both to the fronb and to the re~r, together with smoother riding, increase to a. great extenb the comforts of travelling.
As is now well known, the German Committee for high·speed electric traction on railways* is now contemplating the carrying out of a. series of trials, the result of which will be to lay down the conditions for a. travelling speed of 125 to 155 miles a.n hour. ltJ is even now possible to state that with tracks as at present built, and with electric traction, S_Peeds up to 94 miles can easily be attained, an electr1c single car causing much less st ra.in on the track and bridge13 than do the steam locomotives now in use. The highest weight on the wheels of an express locomotive is 7~ tons; it is only 5 tons in the case of a. single electric car. The totJal weight of a. fast train, with five corridor carriages, is about 250 tons; thab of an electric single car, for long distance travelling, is only 40 tons. The wearing action in a. steam locomotive of the mechanism with reciprocating motion and counterweights on the driving wheels, should be taken into account also in the comparison. Taking a train with four carriages, and containing the full complement of passengers, the train weight per passenger works out at about 1 ton, while that of a.n electric car is only about three-fifths of a ton. There is therefore less work needed with the electric oar for carrying the same number of passengers, without counbin~ the proba\tiliby of a. much faster traffic. While maintaming the present system of steam traction, a. step forward in the way of progress would be made, if separate strebches were worked electrically ab times when fa.sb traffic is most needed.
On the other band, each locomotive cn.rries with ib its source of power ; with electric traction the· same source of power is centralised ab one spot, from which the necessary current is supplied. In the electric central stations, coal is better and more completely utilieed ; i'n other words, 1 lb. of coal produces much more power in a central station than on a locomotive. All the progress realised in engine con::~truction and in eleotrotecbnics, can be turned to a. better profib in the central station. Its situation can be so chosen that cost of delivery is a. minimum. lb can be also put down near a. mine for the burning of inferior quality coal which it would not pay to transport. In tho~e countries in which there are waterfalls available, these can be used for generating currenb for traction purpo3es ; in Switzerland, Italy, and Sweden examples of large hydro-electric stations are very numerous. The transport to a distance of electric power in the shape of eleobric currents is at the present time surrounded with ho difficulty whatever ; thus ourrents of the very highest pressure, up to, eay, 50,000 volts, can be carried without difficulty and without danger over long distances, through lines comparatively small in section. It is necessary, however, to take a. three-_Phase current, which has many advantages in a teohmca.l point of view, and is simpler to reduce to a lower tension for war king the motors.
F or electric traction, safe travelling must, of course, be provided for in the mosb complete manner. The construction of electric cars has been so improved that the working of all the apparatus is now effected with one single band wheel. When the d river wants to start the car, he has only t o turn the ha.ndwheel to the right, the speed increasing the more be turns it. In order to reduce the speed, he brings the handwbeel to the left, and by turnin~ it completely round to the left, he finishes by switchmg on the electric brake, and brings the car to a.
* See TRACTION AND TRANSMISSION, vol. ii. , page 42.
The writer also entered into the description of various technical details in the construction of the car designed by hi~ company ; and stated that owing to the complete expenments they carried out previous to the building of their high-speed car, the latter will serve as a. type for future oars. The most impor tant parts are stated to be the apparatus for driving the car and the motors ; these are on quite novel lines, they are simple to manufacture, their action is an easy one, they take up little room, are low in weight, and their working can be completely relied upon. With regard to the motors, their suspension formed the principal question, and after careful considerati~n, a. special method of suspension through springs was decided upon.
The writer fur ther expressed the wish that all members of the committee should contribute in hastening the development of electric railways; and pointed out thab ib was essential, in dealing with such complicated but important questions, to give them publicity in order to mvite criticism from every specialist in the matter.
AMERICAN STREET .RAILWAYS.-The Worcester (Massachus~tts) Cons~lidated Street.R~ilwa.y Company, which is makmg great Improvements m Its system, has J?.laced a.n order with the Allis-Oha.lmers Company, of Mllwa.nkee for a.n engine to drive a. 2000-kilowabb generator which means considerably more than 3000 horse-pow~r and with a. maximum capacity of more than 4000 horsepower, to. take ca.re of the ov~r-loa.d. The engine will not be dehv~red and set up unttl Jul~ 1, 1902,. that being the bes t which any of the large Amenoan engme-builders could do. Th~ eng~ne will be of the vertical compound type. The pnce will be about 50,000 dols. The Consolidated Compa.ny has also placed an order for the 2000-kilowatt generator with the General Electric Company.
CATALOOUES.-The British Manufacturing Company Limited, of iO, Y ork-road, London, N., have issued ~ pa.mpbleb illustrating a. number of electric light sign· boards and ~y~tems of shop display lights, of which they make a. spema.hty.-Tbe Brown Brothers Manufacturing Company, of Campbell-avenne, Chicago, have sentJ us a. booklet describing the Hamner core machine. In this machine cores either solid or hollow are made by ex· trusion. The core material is fed into a. hopper and delivered finished from the machine a.t the rate of 100ft. per hour. The standard size of machine makes ten sizes of core, ranging from H in. to 1i in. in diameter, bob dies for intermediate sizes are also supplied when desired.-The firms of Messrs. Dorman, L ong, and Co., Limited, and l.VIessrs. Bell Brothers, Limited, both of ~idd~esbroug?, have jointly issued a pamphle.t describing, wtth illusbrat10ns, the spe01a.l features of their respective establishments. The two firms are very closely allied, Messrs. Dorman, Long, and Co. holding one· half the ehares of Messrs. Bell Brothers, Limited. Most of the steel used at Messrs. Dorman, Long, and Co.'s establishment is made from Cleveland ore. Messrs. Hell Brothers have recently adopted the •' mixer " system in their steel works ; the cast iron from the blast . furnaces being poured into a large tank capable of holding 300 tons of molten iron, and from this the charges for the steel furnaces are drawn a.s required. A very complete catalogue of electric lighb, from the simplest to the most elaborate, has been jusb published by the General Electric Company, Limited, of 69, 71, 88, and 92, Queen Victoria. street, E.C. A new feature is a.n incandescent street lantern. The hood and reflector of the lantern have the lamps attached to it and is hung in such a. manner that the whole of the upper part oa.n be swung back for changing or cleaning lamps.- Messrs. Denny, Matt, and Dickson, Limited, of 165, Fenchurch·streeb, E.C., send us an explanatory pamphlet concerning "Compoboard." This material, which is made in sheets 4 ft. wide, rang· ing in length from 6 ft. to 18 fb., is made of a. wooden core composed of thin narrow straighb slats of wood, joined edge to edge by cementing material, forced between them by grea.b pressure. These slats run crosswise of the material. The faces of the compoboard are formed of heavy pressed paper boards, and the complete t~hicknees varies from 1\ in. to 17~ in. The material is intended for lining walla and pa.rtit1ons in place of plaster, but many other uses suggest themselves where large panels not liable to split or warp are required.
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OcT. 18, rgo1.]
NOTES FROM THE NORTH. GLASGOW, W ednesday.
G!Mgo1o Pig-Iron Market.-Last Thursday forenoon the market was very slack, there being only a little over 2000 tons of iron dealt in, and that was wholly in Cleveland, which finally lost ~d. per ton. Sootoh iron was not named. At the afternoon eession the business consisted of 500 tons of Scotch, and prices k epb fairly firm. The prico of the cotch iron was 533. 4~d. per ton one month, with buyers over. The settlement! _ptioea were : Scotch, 53s. 4! d ; Cleveland, 46s. 7~d.; Cumber land hema.tite iron, 59&. 9d. per ton. G lasgow pig iron market was steady on Friday forenoon, out very quiet, only about 2000 tons being dealt in. Cleveland , to which business was confined, wa~ the turn better at 46s. 7d. per ton cash, with buyers over. Scotch warrants were quoted ab last price-53s. 7~d . per ton cash. Aboub 6000 tons of Cleveland changed hands in the afternoon, the quotation closing, as in the forenoon, at 45s. 7d. per ton cash buyers, after being done ~d. per ton higher. Scotch warrants, which were again quite idle, were quoted at 53s. 7d. sellers one month, being an improvement on the day of l~d. per ton . The settlement prices were : 63s. 4~d. , 45s. 6d., and 59d. 9d. per ton. On Monday forenoon the warrant market was quite lifeless, nob more than 1000 tons being dealt in. P rices were steady ab F riday's level. Ab the afternoon session some 2000 tons changed bands, and prices remained steady, b ut Scotch warrants left off ab 53s. 8~d . per ton. '£be settlement Qrices were: 5:33. 7~d. , 46~. 7~d . , and 69s. 9d. per ton. Dealing was extremely idle on Tuesday forenoon, just 2000 tons being dealb io. Scotch warrants were done only to the extent of one lob for an odd date. Cleveland was the turn ea~ier ab 46s. 6~d. cash buyer fl, and Scotch was offered for the end of the year ab 63:i. per ton. In the afternoon 3000 tons of Cleveland changed hands, the closing prices being 453. 6d. per ton cash, with buyers over, and tlius there was a decline on the day of ld. per ton . Cleveland was also done at 44s. 7d. and 44s. nd. for three months. S cotch warrants closed the burn better on the d ay a.b 53s. 9d. cash sellers. The settlement prices were: 53:i. 7~d., 45s. 7!<J. , and a9s. 9d . per ton. At the forenoon market to-day aomQ 4000 tons of iron were dealt in, all Cleveland. ~coboh was offered at 553. per ton end of the year d elivery, bu b there were no buyers. In the afternoon about 3000 tons changed hands, includin~ a few lots of Cleveland ab45s. and 44s.lld. per ton for the end of the year, and 44s. 7d. three months. For cash Scotch was ld. per ton down from the forenoon. The Esettlemenb prices were: 53s. 7~d. , 45s. 4~d., and 59s. 9d. per ton. The following are the market q uotations for makers' iron No. 1: Clyde, 663. 6d. ; Gartsherrie and Calder, 67s. ; La.ogloan, G9~. 6d. ; Summerle~ 71s.; Coltness, 72s. per ton-all foregoing were shipped at Glasgow; Glenga.rnook (shipped ab Ardrossa.nk 66s.; Shotts (shipped at Leith), 70s.; Carron (shipped a.t u ra.ngemouth), 67£1. 6d. per ton. Glasgow pig iron has again been in a very somnolent condition during the past week. The aggregate turnover for a week would nob exceed 46,000 tons, and the fluctuations were confined within the narrowest limits. The furnaces in blast in Scotland number 84, as against 83 a. week Pogo, and 81 ab this time last year. Deahoga in Cleveland have again been the feature of the week. Forward iron has been pressed for sale ab relatively lower prices than for " cash , warrants. The settling is attributed to Cleveland makers, who ~how e. little more ~erness to book forward contracts. The stook of pig uon in Messrs. Conoal and Co. s public warrant estores stood yesterday afternoon ab 58,160 tons, as compared with 58,235 tone yesterday week, thus showing for the week a. reduction amounting to G6 tons.
Steel Rails and Nails.-The price of steel rails has been ad vanoed 53. per too, and Scotch nail makers have increased their p r ice for steel nails to the exten t of lOa. per boo.
l t'inished Iron and Steel.-Busineas ab bhe moment is just a. little dull, both in finished iron and in steel. There are reports from South Staffordshire as to the condition of trade there, makers of finished iron being full of orders, and the prices 10s. per ton dearer than they were three mon ths since. Unmarked bars are 5s. per ton up ; and the same is true in reference to rolled steel. These repor ts cannot bub fail to inspire the makers of iron and steel in Scotland. Still, there is a greab amount of work in pro· gress, and in some works the order-books are well filled.
Sulphate of Ammonia.- Dealing in this commodity is generally very brisk. The shipments for the week ending last Saturday amounted to 306 tons a.b L eith, and a.t the ao.me· port the shipments for September of this year amounted to 2285 tons, as comp~red with 2684 tons in the corresponding month of last year.
Professoria.l.Appoimtment to a Gla3gow L eot'INTer.-Mr. George Roberb 'l'bom~son, B.Sc., A .R.S.M., L ecturer on ~fining and Geology m tbe Glasgow and West of Sootland Technical College, has been ap_pointed to the Chair of Mining in the Y orkshire College, L eeds. Mr. Thompson recently visited British Columbia for the purpose of etudying the mineral strata in that country. A fter his return to Glasgow he acted as local secretary of the Geological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of cience. H e has for some time acted as the lecturer on geology in bhe U niversity of Glasgow, under the H oneyma.n-Gillespie Trust, in connection with the natural history professorship.
,TAPAN.R E P oPULATION.-The population of Japan in 1888 was 30 607,000. Ten years later the corresponding population had grown to 43,762,000, showing an m crease of 4,156,000, or something over 10 per cenb. during the deoade.
£ N G I N E £ R I N G.
NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE. SnRrFIELD, Wednesday.
Messr3. Earlfi3 Shipbuilding and Engineering Works. - The news that the Court had sanctioned the purchase by Mr. 0. H. Wilson, M.l.,. , as a g-oin~ concern, of the undertaking of Mfssra. Earle's Sh1pbulldiog and E ngineering Oompany, Limited, was nob unexpected ab Hull. Twelve mont~hs ago, Mr. Wilson offered to pub down 200, OOOl. for the resuscitation of the concern, and to provide another 100, OOOl. for working capital. Ab that time Sir Christopher F urness promised to personally take a.n interest in the company (before it went into liquidation ), for the building of large as well as small s teamers, a.od for increasing the marine engineering business. If, under the new conditions1 Sir Christopher will take the same interest in the yard, 1b will. it is generally considered, be a. good thing for East Hull, which has severely felt the closing of the works.
Large Outlay on Water Works at Bradford. - On T uesday, October 8, Mr. James \ Va.tson (the water works engmeer) reported to the B radford C1ty Council that a total storage capacity of 2620 million gallons of water is needed. 'l,he ag~rega.te storage capacity of all the present re..qervoi rs, 1mpounding and ser vice, is only 1660 million gallons, a deficiency of 760 million gallons. The Nidd V alley scheme provides for the construction of three large reservoirs on the River Nidd, with a. total storage capacity of 2596 million gallons, and Mr. Watson recommended that the reservoir a.b Augram should be gone on with as quickly as I_>oaaible. This would add 810 million gallons to the existmg storage. The Augram reservoir, and the works connected with it, will take seven or eight years to construct, and altogether the expense of the new reservoir would be 300,000l.
T he Batley Trwm1vays Oontraot.-The electric traction committee of the Ba.tley Corporation have decided to recommend the T own Council to let the contra.ob for the laying of the permanent way in connection with the pro· ~sed electric tramways to Messrs. Grahe.m Brothers, of Huddersfield, for 30,000&.
Iron and Steel. -The improvement referred to last week in the demand for high-class crucible ste~l has, during the last few day~, extended to the medium and commoner qualities. Now that the quarter has well turned, consumers are placing their ordera more freely, and although not to the same extent as ab t his period last year some houses are doing a. fair amount of trade. During the period of depression steelma.kers have had to stock in order to keep their men together; and although this has been kept to the lowest possible point, there are considerable accumulations of s teel on their hands. The rolling mills and forges a re better employed now than they were a for tnight ago, and prospects a re regarded as more encouraging. Ab most of the iron foundries there is a lack of work, and many men are either wholly idle or only working short time. Some of the engineering firms are fairly employed on grinding, punching, shearing, and similar machinery both for the home and foreign markets. T here are no ~igns of increased work in the fi le trade. The Government are still good customers for all kinds of excavating tools, chiefly for South Africa, and generally the trade is up to average.
South Yorkshire Coal Tradt. -Coalowners in the district continue to find regular employmen t for the miners, and there is an average all-round business doing. The demand for s team coal is well maintained, large supplies being taken by the inland markets, and the se.btlemenb of the Grimsby strike has improved the demand for export. Best bards range in price from 103. to lla. per ton; hub the latter figure is only occasionally realised. Business in house qualities, which last week showed a decrease, is again impl'oviog. 'frade wi th the eastern counties and with the Metropolis is steady, and there is a good local sale. Best Silkatones are quoted at 13~. 6d. bo 14~. per ton, and beat Barnsley house 123. to 123. 6d. per ton. Difficulty is experienced in finding a market for engine fuel, and prices are consequently weaker. Nuts make from 7a. 6d. to Ss. 6d. per ton: screened slack from 5s., and pit slack from 33. per ton. T he improvement in the coke trade is maintained.
BaTH ELEOTRTO TRAMWAYS.- The Board of Trade has issued an order authorising the establishment of a system of t ramways for Bath and its tmburbs, and the work of construction is to be proceeded with by the promobera (Sir James Sivewrighb, Mr. L eopold Hiraob, and others) for thwith. The order follows the lines of an agreement entered into between the promoters and the town council, who supported the application for statutory powers ma<le by the outside promoters upon terms which had been arranged. 'l'hese were somewhat interfered with by the Light Railway Commissioners, who refused to let the town council receive an annual way leave of 400l. , rising a fter fi ve years to 450l., and after a further five yeard bo 500l., and ordered a capitalised sum to be paid to and expended by the council in street wideniogs on the line of route. The amount to be paid was settled by an actuary, who awarded the council 11,400l., a very considerable advance upon the sum which had been expected. As to the terms of purchase a.b the end of 32 years if the council so desire, some difficulty arose from the fact that part of the lines are outside the borough; but in this respect t he council has ~ained its poin t, for the order says if the other purohasmg authorities do not acquire these p ortions of the lines the council may do so. The council has already given notice to compulsorily acquire the existing horae tramways, and under its agreement will hand them over ab the price paid, pluB the costa incurred.
559
NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE NORTHERN COUNTIES.
MIDDLESBROUGH, Wednesday. The (Jlevela;nd, Iron Tradt.- Y estorda.y the market was
fairly well attended, hub business was rather q uiet. No. 3 Olevela.nd pig was easier in price, but several of bh~ o~her qualities showed a. marked upward tendency. P1g-uon producers, nearly all of whom are well situated so far as orders are concerned, adhered very firmly to their q notations, and they were nob prPssing any iron on the market. They pub the price of No. 3 g.m.b. Cleveland pig iron atl 45s. 6d. for prompt f.o.b. delivery, and would nob, as a. rule, enterta in offers below that tigure. Purchases were made, however, ab 45s. 4~d. from second hands, and even less was said to ho.ve been accepted in some oases. Merchants were ready enough to sell ab the last. mentioned figure. The lower qualities of Oleveland pig were rather scarce. No. 4 foundry was raised to 44s. 9d. ; grey forge could nob be bought under 44s. 6d.; mottled was steady at 44s., and white was pub a.b 43s. 6d. There were a good few inquiries for Ea.sb Ooasb hematite pig, but a.a they were nearly all for early delivery, they d1d nob, as a. rule, lead to business, there being no iron available for sale over the next week. or two-the output for thab period being fully disposed of, and there being no stocks to draw upon. 'fhe output was admitted to be too small to meet the requiremen ts, and makers declared that there were considerable di fficuloies in the way of further increasing the production. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were advanced to 60s. 6d. for November deli very. Spanish ore was steady, rubio being 15s. 9d. delivered here. To day the market was dull, a.od few t ransactions were recorded. No. 3 Cleveland pig was said to be obtainable ab 45s. 3d. for promJ?b f.o.b. delivery, but sellers aa a rule hesitated to do busmess ab tha.b figure. Quotations for other descriptions were unaltered. D eliveries of pig iron continue on a fairly satisfactory scale.
Manufactured Iron and Steel.-The mannfaobured iron and steel industries present few new features. Most firms keep very well employed, and are turning out a lob of work. Quotations generally are upheld, common iron bars being 6l. 5s. ; best bars, 6l. 15s.; iron abip·pla.tes, 6l. 17s. 6d. ; steel ship-plates, 6l. 53. ; iron ahip-aogl~, 6l. 2a. 6d. ; steel ahip·a.ngles, 5l. 17s. 6d. ; iron sheets, 8l. lOa. ; steel sheets, 8l. 15s. ; and steel boiler-pla.tet~, 7l. 15.3.-all leas the customary 2~ per cent. discount for cash. Heavy sections of stAel rails are 6l. 10s. ; and oastiron railway cha.ira, 3l. lOs.- both neb cash a.t works.
Cleveland Miners' Wages.- An interview took place ab the Cleveland Mineowners' offices here on Monday between representatives of t he Cleveland minera and the Oleveland mine·owoers with regard to the wa~es for the ensuing quarter. Sir Da.vid Dale, Barb., presided. It was pointed out to the men's representatives that the price of p1g iron for the past quarter was 45s. 10.09d., a~ainst 47s. 0.58d. for the previous quarter, and than, a.ccordmg to recent proeedure, a. reduction was now due of 2.2 per cent. But having regard to circumstances indicated, the. owners felt that there were reasons why their claim might fairly be put ab 3 per cen t. Influenced, however, by the very strong appeal of the men's delegates, the owners intimated that 21 per cent. would be accepted in settlement. A further meeting will be held on 1lhe 25th iosb., after the owner's proposal has been placed before the miners.
Coal and Ooke.-There is nob much change in the fuel trade. Coal prices are pretty much the same a~ a. week ago. Coke is scarce, the supply falling a good deal ahorb of the demand, and quotations are moving upwards. The local consumption continues heavy, and average blastfurnace qualities have been advanced to 16s. 9d. delivered here. Export coke ranges from 18~. to 18s. 6d. f. o.b.
• THE MAIDEN VoYAGE Oli' TUE NoBTH GERMAN LLorn
LINER " KuoNPRINZ WILHELM."-The following iR the log of the first voyage of the twin-aorew steamer "Kron· prioz Wilhelm " :
Out·ward. September 18. Passed Oberbourg breakwater, 8 p.m.
Distance, 30J6 miles. Po.seage, 6 days 10 hours 16 minutes. Average speed, 19.74 knots
Bo-rneward3, October 1. Pas3ed Sandy Uook lig bt veesel, 2.10 p.m.
11 2. 480 miles. , a. 6B6 , " 4. 634 11
11 6. 682 " 11 6. 640 11
11 7. 365 ,, to Plymouth, arrived at 4.68 a.m.
Distance, 2087 11
Passage, 6 days 0 hours 48 minutes. Average speed, 28.01 knote.
The mean horae. power on the homeward round was 33,000 indicated horse·power. On the outward voyage the vessel experienced on some of the days moat boisterous weather, the waves running a2 hi~h as t he cha.rb and wheel-house. Mr. Kohr, the eogineermg director of the V uloan Company, of Stebtin, who built the ship, and I nspector Boy le, of the North German Lloyd, were on board during the voyage, and are to be congratulated on the result. The Kronprinz Wilhelm lef t on the 15bh insb. on her second voyage.
• •
s6o E N G I N E E R I N G.
NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST'. MISCELLA.l~EA. Cardiff.-The steam coal trade has exhibited a rather THE bwenty.third of the series of Brewers' Exhibitions,
steadier tone; the best descriptions have made 17a. to held annually ab the Royal Agricultural Hall, will be 17e. 3d. {>er ton, while secondary qualities have brought opened to-morrow, and close on the 25th inst. 16s. to163.3d.perton. There has beenaboutanaveragede- We are informed thattheopeningmeeting of theseasion mand for household coal ; No. 3 Rhondda. large has been quoted at 15s. 6d. per ton. Patent fuel has been rather of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, for the presen-inactive. The demand for coke has, however. been well tation of premiums and the presidential address, will be on maintained; foundry qualities have brought 19.3. to 203. Thursday, November 21 instead of on November 14. per ton, and furnace ditto, 16s. 3d. to 17a. 6d. per ton. The traffic receipts for the week ending October 6 As regards iron ore, the best rubio has made 14~. 3d. to on 33 of the principal linea of the United Kingdom 14s. 6d. per ton, while Tafna. has been quoted ab 153. to amounted to 1, 996, 766l., which wag earned on 20,153;f 15s. 6d. per ton. mile~. For the corresponding week in 1900 the receipts
Sewage Disposal at Cartl~ff.-Tbe Cardiff borough of the same lines amounted to l,Sl38,409t .• with 19,885~ engineer has presented a report dealing with a suggestion miles open. There was tbue an increase of 58,357l. in the that bacterial treatment should be adopted for the sewer- receipts, and an increase of 267! in the mileage. age of the western district. ~Ir. Harpur states that the A remarkable feature about the new generating plant bacterial process is intended purely for domestic sewage ; about to be laid down ab the Willesden station of the and therefore is very unsuitable for the district. Metropolitan E lectric Supply Company, Limited, is that
Adntiralty Coal Oontracts.-Contra.ots have just been the two-phase current is to be generated direct at 11,000 let by the L ords of the Admiralty for nearly 60,000 tons volts in place of being produced at a. lower potential and f 1 Th f 11 · · 1· b then raised to 11,000 volts by step·up transformers, as is
o steam coa . e o owlDg IS a 1st of t e contractors, the case with the existing plant. which was su~>_plied by with the q_uantiby each is to supply: Locket's Merthyr the Westinghouse Company. MessrP. Witting Brothers, Colliery, Limited, 7000 tons; Crawahay Brothers. Limited, of 49, Cannon·street, E.C., have secured the Cffarbhfa, Limited, 5000 tons; D. Davis and Sons, contract for the new work. The plant will consist of two L1mited, Ferndale Colliery, 5000 tons; Guest, Keen, and Co., Limited, Dowlais Colliery, 5000 tons; Hill's 3000-kilowatt two-phase "Kolben " generators driven by Plymouth Company, Limited, 10,000 tons; Powell "Sulzer" engines running at 75 revolutions per minute. Duffryn Steam Coal Company, Limited, 5000 tons; The trade and navigat10n returns for September show Lewis's Merthyr Navigation Company, Limited, 6000 imports amounting to 38,208,791l. , a decrease of 3,024.06ll., tons; and Cory Brothera and Co., Limited, 10,000 tone. or 7.3 per cent., on the corresponding month of 1900, the
South Welsh Coal and Iron.-Tbe exj)orta of coal from exports amounting to 21,971,302l.1 a decrease of 2,'588,509l., the six principal Welsh ports-Cardiff, Newport, Swansea, or 10.5 per cent. The value of tne iron and steel exports Port Talbob. Llanelly, and Neath-in September were: was 2,075,859t., against 2.375:350l., a decrease of 12.6 per Foreign, 1,500,659 tone; coastwif*l, 323,234 tons; total, cent.; and of the coal and coke exports2,518,222l., against 1,823,893 tons. The export3 of iron and steel from the 3, 791,457t., a decrease of 33.5 per cent. For the nine months six ports during the month were 4361 tons; of coke, ended September 30 imports amounted to 384,460, 711l., 9315 tons; and of patent fuel, 116,315 tollll. The exports an increase of 5,273,069l., or 1.3 per cent.; exports to of coal from the six ports during the nine months ending 209,359,040l., a decrease of 9,112,715l., or 4.1 per cent.; September 30 were: Cardiff, 11,828,832 tons; Newport, and re·exports to 50,543,899l, an increa~e of 2,500,901l., 2,545,541 tons; S wansea. 1,547,980 tons· Port Talbot, or 5.2 per cenb. 313,592 tons; Llanelly, 193,805 tons ; and Neatb. 22,166 The Merryweather salvage plant supplied to Dover tons; making an aggregate of 16,451,916 tons. The ex. Harbour recently was brought into use successfully on ports of iron and steel were : Cardiff, 20,583 tone; New- Sunday last, the 13th inst. A collision in the Channel report, 23,338 tons; Swansea, 285 tons; and Port Talbob, suited in the sinking of the a. a. Refulgent and such Llanelly. and Nea.th nil; making an aggregate of 44,206 serious damage to the e.~. Alonzo, that her captain sigtons. The exports of coke were: Cardiff, 48,177 tons; na.lled for help. Cd.ptain Iron sent out a tug with the Newport, 16,305 tons; dwam~ea, 6582 tons; Port Talbot, salvage planb, which consists of alight water. tube boiler, 7879 tons; and Llanelly and Neath, nil i making an aggre-j horizontal engine, and centrifugal pump, the whole being ~ate of 78,943 tons. The exports of patent fuel were: one· third the weight of ordinary apparatus of the same Cardiff, 319,420 tons ; Newport, 63,129 tons; Swansea, power. The plant was rapidly pub on board the Rinking 350,878 tons; Port Talbot, 44,412 tons; and Llanelly ship. steam raised in 15 minutes, and pumping started. and Nea.th, nil i making an aggregate of 777,639 tone. As the damage was below the water-line. the Alonzo was
The Electric Light at Bristol.-Ab a meeting of the run ashore while repairs ~ere made, and on Mo!lday she elootrical committee of the Bristol City Council on Friday, was despatched to Dunkuk. the salvage plant bemg kept the committee considered a. communication from the on board to keep her fr€e of water. sanitary committee respecting the sub-shtion near the On September 23 la.sb some great records fo!' __ producVicboria Rooms, and instruc~ed the engineer to prepare tion were made at the Edgar Thomson Steel Works of and submit plans fo11 alterations on the lines suggested. the Carnegie Steel Company at Bessemer. On the day It was decided to substitute a standard for the bracket mentioned the day turn in the converting mill made 106 on the premises in Clare. street, formerly occupied by Mr. blows and 1602 tons of ingots. The night torn followed E. Thornley. The committee was informed that Mr. with 119 blows and 1789 tons of ingots, a total of 3391 R. W. L. Phillips, chief assistant engineer, bad resigned tons of ingots in 24 hours. The day turn in the blooming his appointment on being appointed borough electrical mill made 107 beats and turned out 1435 tons, t be night engin~er at Be~ford. Ib was decided to re~ommen~ the turn following with 118 h.eats and an output of 1545 tons, counctl to appomt Mr. H. H. Couzens, malDS engmeer, or a total of 2980 tons of mgots bloomed m 24 hours. On to the position vacated by Mr. Pbillips, and to advertise the eame day No-. 1 rail mill turned out 2185 tons of for a successor to Mr. Couzene. Short extensions of the finished rails, while another smaller mill turned out 545 mains were sanctioned in Stapleton·road, So. Stepben's- tons. or a total of 2730 tons of finished rails in 2! hours. street, and Ca.mbridge.atree~, 'rotterdown. Tenders were In No. 1 rail mill heavy eeotiona of rails up to 100 lb. are received for structural alterations ab the Temple Back rolled, while in the other mill lighter sections are rolled. Station, necessitated by the erection of a new switch- These records for output have never been equalled. board i..,.&nd it W!l9 decided to accept the tender of Mr. Le Yacht states that M. Goubet has received instructions C. A . .tlar~, bemg the lowest. from the French Ministry of Marine to remove his aub-
SO'Uth Wales Institute of Engineer3.-A general meet- marine boat Goubeb No. 2 from the arsenal ab Toulon. ing of t~e South Wales I nstitute of Engineers ~as held which is tantamount t?arejection of the boat by the~renoh at Cardiff on Tuesday. Mr. T. Evens occupted the Governmen~. The Journal adds that the expenments chair. A diecussion was continued on a paper of Mr. J. with the boat have proved that she is habitable, stable, abFox Tallis on "Colliery T rams." The author of the solutely immobile ab any depth, can float, can be rapidly paper bad urged the. a~option of a uniform type of tram submerged an~ .br~oght to tb~ surface .again, di~plays an in South Wale3 colhenea, so that types of the structure unequalled fa01bty mher evolut10nsa.nd m the mamtena.nce might be kept in stook and repairs effected speedily and of her line of route, and finally an assured security due to economically. This view was combat£d by eeveral mem- her '' safety weight" and the ease with which she can bers who contended that it was impracticable to have any- rise to the surface in the case of danger. In the experitbin~ like a uniform type of tram to. suit all the varying menta .of April19 a~d 24,, 1900, ebe showed that ab~ could cond1tiona of the underground work m South Wales. A face With safety a btgh wmd and a heavy sea. It 1.8 pro· paper by Mr. S. F • . Wal~er as to the pr~vention of over- ~osed, Le Yacht stat~s, th~t t.he prinoipleJo~ her construewinding evoked dLScuss1on, although 1t was generally t10n shall be used m buildlDg a submarme vessel for conceded that accidents from overwinding were so few crossing the Channel, by means of which passengers would in the coalfield, that there was nob that degree of import- avoid the terrors of mal de ·mer. ance attached to the subject which the author of the paper claimed for it.
SoHNEIDEB-CANET FIELD ARTILLERY.-A.s a result of competitive tria1s which have been carried out in Mexico between a field gun, heavy type, on the Mondragon system and a field gun, li~hb type. on the SohneiderCanet ~ystem, both 75 milhmetres (2. 952 in.} ~n ca.~br~, the Mexican Government have adopted for thetr artillery the Schneider-Canet gun1 owing to the g~od results it gave in the various expenmente. The Mextcan Government have given Messrs. Sch~eider and 9~· a first order for six batteries complete, w1th ammumt1on, and baYe sent over to France a group of officers an~ ~en, to ~ollo.w the manufacture of the guns, and to gam matrucbton 1!1 the processes of manufacture of ord~ance and a.mmu~Ition. A Schneider·Caneb gun of a htgb.-power type will soon be tested aleo in Mexico, the Mextcan Governme~t inbendin~ so it would appear, to arm the whole of their horae a.rt1ilery with this system.
An ingenious system for weighing the chemical precipitates obtained in quantitative analyses without the necessity of washing or drying them is proposed in a recent issue of the Journal of the American Chtmical Soc,iety, by '!VIr. R. W. Tbaoher. The method is an indirect one, and consists in determining once for all the specific ~ravity of the preoipita~e obtained i~ any particular .oJ:>era.tion. This being o.scertamed, the wet~ht of the pre01p1tate produced on any future occasion m the same operation can be calculated by determining the weight of a definite volume of a mixture of the precipitate and its mother liquor, and also the B.Peoifio gravity of the latter after filtering the precip1tate off. The method followed is to empty the mixture of liquid and precipitate into a. specific gravity bottle, the volume of which is known. The latter is then filled up with dis tilled water and the weigllt taken. This done, some of the liquid is decanted off, and its specfic gravity determined. Calling the density of the precipitated, that of the liquid d1, the weight of the mixture a, and the total volume b, it can be
[OcT. 18, Igor.
shown that the weight of the precipitate is given by the
lti d(a - bd1) Wh'J . 11 1' re a on 10 = . 1 at not u01veraa . y app IC· d - d1
able. Mr. Thacher has proved the method to yield good results in a large number of oases, and there is a great saving of time a.9 compared with the ordinary processes, whilsb ample accuracy is obtained.
A highly intereshng departure in the matter of gl&Bsmaking is now being tried at the works of the Societ6 Anony01e l'Industrie Verriere eb ees Derives, Brueaele. Hitherto glass has been melted in pots by means of solid or, more recently, gaeeous fuel. The temperature required to obtain the glaas in a. suitable condition for blowing is very great, hub is neverthel~a often not great enough to make the '· metal " so fluid that the glass when cold proves entirely free from bubbles. An electric furnace is now being tried at the works named above. The raw material in the state of powder is fed down past a series of inclined hearths. On its way it p&Eses through electric arcs struck between three sets of carbons. As ib passes the first set of carbons, the material is melted and trickles down the second inclined hearth, and thence between the second series of carbons on the third hearth. Leaving this, it passes between the third set of carbons, and finally colleots in the molten state in a fireola.y tank, w hi oh is kept hot by the waste g-ases which escape from the furnace. The tank used 1s of sme.ll capacity, and the whole operation of melting takes but little time, 1b being po~sible to commence bottle.blowing within one hour of starting the furnace. Special care is taken to exclude air from the furnace, and the gases are rendered EO fluid by the intenee beat to which it is subjected aa it paaaea the carbon eleo· trodes, that it is very completely freed from bubbles before it enters the collecting tank.
The Board of Trade have recently confirmed the following Light Rail way Orders : (1) W akefield and District Light Railway Order, 1901, authorising the construction of light railways in the city ofWakefield and the townships of Horbury, Alverthorpe, Sandal Magna, and Outwood, in the West Riding of the county of York. (2) Bury and Diss Light Rail war. Order, 1901, authorising the construction of a light rallway in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, from Bury St. Edmunds to Stanton. Walsbam le Willows, South Lopham, and Dies. (3) Welahpool and Llanfair Light Railway (Amendment) Order, 1901, amending the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway Order, 1899. (4) Kidderminster and Bewdley Light Railways Order, 1901, authorising the construction of light railways in the boroughs of Kidderminster and Bewdley, and in the parish of Kidderminster Foreign in the rural district of K idderminster, in the count_y of Worcester. (5} Black burn, Wballey, and Padiham Light Railways Order, 1901. authorising the construction of light railways in the urban di~briots of Riakton, CJayton-le·Moors, Great Harwood and Padiham, the rural districts of Clitheroe and Burnley and the parishes or townships of Read, Simonstone, and Wballey, and (under certain conditions) in the county borough of Blackburn, all in the county palatine of Lancaster. (6} Hadlow Light Railway (Amendment} Order, 1901. amending the Hadlow Light Railways Order, 1897. (7) Durham and District Light Railways Order, 1901, authorising the construction of light railways in the city of Durham, the pa.nsh of Brancepetb, the urban district of Brandon and Byshottles, and the parishes of Bearpark, Neville's Cr<>Es, and St. Oswalds, in the county of Durham.
PIG IN GxRMANY.- The production of pig in Germany in the first eight months of this year amounted to 5,246,639 tons, as compared with 0,532,214 tons in the correspondins- period of 1900, 5,367,509 tons in the corre· spondmg penod of 1899, and 4,837,096 tons in the corre~ sponding period of 1898. Thomas pig fi~ured in these totals for 2, 988,850 ton~, 3, 175,106 tons, 2, 940,961 tons, and 2,597,378 tons respectiv~ly.
MIDLAND WATEBWAYB.-At a meeting of the W orcester Chamber of Commerce, on Friday, the president (Mr. G. J osela.nd} in the chair, the S€cretary reported that finding the Birmingham city obdurate on the question of the improvement of water communication between Biringham and the Bristol Channel ports, 1'id. Worcester, he ?ad: !"ritten to the B.irmingbam Oba~ber of Commerce, mv1tmg the co·operatlOn of tba.t body m the organisation of lectures and meetings with a view to a more general ventilation of the subject. The eecretary of the Birmingham Chamber bad replied that in their opinion no practical results were likely to follow such a course, and they thought it undesirable to take any steps in the matter. Mr. Alderman Day thought the Aubjeot was one upon which information was much needed in Birmingham. He deprecated any further attempt to pa-ss the Severn waterway scheme, preferring that the general question of water communication should be first advocated. The secretary pointed out that the B lack Country people are quite ready to avail tbemseh·es of an improved waterway, and he suggested tbab in the meantime some soheme might be prepared to meet their requirement~. Mr. W. C. Abell ad~ vooated the provision of electric traction on the canals. Mr. Needha.m thought the first step was to get the waterways under one control, and par~icularly to get them out of the bands of railway companies. Electric traction might then be ueed with advantage. The secretary suggested that before they could hope to improve the means of transit the canals themselves must be improved. Mr. T. Southa.ll pointed out that waterways bad a wholesome effect in checking railway rates, to the gr_eat benefit of the districts in which they were situated. No definite action was taken.
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OcT. r8, 190t.] E N G I N E E R I N G.
CRANE WEIGHING MACHINE; GLASGOW EXHIBITION.
CON TRUUTED BY MES. 'RS. \V. AND T. A VERY, LTD., BIRMINGHA-rvi.
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.ME RS. W. AND T. A vERY, LIMITED, Soho Foundry, Birmingham, have a hrge exhibit at G lasgow of their special typee of weighing machines, to which we ha,~e a lready made reference in our general descriptions of the Exhibition {see vol. lxxi., page 699) ; and we now illustrate above one of the most interesting of the novelties shown - a machine to be carried on the hook of a crane for weighing castings, armour-plates, molten lead in the ladle, and other such loads when suspended from the crane. The suspension loop is bolted to a strong wrought-iron frame or body from which all t he levers carrying the load are hung.
The machine, as shown by the illustration, consists of a wrought-iron box A, enclosing the weighing levers D B. These levers aro suspended from the strong wrought-iron frame C by means of the links D D. The suspension loop L is directly conn~ted and bolted to the frame C, and additional safety is secured by t urning the lower portion of the loop under the frame. In this machine none of the levers depend upon the containing box for their support. The levers are all fitted with hardened steel knife-edges, and the links have hardened steel bearings. The main knife· edge, from which t he load is directly ~ung, is supported along its whole length by the mam lever, thus obviating the p ossibili ty of t he knife-edge breaking and lett10g the load fall. A cover-plate, r emo.vable while the machine is in use, is placed over the s1cle of the machine, thus insuring that the levers and int~rnal parts will be free from dust. The s teelyard • IS of wrought iron, dispensing wit h loose weights, .and the sliding poises P P are of gun-metal. An adJustable ball }' for balancing is affixed to the steelyard, .and is protected from injury by a strong wrought·Jron guard G.
The general design allow.s of. the front c?ver-plate being removed for ~be examlDati.on a.nd. cl~amng of the working parte whlle the machme IS m tts place .for use ; thus avoiding the time and e~pense o~ removmg to the shops, and takin~ t.he ~achme to ~teces by a skilled mechanic. The 1nd10a.tmg steelyard 1s arranged to dispense with loose weights, and provision is made for taring off chains, slings, or cam hooks.
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INDUSTRIAL NOTES. THH Pa-rliamentary Committee of the Trades Union
Congress have resolved to take up the Blackburn picketing case, and appeal against the decision, if the interlocutory injunction of the V ice Chancellor is upheld at the Liverpool Chancery Court next month, when the case comes on for hearing. This will be a test case, the object being to see how far peaceful picketing is la·wful. There can be no question as to the unlawfulness of picketing accompanied by intimidation or threats in any form. Those who resort to such practices must abide t he consequences, and pa.y the penalty. The case, as it stands, is as follows : There has been a. dispute going on at the mills of Messrs. Bannister Brot hers and Moore, at Black burn, since !VIay last. It arose out of the quality of the material, alleged to be bad; the operatives demanded an increased rate in order to earn ''fair wages." The firm disputed the allegations and refused the advance. The oporatives struck, and picketed the mills. There appears to have been no allegation of intimidation or coercion, but the firm was incon,·eniE~nced and annoyed at t he picketing ; hence t hey sought an injunction. At the last hearing of the case the Vice Chancellor of the County Palatine said: " There appeared t o be a re1sonable suspicion that certain things which were not strictly in accordance with the law were being done- he would not go further than this- and therefore he thought t here was sufficient ground to justify an injunction. " This was granted accordingly. In t he Act of 1869, u endeavouring peaceably and in a reasonable manner, without threat or intimidation, direct or indirect, to persuade others to cease or abstain from work, " was declared lawful, provided that the persuasion was not to break a lawful contract. This, therefore, is the question now at iesue.
The report of the Ironfounders for the current month says: " We are pleased to be able to state that, taking the iron and s teel trades generally, they appear to continue in a fairly satisfactory condition; indeed, in some districts an improvement in the amount of business is reported." It goes on to give evidence in
support of the views expressed, both as regards pig iro!l ~nd finished ir?n· ~t also states that "the shipbUlldmg trade contmues m a healthy condition several new o.rders havin~ bee~? placed on the Tyne.,' " The l~rge mflux of busmess m the North has caused marine engin~ers and collate~al in~ us tries .to run a.t full pressure, 1ronfounders bemg fa1rly a.ct1ve." In Yorkshire and Lancashire trade is not so good, and consequent ly employment has declined. In spite of the rather heavy calls during the month, the cash balance has increased. The detailed returns as to the state of trade s~ow that in 32 places it iR very good as compared wtth 24 places last month; in 22 other places it was g~od ; but a slackening off is obvious on the whole. In 9o places, with 13,033 members, employment was from Yery good to ~ull ~last month the same terms applied to 100 places, w1th 13,736 members; on the other hand in 32 places, with 5272 members, it was from slack to v~ry bad; last month the terms applied to27 places, with4517 members. The total number on the funds was 2658-incree.se over last month, 30. On donation benefit t here were 1089- increase 26; on sick benefit 463- decrease six; superannuation 958- increase three · other-. ' wtse unemployed 146- increase six · on-dispute two-increase one. The weekly expenditure amounted to 852l. U s. 2d. , or ll:ld. per member per week. The cash balance was 105, 134l.14s. 3d., increase 184l. lls.1d. The balance is lo.rg?r than it was a year ago. A levy of 2?. per member Is being voted upon in aid of the Hahfax branch, the members of which have struck against a superfluous number of apprentices.
The report of the It·onmoulders of Scotland shows ~bat industri~l activity in places where this union has 1ts brancht>s Is greater than ever in this section of the ?ngineering tr~d~s. Last reports stated that the" worklog !llembersht~ - that is, those in employment-had attamed the htghest level ever reached · this month there is an .increase of 17~ in this c~tegory. Of c.ourse, there 18 a correspondmg decrease in the idle hat. !\{embers are urged to attend to their work · not. to lose time, but to be diligent , and thus support the~r homes. They are reminded that in case of acc1dent, compensation is based not on the rates of wages, bu.t on the earnings of the worker. This is sound adv1ce, and the consideration of the point urged ought to have effect. A case is given of a member who lost an eye, and the offer made to him was on the basis of his earnings fo~ the past year, which was only a~out ~~me-fourth of h1s full wages had he worked. FmanCially, the union is prospering. The income for ~he month wa-s 2156t. l s. ; expenditure, 1606l. Ss. 10d.; mcrea.se of funds, 649l. 12s.; the cash balance is now 70,12'2l. 13s. 1d. The idle benefit for the month cost 403l., as compared with 535l. 5s. last month. Superannuation benefit amounted to 555l., funeral benefit to 27ll. '·which is regarded as heavy. One member had acc1dent benefit of 100l. awarded to him. The union has paid its half share of expenses in the arbitration case, involving a dispute with the brass moulders · but it was excluded from the Trades Congress on that &~count. ~ut, the report says, the union has not w1t~drawn 1ta members from the firm in question, as des1red by the Bra.ssfounders' Union. The question of an advance in wages-the restoration of the reduction made in February last-is under consideration.
The report of the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners for the current month indicates a slackening off in employment generally. Very rarely is it stated in the returns that trade is good. I n Scotland and Ireland one branch in each only return trade as good. "Bad " is frequently used to describe the state of trade, "fair " and "moderate " when there is little to complain of. Out of a total membership of 67,408, a total of 1538 were on unemployed benefit, 1235 on sick benefit, and 1040 on superannuation allowance; total on the funds, 3813. Many disputes are still pending. :Members are requested to keep away from thirteen towns; to see the branch officials in fourteen other towns, and to see the local secretaries in three other towns in which there are disputes with one firm only, making thirty towns in all were disputes exist. The wood-workers in the United Sta.tes have resolved to use the union stamp on all joinery exported to Great Britain, in order to show that it is made under trade union conditions. The union ha1:1 voted 600l. to the Penrbyn quarrymen. In a letter of thanks from the men's official , there are some figures as to the dispute as it existed on eptember 10, in which it is said t hat only 330 men out of 2500 accepted the offer to return to work, in spite of the inducement of a. gratuity of ll. each to all who accepted work. Complaints are made of deductions from wages to help to pay insurance policy in cases of compensation ; members are advised that such deductions can be recovered in the county courts. The secretary has given some very useful hints as regards picketing so as to avoid any chance of illegal acts. He points out what men can do and what they cannot do under recent condit ions.
The monthly circular of the Durham Miners' Association deals with the Trades Union Congress, and with
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the paper on "Supply and Demand," and the discussion thereon at the recent meeting of the British Association at Glasgow. In respect of the latter, the author of the paper seems to have declared that trade unions were not necessary to labour, nor useful in combating employers' associations or federations. Mr. John Wilson, M.P., refers to the past history of labour in order to show that labour did not get its fair share of recognition from a. sense of justice alone on the part of employers, nor adequate wages from the operation of supply and demand. A return to individual bargaining is impossible; and were it so, conciliation and arbitration would be a. nullity.
As regards the Trades Congress, Mr. Wilson points out the relative disproportion between the number of delegates and the aggregate membership of trade unions. He deals with the proposal to start a general defence fund, and Fays tha.t there is a. danger lest litigation should be promoted by irresponsible persons, on possibly bad oases, caused by the folly of some member or members. He declines to support compulsory arbitration, which, in the minds of many of the delegates, meant compulsory union membership, pointing out that it might mean the opposite in the minds of employers. :Mr. Wilson is a good and thoughtful guide in matters connected with trade unionism; out he is thought to be too slow for the militant section in the unions. Nevertheless, they would be wise to follow his advice.
It is suggested in the organ of the London Trades Council that trades councils in all districts should form voluntary corps for picketing purposes, so as to circumvent the Lords' decision in the Taff V ale and Belfast cases. The suggestion is not a wise one. Whilst it might possibly cover the union ongaged in the strike, as such, and avert an action for damages, y~t it might also, and probably would, lead to more intimidation and threats than are resorted to now, because the pickets would not be under the control of the union involved in the case. Even now the noisiest persons near the place of business picketed are not the piokets, but the street-corner men, and those who may happen to be affected by the dispute, but who are not selected as pickets by reason of their hasty tempers and proneness to violence. The suggestion as to locking up the funds is obscure. If the law says that the funds are liable, no locking up can save them. The only safe way is to avoid illegal practices. If the unions have a real grievance, Parliament will redrees it. But a certain amount of lawlessness has of late years grown up, and employers have retaliated. There has been real provocation in ma.ny cases, and the labour leaders and trade-union officials who back up that kind of thing are blind leaders of the blind, all of whom, together, will fall into the ditch, not the less dirty because of its being denominated a legal ditch.
In the vVolverhampton district plenty of inquiries were reported last week for future supplies of finished iron, both for home consumption a.nd for export, but buyers were shy, hoping for concessions, especially as puddlers' wages had been reduced 6 per cent. and the wages of others in proportion. But that was not to be. Makers have well-filled order-books, and, with the cost of raw material and fuel high, they rather looked for an advance instead of a reduction. This, ·indeed, followed at the quarterly meetings, although best bars remained unchanged in quotation. The engineering and allied industries are still fairly active in most branches, the railway sheds being generally busy. In the hardware industries there are variations in activity, but it is exceptional for any to be seriously depressed. Some are slack or dull; the m9-jority are fairly busy.
la the Birmingham district stocks of iron were re· ported low at the date of the quarterly meetings, and, therefore, wir,h the price of raw material and of fuel high, no reduction in prices was announced. Best ba.rs remain at the same basis; unmarked bars were advanced 5s. per ton. Gas strip went up 3s. 6d., making 12s. 6d. advance since the previous quarterly meeting. Corrugated sheets showed a. downward tendency. Steel was not in heavy demand, but there was a. brisk call for pig iron. The engineering industries are still fairly employed, but some complaints of slackness are heard. In the other iron, steel, and metal-using industries some are busier than others ; very few are really depressed, though they may be slack or dull. On the whole, the state of the iron, steel, and other metal industries in the Midlands may be described as fairly good, with exceptions.
The engineering industries in Lancashire indicate a slackening off too obvious to be hidden, for the increasing number of unemployed union members is unmistakeable. For the preRent, however, it is mainly noticeable in the textile machine-making industry. Machine-tool makers report only a moderate amount of new work to replace the orders running out, and some establishments are lessening hands. Electrical engineers and builders of high-speed engines are still
E N G I N E E R I N G.
busy, this class of work showing no signs of decaying activity. Locomotive builders and others engaged on railway work, and also boilermakers, a re well engaged, the former having a large amount of work on hand, sufficient to keep them employed for some time ahead. In the iron trades business iR still reported to be slow, buying being restricted to immediate wants. Finished iron has been steady at late rates, but it is thought that no advance will be made at present. The steel trade is fairly strong, but hardly as buoyant as it was a short time since. 'l.'he position is not regarded as satisfactory in any of the branches above named, but the outlook is not wholly discouraging.
The Parliamentary Committee of the Trades Con· gress are contemplating a conference of a mixed character on old-age pen3ionP, consisting of trade unionists, socialists, the Independent Labour Party, and all other sections. Of course, the conference, if called, will demand old-age pensions; but the chief parties that ought to agree are the friendly eooieties, trades unions, industrial provident societies, and the Jike, for those have each, in their own way, done something to ontitle them to speak on the subjec~.
l'he difficulties in the way of negotiation between the Grimsby fishermen and the owners of the vessels having been overcome, some of the craft have put to sea, pending arbitration. But it is aa.id that some time must elapse before all the men can be at sea again. Therefore a Epeoial effort is being made to collect funds to relieve the distress which continues in the district. Persons who held back before can now contribute without at all endorsing the action of the men.
The council of the Federation of all Trades have ap· pointed a deputation to visit the Bethesda quarries, to inquire into the situation, and possibly they may en· deavour to find some rnor.l1ts -vivendi to bring the dis· pute to an end. The trades are interested in this because of the large amount of support given to the men.
The ~Ianchester Corporation have again advanced the wages of their tramway employcs- guards, dri vera, and time-keeperd- from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per week. This is the second advance since the Corporation took over the tramway system. The maximum average wage is 3ls. weekly for a ten hours' day. The union is demanding a nine hours' da.y, with one hour off for meals.
The strike of builders' labourers at Swansea for an advance in wages of !d. per hour continues, and it is reported that there is no prospect of its termioatio11. During the five weeks ending the 12th inst. it is said to have cost 5000l. in wages alone. The number on strike is not great; but the men are firm, and the unions are assisting them. Their own union, however, bears the major portion of the costs.
The Dunkinfield Colliery Company have decided to close their pits at Dunkirk Chapel, those at As tley Deep having been already closed. Some 1600 men and boys will thus be thrown idle.
The trade and friendly societies at Bristol held a demonstration to protest against the recent decisions in the House of Lorde on picketing, holding it to be an unjustifiable attack upon trade unions. But mere demonstrations will not alter the law; nor will they tend to change the practices which led up to tho'3e decisions. Quite other action is required.
The great strike of masons at Barcelona continuee; at a meeting of about 5000 persons it was resolved to keep out until the employers capitulated.
The bakers at Florence declared a. general strike near the close of last week, on the question of night work, t he whole of the bakeries being closed. The authorities had to get bread from other places mean· while. After some concessions, the men resumed work the following day.
It is reported that the workmen's associations of Amsterdam have addressed a manifesto to the workers in the transport trades of Holland, France, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, and Italy, urg ing the men a.t all ports to refuse to unload British vessels after the end of this year.
The voting for the French Labour Councils seems to have gone \Vrong, and it is thought that some serious troubles will be caused by the attitude of the employers in this connection. In six sections they abstained from the polls altogether.
ARGENTINE RAILWAYS.-Plans prepared by the Bufnos Ayres and Pacific Railway Company for a new claM of low-side covered goods wagons have been officia.Uy approved. Certain improvements proposed by the Buenos Westarn Railway Company at General Lagos Station ha.ve a.Jso received official approval.
[OcT. I 8, I 901.
EXPLOSION OF A VULCANISING PAN. A JtOR~rAL investigation has been conducted by the
Board of Trade a.b the Council House, Birmingham, relative to the explosion of a. vulcanising or rubber-curing pan, which took place on June 25, a.o the works of the Rubber-Tyre Manufacturing Company. Aston Cross, and by which one of the workmen was killed and several others injured. Tbe Commissioners wore Mr. Howard Smith a.nd Mr. M clntyre, and Mr. Gough a.ppear€d for the Board of Trade. The owners of the pan were represented by Mr. Shakespeare, while Edwa.rd G riffiths, the man who wa.s in charge of the vessel when the explosion occurred, was also represented by counsel.
The following brief particulars of the inquiry are of interesb, and may serve to convey a useful les2on to the owners of works where similar vessels are employed.
Mr. Gough laid before the Court full particulars of the pan and its construction. The works, be stated, were previously in the occupation of Messrs Byrne and Co., and that firm purchased in 1893 from Messrs. Robinson. engineers, of Salford, the rubber-curing pan which bad now exploded. It was provided with a steam jacket, the object of the jacket being to effeob the curing of the iodiarubber by a. dry proce~. The Rubber-Tyre Company subsequently took the business over, and adopted the web process instead of the dry, for which purpose they dispensed witl.1 the reducing valve, and admitted bhe steam to the pan direct instead of into :the jacket as before. The pan had been tested to &l>ressure of 60 lb. on the square inch, and for their busmess, viz., the construction of motor tyrefl, the company worked it a.b 40 lb., at which pressure ib had been assumed the explosion occurred.
The evidence of various witnesees wa.s then taken by Mr. Gougb, and from this it appeared tba.b the men in charge of the pan had, although warned, persistently neglected to use the whole of the pins provided for making the cover steam tight after the rubber had been put into the vessel in order to undergo the curioS" proce&l. Apparently only twelve out of eighteen p10s or bolts had been used. There was no safety va.l ve, although steam was generated somewhat rapidly and the a.ttendanb had occasionally to leave the pan in o~der to attend to other duties on the works.
Mr. Long, chief engineer t) the Rubber Tyre Company, in the course of hi.'\ evidence, stated thab he was mformed thab the pan would safely stand a pressure of 60 lb. At first they worked it at 55 lb., hub finding thab the steam jacket was useless, they discontinued using it. The reducing valve did notacb properly, so they did away with tha.t also. He did not think ib possible for them to geb a. pressure of 75 lb. on the vessel; they only needed 40 lb. for their work, and to the best of h1s belief 60 lb. was never exceeded. The bolts of the cover were in position on the day of the e:x~losion, hub witness feared, from a subsequent examination, t ha.t they were not all properly screwed up.
An inspector from a. boiler insurance company. in the course of his evidence, said he thought if the jacket bad been fitted. tha.t the pan would have been safe ab 75 lb. pressure. None of the p1ns were fitted with safety valves, but these were necessary for seouriby in working.
Edward Griffiths, who bad charge of the pa.n, said he was instructed to get the steam up to 40 lb. pressure by 7.15 in the evening. At nine minutes past seven o'clock it was up to 35 lb. by the gauge, and three minutes afterwards the explosion occurred.
1\{r. Alexander Smith, M.I.C.E, also gave evidence. He was called in to ma.ke a.n exaD.lina.tion of the vessel by the Rubber Tyre Company after the explosion. If the Board of Trade rules had been observed, he sa.id, the pan should only haw~ been worked to a. pressure of 2llb. With the pressure ab 40 lb. he thought careful supervision would be necessary, and ib would not be sa.fe to leave the pan even for a. moment. From his examination after the explosion he thought that several of the bolts for securing the cover were missing, while one or two of the others were nota~ sbrong aa they should have been. Thus a higher pressure was exerted on therAma.ining bolts a.nd the breaking stro.in was reached, tb.e result of which was that the lid gave way. From calculations a.nd from tests he bad made of bhe obher pans he estimated that the pressure a.t the time of the explosion was 45lh. on the square incb.
Mr. Shakespeare, on behalf of the Rubber Tyre Company, called one of the workmen, who statP.d tha.t sixteen out of eighteen bolts were used on the day of the ex. plosion.
Addressing the Court at the invitation of ~Ir. Howa.rd Smith, Mr. Shakespeare urged that his clients had not been guilty of negligencE', and he trusted the Commis· sioners in their judgemenb would confirm this. They obtained wha.b they considered to be reliable machinery, and although the men preferred, apparently, to work with some of the pins not in position, he did not think it was & matter for which the firm were to blame.
Mr. Howard Smith called attention to the fact that the chief engineer, from his evidence, had seen the pan being used without the hinge-pins in place, and ib was quite competent for him to have threatened the m~n with diemiesal if they did not employ the full and necessary number of pins. He did not, however, do this, but contented himself merely wibh calling bheir attention to the fact, and then permitting it.
The Courb then adjourned till the following day, the Commissioners in bhe meantime visiting the works and makipg an examination of the exploded pan.
On the reassembling of the Court, Ivlr. Howard Smith save judBment. H e went carefully over the main points 10 the eVldence which had been given, a.nd said the Oom· missioners were of opinion that proper measures had nob been taken to ascertain the pressure ab which the vessel could be safely worked. The actual cause of the explosion was the absence of certain bolts, the result of which wa.a that undue strain was thrown upon the others. Io
OcT. 18, 1901.]
An~w~r to questions put to the Court by the Board of T rade, Mr. Howard Smith said the Commissioners were of opinion that the pan was intended to be used ab a pressure of 60 lb. per SCJ.Uare inch, whether steam was admitted inside the origmal jacket or to the pan itself, hub they considered that this pressure was much too high to be safe, even assuming all the bolts were in position and properly screwed up. Proper steps were not taken when the pan was fixed, or at any subsequent time, to ascertain the safe working pressure, but it was assumed by the previous owners, Messrs. Byrne. and afterwards by the Rubber Tyre Company, that 60 lb. was the pressure intended. No safety valve had ever been fixed ; and with regard to the bolts, some of these were overhauled last February, at which time there was no reason to doubt they were all in position. b1r. L ong, the chief engineer, had, as far as he was able, taken steps to ascertain that the pan was being worked under safe condi tions, but havitJg found that ib wa-s being worked with some of the bolts deficient, be took no proper means to put an end to the practice. The attendant, Edward Griffiths, who fixed the lid, did not see that all the bolts were in place and properly screwed up before he applied the steam pressure. The Commissioners could not say what this pressure was at the t ime of the explosion, but they were quite certain that there was a great deal more steam in the pan than there ought to have been. The explosion wa~ directly caused by the neglect of Gri ffith~. If that nob of negligence had been a. casual one, they would have been inclined to say that the Rubber Tyre Company was not responsible for it, since it was not to be expected that they should have a man as superintendent of the work, and be perpetually standicg over him; but they were of opinion that the neglect was persistent, and in this respect they found the company responsible. They regretted, further, to find the company to blame apart from the notion or neglect of their employes. They found that the company empfoyed some thirty rubber pans, five steam boilers, and as many as 700 or 800 workpeople, without ba.vini appointed any person to superintend the eafe working of the machinery. Mr. Long was doubtless a good workman, but in the judgment of the Court was not competent for that duty. There was no real supervision or control, and the absence of this control at least contributed to the explosion. Therefore the Rubber Tyre Manufacturing Company were to blame.
Mr. Shakespeare, speaking on behalf of his clients, at the invitation of Mr. Howard Smith, urged, in mitigation of the penalty, that the company had compensated the persons who had been injured, and all claims had been met.
!VIr. Gough said that the company had rendered the Board of Trade every possiblEY assistance in the inquiry, and he therefore only asked for half the costs. The total expenses of the inq_uiry would be about 120l.
Mr. Howa.rd l:)mtth said that their remarks would have been more severe had nob the corupany, since the exp!osion, done all in their power to make reparation, as Mr. Shakespeare bad explained. The Rubber Tyre Company must pay to the Board of Trade the sum of 60l. H e would have been glad if the Court bad been able to take a somewhat less stringent view of the matter, but the neglect bad certainly been of a serious nature.
SMALL SCRE\VS. Small Screto Gauge.-Report of the British, A ssociation
C01nrnittee, consisting of Sir W. H. PREECE (Chairman), Lord KELVIN, Sir F. J. BBAMWELL, Sir H. TRUEMAN \Vooo, ~Iajor ·General ' VEBBER, Colonel WATKIN, Lieut. -Colonel CROMPTON, A . STROR, A . L g NEVE FOSTER, c. J. HEWI'I'T, G. K . B. ELPHINSTONE, E . Rtaa, C. V . BoY , J. ~IAR BALL GoRHAM, 0. P. CLEMENTS, W. T AYLOR, D r. R T. G LAZEBROOK, and W. A . PRICE (Secretary), Appointed to Consider bfeans by wh,ich P1·actwal E.ffect can be gitren to tke l_nt~odu~tion of the Screw Gauge proposed by tke Assoctatton tn 188 t .
THE Committee report that the present condition of the matter submitted to them is as follows:
In the report presented ab the meeting of. the Association which was held ab Bradford in 1900, tt was recommen'ded that the shape of the thre~d of the British Association screw gauge for the use of Instrument makers should be altered in the following particulars for all screw~, from .1. o. 0 toN o. 11 inclusive.
For Scrcws.-That the designating numbers, pitches, outside d iameters, and the common angle of 47~ deg. .remain unchanged j but that the top and bottom of the thread shall be cybndrica.l, showing flats in section, and that the depth of the t~read shall be ~creased by on~tenth of the pitch, the dtameter of the sohd core bemg m consequence diminished by one-fifth of the pitch.
For Nuts.-Thab the designating numbers, the pitches, the diameters of the clear holes, and the common angle of 47~ deg. remt~.in unchanged; but that the top and bottom of the thread shall be cylindrical, showing flats in sEc~ion and that the depth of the thread shall be increased , . by one-tenth of the pttcb.
The effect of these alterations is as follows: The threads of the screws and taps are of a very simple
form, being out with a single point tool or grinding wheel, with straight sides and a flat top, and the top of the thread is part of a cylinder. Though the form of the bottom of the thread depends on the correct grinding of the end of the tool, g reat accuracy is unimportant, as the screws and nuts do not come into conta.cb there.
The threads of the nuts and ring gauges will be accurate in proportion as are the taps used to out them, the edge of the thread forming the through bole being part of a cylinder.
The actual differences between the screws and nuts of the old form and that recommendrd are so small that it is
E N G I N E E R I N G. believed the old stocks will in practice be interchangeable wi th the new screws, so that the amount of inconvenience caused by the change will be exceedingly small.
The British Association aorew gauge ha~ been in use in E ngland for seventeen years. Many firms in E ngland have originated the threads and constructed gauges for sale or for their own use, but the difficulty of producing them is great, and the market obtainable may have been insufficient to induce them to perfect the processes necessary for making them a..courately interchangeable. In short, the British Association screw gauge of 1884 was of too oomplio1ted a form to allow of ita accurate realisation, except ab a cost which has proved prohibitive.
That very a-ccurate gauges with rounded threads can be produced is nob disputed, but the difficulby of doing so for small screws is very 6reab. The names of three firms in America, and of one m Germany, have been proposed to the Committee as being competent, and probably willing, to undertake the production of gauges and tools of the rounded thread. The Birmingham Small Arms Company, who produce interchangeable work on a very large scale, and to a high degree of perfection, use only round-topped screws, fitting all over, for bicycle work; and Mr. Clements exhibited gauges used by that firm, illustrating his paper read before the Section ab Bradford. This fi rm does not produce these gauges for sale. The American firm of Messrs. Pratb and Whitney have manufactured a large number of sets of gauges and screwing tools for the English Government, but declined to submit> these to the Committee on the ground that they were nob sufficiently accurate to satisfy us. After long delay, they submitted to us three specimens, which were reported upon by this Committee at the Dover meeting. Though the best we bad seen, they were distinctly inferior to the screws used in the ordinary micrometers purchasable in tool shops, which have threads of the character which this Committee has recommended for adoption.
While the round thread is only produced satisfactorily by a very few firms, who have made a. special study of this class of work, the Committee believe that the form of thread they have proposed can be made in any fairlyequipped tool-room ; and that this facility in producing or obtaining the necessary appliances must very greatly encourage the maintenance of an accurate standard in small screws, to promote which has been the object in the view of the Committee. If, on the other hand, these tools and gauges are very special, and perhaps costly, appliances, obtained only by the refined procesRes of certam fac&ories, their use in workshops will extend slowly. The Committee aim ab pubting the matter on such a footing that the common everyday appliances in the bands of workmen shall be of a good order of accuracy, and this is only possible if they are produced easily and cheaply.
It is nob suggested by the Committee that the form of thread recommended is the best for all purposes and for all sizes of screw[~, and they have expressly excluded sir.es of screws below No. 11 British Association gauge, which are produced by pressure and nob by cutting. Their recommendation applies only to the screws used in instrument-making and similar trades for assembling parts, of which screws a large proportion, perhaps-95 per cent.are of bra.ss. Considerations affecting the use of screws for other purposes have been put before the Committee, especially by Mr. Clements in the case of bicycle and gun screws, and by Mr. Taylor in the case of lens screws. These have thrown suggestive light on the question before the Committee, and will be closely considered by them if reappointed.
Since the last report the Committee's proposals have attracted much attention, bnt no sets of gauges or tools of the new thread have been submitted to them, and so far their recommendation has had no practical result. They are informed, however, that one firm of manufacturers in E ns land is occupied in producing tools aud gauges for their own use, and if they succeed in producing them of satisfactory accuracy, will submit them to the Committee.
Mr. 0. P. Clements, the author of a pA.per on Ecrew threads used in bicycles, read before the Section ab Bradford, has been elected to the Committee.
Mr. W. Ta.ylor, who ha-s taken a. leadin~ part in the standardisation of the screws of pho~gra.pbtc lenses, and has been in communication with the Committee, has also been elected a. member.
D r. R. T. Glazebrook has been elected a member of the Committee.
Corresp_ondence has passed between the Committee and D r. R . T. Glazebrook. the Director of the National Physical L aboratory, respecting the examination of screw gauges, and the following arrangements have been made:
The National Physical Laboratory will ~t;tdertake .to examine and to report upon gauges of the Bntl8h Assoma.tion submitted to them.
The Committee hove applied the grant of 45l. made to them ab Bradford to the purchase of apparatus for the examination of gauges by the National .Physical Laboratory, and have appointed Mr. C. V. Boys, Lient.-Colonel Crompton. Dr. R . T. Glazebrook, Mr. W. A . Price, and Colonel Watkin to be a sub·committeefor the expendibure of the grant. The Committee are of opinion that the previous grant of 45l., made in 1900, will be insufficient to purchase the necessary apparatus, and recommend their reappointment, with a grant of 45l.
T RANS-ATLANTIC STEAM NAVJOATlON.-The E nglish lines of steamers to New York are stated to have suffered considerably from the competition of the Leyland steamers now belongmg to American capitalists. F reights are very low and there is no prospect of an improvement. The fall' from the maximum freights lately current ranges from 15 to 40 per cent. The great Trans-Atlantic lines have enjoyed a period of prosperity during the last two years, hub a reaction has now set in.
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LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS. TaE screw steamer Battenball, which bad been builb for
the Lombard Steamship Company, Linited, of L ondon, by the Blyth Sbipbuildtng Company, Limited, of Blytb, was taken to sea to run her trial trip on Monday, the 7Gb inst. The vessel is 206 ft. in length, with a bea~ of 43f. ft. Triple-expansion engines, with cylinders 22 m., .36 m., and 59 in. in diameter by 39 in. stroke, together With t wo large steel boilers, have been fitted by the North-Eastern Marine E ogineering Company, Limited, of Wallsend. Notwithstanding the heavy sea running, a good rate of speed wa.a obtained.
There was launched on Monday, the 7th inst., by Messrs. Roberb Stephenson and Oo., Limited, Hebburnon-Tyne, a steel screw steamer, built to the order of Messrs. Weidner, Hopkins, and Co., Newcastle. The v~sel is of the following dimensions: Length between perpendiculars, 340 ft., by 47 ft. breadth, by 29 h . 10 in. moulded depth. The propelling machinery consists of a set of largesize triple-expansion engines, supplied with steam from two single-ended boilers, working at a pressure of 165 lb. per sg_uare inch. T he machinery is being supplied by ~Ieadre. R10bardsons, W estgarth, and Co., Limtted, Sunderland. The vessel is named the E lswick House. The guests, before the launch, had an opportunity of inspecting the progress of the large graving dock being made by the builders, which, on completion, will be the lar~esb on the East Coast, being 700 ft. long by 90 fb. entrance by 28 H. 6 in. draught on sill.
--Messrs. 'Vm. Simons and Co. , Limited, R enfrew,
launched from their yard on Monday, the 7th inst., the first of six steam hopper barge3 under construction to the order of the Lords of the Admiralty, fol' service ab Devonport. The vessel is capable of carrying 600 tone of dredgings, and is propelled by one pair of compound surface-condensing engines and one steel cylindrical boiler of sufficient> power to obtain a speed of 9 knots when loaded.
On Tuesday, the 8th inst., the single-deck screw steamer Barendrecht, built by Meesrs. R. Cragga and Sons, of Tees Dockyard, Middlesbrough, for the Stoomvaarb M aatsoha.ppy de Ma.a.s, of Rotterdam, and having a capacity of about 5800 tons deadweight on a moderate draught, proceeded to sea for her official triale. The veesel registered a speed of 10 knots. The machinery has been supplied by Messrs. Ricbardsons, Westgarth, and Co., Limited, of Hartlepool, having cylinders 24 in. , 38 in., and 64 in. in diameter by 42 in. stroke, steam being supplied by two large single-ended boilers working ab a pressure of 160 lb. per square inch.
The trial trip of the s.s. J oh J eansson, recently launched by the Irvine Shipbuilding and Engineering Coml>&ny, Limited, Irvine, took place on Wednesday, the 9th mst., with satisfactory results, a speed of 9! knots loaded being attained on the measured mile, being half a knob in excess of the guaranteed speed. The vessel is 180 ft. between perpendiculars, by 29 ft. by 13 fb. 6 in .. moulded. The vessel has been built to the order of Kalmar Angkva.rns Aktie-Holag, Kalmar, has a dead weight carrying capacity of 800 tons, and has been specially designed to meet the requirements of the owners' Continental trade. The machinery has been supplied by Messrs. M cKie and Baxter, Glasgow, the engines being triple-expansion, having cylinders 15 in., 25 in., and 40 in. in diameter by 27 in. stroke. Steam is supplied from a large steel boiler ab 160 lb. working pressure.
--On Monday, the 14th inst., there was launched by the
Sunderland Shipbuilding Oompany, Limited, a steel screw steamer, 300 ftJ. between perpendiculars by 38 fb. by 26 ft. 9 in. deep. The main engines are by the N orthEastern Marine E ngineering Company, Limited, Sunderland, and have cylinders 22 in., 36, in., and 60 in. in diameter by 42 in. stroke, steam bemg supplied by two large boilers working at a pressure of 180 lb. per square inch. The vessel ha~ been builb to the order of R. M. Sloman Junior's ~Iediterranean line. The steamer was named Carrara.
On M onday, October 14, Messrs. R. Craggs and Sons, Middlesbrough, launched a steel cargo steamer, 335 ft. long, 48! fb. beam, and 24ft. deep. The machinery will be fitted by Messrs. Rioha.rdsons, Westgartb, and Co., Limited, Hartlepool, having cylinders 24 in., 38 in., and 64 in. in diameter by 42 in. stroke, steam being supplied by two extra large single-ended boilers, 15 ft. 9 in. in diameter working ab a. pressure of 160 lb. to the square inch. The vessel has been designed to afford a large cubic capacity and to carry about 5200 tons deadweigbtJ. She is being built to the order of the Dale Steamship Company, Limited (managers, Messrs. Lucas and Co. ), of Bristol, and on leaving the ways was named Edale.
EuROPEAN PORTB.-In the course of last year 6414 ships, of an aggregate burthen of 6, 720,150 tons, entered the port of Antwerp; 2110 ships, of an aggregate burtben of 1,812,628 tons, arrived at Amsterdam; 7268 ships, of an aggregate burthen of 6,580,0~)1 tons, ab Rotterdam; 3843 ships, of a.n aggregate burthen of 2,494,050 tons, ab Bremen ; 13,102 snipE~, of an ag~regate burtben of 8,037,514 tons, at Hamburg; 1475 sbtps, of an aggregate burthen of 1, 059,403 tons, at Bordeaux ; 1971 sbi ps, of an ~~regate burtben of 1,341,607 ton~ at Dunkirk; 2244 sh1ps, of an n~gregate burthen of 2,136,262 tons, at Havre; 4168 ships, of an aggregate bur then of 4, 630,599 tons, at Marseilles ; and 11,118 ships, of an aggregate burthen of 9,580,854 tonll, at London.
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IIVIPROVED RAPID GROUP-FLASHING LIGHTS.*
By ALAN BREDNEn, B.So., M . Inst. C.E. . W I'~H reference to th_e three main features of the light
nmg-~tght system for lighthouses, one of them, mercurial rota.t10n~ wa.s proposed. by Fresnel in 1825; and another, that a. hght produces 1ts full effect on the eye in onetenth of a. second, was experimentally de~rmined by Mr. Swan in 1~49.. The third feature, the use of broad panels, may, .m 1ts separate form, be ascribed to Mr. ~· Stevenson 1n 1855, or perhaps earlier. The oombina~1on of these three fea.tures in ~he lightning-light system 1s due to the late emment ohtef of the French Lightho~se Administration, ~I. E. Bourdelles, doubtless a.sststed by_ other v~ry able French lighthouse engineers. ~hese engmeer3 latd down the rule, based on observatiOns a.t sea., that for every five seconds of time there ought ~o be at least one of the one-tenth second flashes. That 1s to sa.y,_ that the maximum period admissible in pracbioe for the smgle-flash lightning-light should be five seconds ; for the double-flash, 10 seconds ; for the triple-flash 15 seconds, a.~d so on. T?ey a-a~erted. similarly that ~uoh group-fla.shmg oha.raotertst10s gtven m the stated periods ~ould satisfy .t~e requirements of seamen. The system atms at obta.m~ng the m~ximum possible power, and hence the m_axtmum po~~nble range, from a ny lightsource, magmfied by optical agents. Before the light-
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E N G I N E E R I N G.
two lenses, ~Ius 7.2°, the divergence to give one-tenth second duratiOn of flash a.t the given speed of rotation plus a.~ angle of 3? deg. within which to raise or lowe~ the eohpser, .a.llowmg one-half seeond for this purpose. Were such a b1 va.l ve apparatus placed in a.ligh thouse with ~ smaller dead a.ngle than 223.2°, the character of the hght would not be constant. Very few lighthouses, however, have so. ~a.rge a. landward arc as 223 deg., so tbat the .opportumt1es of using the bivalve apparatus with undtvided apparatus a.re extremely rare.
To overcome the difficulties inseparable from the singleb~m or double beam apparatus combined with an eolipser, 'Yh10h, . alone or alon~ with a. reflector, cuts off all the hght Slmulba.neously, 1t occurred to the author to use a. complete .subdivided eolipser of two or more parts, ea.oh mo~a.ble mdependently of the others, along with a.n optt~al apparatus of two or more sides. 'fhis system requues a screen of two ~arts for a. bivalve apparatus, one of three pa:rts for a. t~tla.tera.l a.ppa.ra11us, and so on ; each. lens or s1de of opttcal apparatus having a. screen spec1al~y attached to and revolving with ib. Each partial screen 1s made to totally eclipse, when shut, the beam of ~h~ corresponding lens. All the group-flash charaoterlStiOs ca.n thus be obtained with any one of the bivalve trilateral, quadr~la.teral, or &o. arrangements, and th~ flashes can be gtven .more co~pactly tha~ one per five seconds of total penod requ1red by the lightning-light system.
By combining the lightning-light principle with the
LIGHTNING·· LIGHT APPARATUS.
L OcT. I g, I gor.
menta of power over the pla.in lightning-light group-flash beams:-
9.3 per cent. for the double flash (excess of 164 deg. over 150 deg.) ;
46.4 per cent. for the triple flash (excess of 164 deg • over 112 deg.);
82.2 per cent. for the quadruple flash (excess of 164 deg. over 90 deg. ) ;
127.7 per cent. for the quintuple flash (excess of 164 deg. over 72 de g.) ;
173.3 per cent. for the sextuple flash (excess of 164 deg. over 60 deg. ).
The ~oreg~ing figures, however, must be modified if oompar1son IS made of the different combinations designed to revolve within a Ja.ntern of given diameter. Thus the appax:atus of Figs. 1, 2, a.nd 3 require a larger spa.ce to turn m tha.n the apparatus of Fig. 6. Hence apparatus of focal length greater than that shown in Fig. 6 by ~-~
·u . h aa w~ turn m t e space required by the combinations of FJgs. 1, 2, a.nd 3 ; and the power of the apparatus, Fig. 6, would be raised by {~~ )2, or by 1.34. The forenamed
advantages of 9.3, 46.4, and 82.2 thus become 47.2 97. a.nd 145. The combinations, however, of Fi~Z~· 4 a~d 5 turn in lees ~pace than tba.t of Fig. 6. Hence the previous figurAs of 127.7 and 173 3 wonld be reduced to 101 and 83. When, therefore. apparatus turning in equal spaces are o~msidercd, the enhancements of power of the
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ning-light system came out, the author had frequently urged the desirability of using wider panels than those in current use, notably in 1890, when he proposed the use of trilateral apparatus: a beautiful, and probably the first, example of which was to be seen last year exhibited in Paris by MM. Ba.rbier and Benard. The trilateral apparatus was proposed by the author as the most powerful one capable of being rotated within a. lantern of given diameter.
In 1898 Mr. Purves proposed the use of a. revolving single-beam apparatus, 180 deg. of lens and 180 deg. of mirror combined with an eolipser, which seemed to promise an improvement on the lightning-light system without eolipser. There are, however, one or two drawbacks to this combination. Thus the light returned from the mirror through flame and lens suffers great loss; so that, instead of giving a. beam of twice the power of the unaided lens in front, it only gives an additiOnal power of one-third when an oil burner is used, and still less with any semi-opaque light-source. Again, this apparatus gives only on~;} flash per revolution. For the high speed of one revolution tn five seconds, it gives the doubleflash group in 20 seconds, instead of 10 seconds as required by the lightning-light system. Doubtlesfl, by using a burner of rather more tha.n twice the usual size, and by increasing the speed to one revolution in 2i seconds, the desired double-flash in 10 seconds can be obtained. But this involves excessive size of burner, and exoe~sive speed. Mr. Purves proposed also a. bivalve apparatus combined with a single complete eclipser. This apparatus, for a. speed of. one revolution in 5 se~onds, will give the double-flash m 10 seconds. Bub thiS arrangement can only give satisfactory results a.t stations where the dark a.ro is upwards of about 223.2°. This angle is composed of 180 deg., the angle between the axes of the
ALL GROUP FLASH CHARACTERISTICS ALL GROUP FLASH CHARACTERISTICS
Hopkinson system of group-flarsh lights, the power of these has been greatly increased. The author now ~reposes to show that, by aid of the complete subdiv1ded eolipser, the power of the lightning-light group-flash oa.n in turn be very notably increased. It is admitted that in a. group-flash characteristic the groups are sufficiently separated by an eclipse three times longer than the eclipse occurring between contiguous flashes of a group. Figs. 1 to 5 represent the most powerful lightning-light groupflash optical apparatus obtainable for double, triple, quadruple, quintuple, and sextuple groups of flashes. In these diagrams dotted lines represent the axes of the flashes, heavy straight lines the inner sides of the dioptric lenses, and curved lines passing through the apexes of the obtuse angles of the oatadioptno prisms represent the catadioptric portions of the lenses. Allowing that the mirrors shown in diagrams 1 and 2 give one-third increase of power to the opposite angles of lens, the effective horizontal angles of the lenses are seen to be 150 deg., 112 deg., 90 deg., 72 deg., and 60 deg., for the double, triple, quadruple, quintuple and sextuple groups respectively.
Fig. 6 represents a bivalve optical apparatus of the same prin01pal focal length as the apparatus of Fig~. 1 to 5, combined with a screen divided into two parts. The effective angle of either lens in Fig. 6 is 164 deg. This angle is not carried to 180 deg., because the partial screens require to overlap in order that each, when closed, may out off entirely the light from the corresponding lens. On this account, optical agents placed in the extreme angles would be useless. By inserting, however, small fixed screens in the blank angles of 16 deg., besides using overlapping partial eolipsers, two lenses of 164 deg. effective angle are available. This bivalve apparatus can give all the group-flash characteristics. The sa.me luminaries being used in a.ll the optical combinations of Figs. 1 to 6, the powers arA pra.otioally proportional to the effective angles. Hence the beams with the bivalve appamtus with eubdivided ecl}pser have the following enhance-
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b~valv~ subdivided-eolipser apparatus over the plain ligbtnmg-hgbt group-flash apparatus become:-
47.2 per oenb. for the double flash 97. 0 , , triple flash
~n Fig: 7 a trilateral apparatus with 3-part subdivided eolipser IS ehown, of focal length such as to turn in the spaoe.required by the bivalve apparatus of Fig. 6. The effeottve angle of lens available is now 106 deg. out of 120 deg. When the power of the beams of such a tril~tera.l. ap~ara.tus is compared with that of the plain hghtmng-lighb group. flash apparatus capable of rotating in the same lantern, it is found that the advantage of the former over the latter amounts to:-
85.7 per cent. for the double flash 148. 'i , , triple flash 209.0 , , , , quadruple flash 156.2 , , quintuple flash 138.0 , , sextuple flash
The foregoing comparisons a.re applicable with sufficient practical aoournoy for all orders of apparatus.
A suitable speed of. rot~tion for the apparatus of Fig. 6 would be one revolutton m 5 seconds. Supposing ib to be of the third order, the burner sufficient to gt.ve a. general mean divergence of 7.2 deg., or a. flash of one-tenth second, would be the ordinary four-wick burner of 90 millimetres diameter, or the improved Trinity five-wiok burner. The quadruple flash would then be delivered thus :-flash 0.1 sec., eclipse 2.4 sec., flash 0.1 sec., eclipse 2.4 sec., flaah 0.1seo., eclipse 2.4 seo., long eclipse 7.4 seo. ; total period 15 seconds.
The trilateral appa.~atus of Fig. 7 may revolve once in 6 seconds, and the ordmary five-wick burner of 110 millimetres diameter, or the corresponding improved Trinity
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OcT. 18, 1901.J E N G I N E E R I N G.
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B.REBNER'S ECLIPSING MECHANISM FOR LIGHTHOUSES.
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2 A'"'9l.es. luu;lu to bcu:k- wWv rerrules Uv betweellJ.
Brebner's eubdividP.d eclipsing mechanism fitted to two.sided apparat~1s for producing double-flashing cho.racterisLics as
1JtJ second. ft~llow :-
Flash • • Eclipse .. Flash .. Eclipse . .
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The whole do•, lJle· flaehin~ characteristic being presented in each successive period of 10 seconds. The apparatus makes one complete revoluliion in 6 seconds. ·
burner, will amply snffioe to give a. flash of one-tenth of a the oha.raoteristio would be :-Flash 0.32 sec., eclipse second. Tbe quadruple flash will now be given thus:- 1.68 sec., flash 0.32 sec., eclipse 1.68 sec., flash 0.32 s~c. , flash 0.1 sec., eclipse 1.9 sec., flash 0.1 sec., eclipse 1.9 seo., eclipse 1.68 sec., flash 0.32 sec., eclipse 5.68 sec.; total flash 0 1sec., eclipse 1.9seo., flash 0.1seo., eolipse5.9sec.; pertod 12 sec. This is no longer a lightning-light cha.ra{}tota.l period 12 sec. If the apparatus of Fig. 3 were made teristic, and the three-wick instead of the five-wick to revolve once in 12 sec. wioh the same fi ve-wick burner, burner is quite capable of giving the one-tenth of a. second
fla~h in a third- order a.ppara.tua, makin~ one turn in 12 sec. B ut the comparison shows tJh~t tn a ,lantern of given diameter, placed on a. tower of gtven dtameter, a. trilateral Pubdivided-eclipser apparatus could be lodged, giving a light three times :t;nor~ po~erfu~ than could be obtained from the best plam hghtmng-bghb apparat~~ that could be lodged in the ~ame lantern. Further, th1s flash of triple power (for it has been shown to b~ 209 per cent. higher) is delivered on a.n average once m 3 sec., permitting of bearin~s being taken perfectly well. An excellent first.order hght, in two group~ of four pa.nelP, ba.s lately been started ab Pendeen It gtves a. quadruple flash every 15 sec., somewhat a.s followd :-Flash 0.5 sec., eclipse 1.83 sec., flash 0.5 sec., eo1ipse 1.83 sec., flash 0.5 sec., eclipse 1.83 se9. , flas~ 0.5 sec.,, ecli.pse 7.5 sec. A t rilateral apparatus w1th eohpsera will gtve aboub th~ee times more power than the Pendeen apparatus, reducmg the duration of flash to .17 sec. The optioa.l apparatus will, indeed, cost more, hub nob the tower, dwellmgs, &c. Consequently, a complete view of all the oircumstanceE~, in the au bhor's opimon, shows that in the a.ppara.tu j represented in Fig. 6, and more especially in that shown in Fig. 7, there lies a.n improvement important to seamen and appropriate to a time of accelerated speed in ships.
Ib must not be deduced from anything in this paper that the author advocates the use of apparatus of novel focal lengtha; hub it may be noted thall, instead of comparing with the apparatus generally used, others of greater power, involving no extra. cost for lantern and tower, it is sometimes better to compare them with others of equal power tha.b can bA u:~ed with tower and lantern of diminished cost. Each particular case ca.n be efficiently treated by the optical engineer. The foregoing ad vanta.~es obtainable from the subdivided eclipser system are substantially real in practice as well as in theory, although it may be necessary in some oases to modify the fi~ures given, which are intended to illustrate the general situation concisely. Full details re~arding all orders of apparatu~ would exceed the scope of this paper, hub the auohor will have much pleasure in giving fu rther information to anyone desiring it.
In regard to the working of the eclipser?, trials have been and are being made by Messrs. Ohance Brothers and Co. with a. view of obtaining a. smoothly working a.nd thoroughly reliable mechanism. There is no longer a.ny doubt that such can be obtained. A drawing, or a mode), of the complete apparatus and eclipser mechanism wiH be shown a.t the meeting of the Congress.
I TALIAN RAILWAYS.- The total length of line in operation in I taJy ab the close of 1899 was 9886i miles. The gross revenue increased six per cent., as compared with 1898, but the ratio of the working expense.~ to the traffic receipts was as high as 71 per cent. The neb return realised upon the capital expended was only 1. 70 per cent. per annum, a.nd the State had to make considerable advances in fulfilment of interest guarantees.
THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.-'l'he council of the Instioution of Civil Engineers have, in addition to the medals and prizes given for communications discussed at the meetings of the Ins titution in the last session, made the following awards in respect of other papers dealt with in 1900-1901: A Telford medal and a Telford premium to Reginald Pelha.m Bolton (New York) ; a. W a.tt medal and a. Telford premium to J. Emerson Dowson (London); a. George Stephenson medal and a. Telford premium to W. T. 0. Beckett (Calcutta.); a. Ma.nby premium to E. K. Scott (London); a Trevithiok premium toT. A. Bearson, R.N. (L ondon); a. Telford premium to J. A. W. Peacock (Ta.nta.h, Lower Egypt). For students' papers the awards a.re: A Miller scholarship (tenable for three years) and the "Ja.mes Forrest " medal to E. V. Clark, B.Sc. (London); Miller prizes to C. E. Inglis, B.A. (London) ; H. E. Wimperis, B.A. (Cambridge); J. L. Cridia.n (London); F . K. Peach (London); G. H. Whigha.m (Glasgow); F. Taylor, B. A. (Manchester); A. C. Walsh (N ewcastle-on-Tyne) ; a.nd H. 0 . J ones (Manchester).
FRENCH Goons WAGONS.-The French railway companies have nob of late }ears improved their rolling stock to any degree, a.nd old hea~y wagons, carrying only 6 to 7 tons, are still in use. Until very la tely the best type of wagons in service on the Eastern of France Railway Company for the transport of heavy goods, such a.s iron ore, coal, coke, granite, &c. , carried 10 tons only . Occasionally one would come across a few flat wagon~ mounted on three axles or even on bogies, and capable of taking 30 tons; but this was an exception. Progress, howeyer, is n<?w. reported in the case ?f the compan~ in questlon, and 1t IS stated tha.b they wtll shortly pub m service 2300 platform wagons of a. new type and of 15 ton~ ca.pacit>y. The frarue is of steel throughout, 23 ft. in length, with two underfra.mes, joined a.t ends by headstooks; the whole strengthened by intermediate stays, corner plates and gussets. The frame rests on two axles placed 12 ft. 3~ in. from centre to centre ; a. hand brak~ acts on one wheel only. The flooring of the oar body consists of oak planks 2 in. thick, and is 202 square feet in area.. The dead weight of the oar is 6~ tons, the proportion between the bare and useful load being therefore 450 per 1000, a better state of things than that which rules on most of the other French rail ways. Besides these, the company will soon put in service 2200 highsided cars for coal carrying. The inside oa.pa.city will be 850 oubio feet. The flooring of these cars will also be made of oak planks 2 in. thick ; the sides are to be built up of deal feather- edged planks 1tlr in. thick. The brake will be similar to that of the platform cars. The dead. weight of the oa.r is approximately 7~ tons; the useful load-with coke-will be 20 tons, giving a. proportion of 373 per 1000 between tare and useful loads. ·
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"ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED PATENT RECORD.
COMPILED BY w. LLOYD WISE. BRI.JCTED ABBTR.A<11'8 OF REOENT PUBLIBliBD BPEOIFIO.lTIONB
UNDER THE AOTB OF 1888-1888. The number of views given in the Specificati.on Drawi'll{JS is stated
in each ca.se ; where none are mentioned, the Specifo;ation is not illustrated.
Where inventions are communicated jrrrm abroad, the Names, &:c., of the Oommuniootors are given i7l italics.
Copies of Specifications may be obtained at the Patent OJfice Sale Branch, S5, Southampton Buildings, Olu11ncery-lane, W.C., at the uniform price of 8d.
The date of the advertisement of the acceptance of a Complete StJecifiM.ti()'tl is, in each case, giVe?l after the abstract, unle8s the Patent ha.s been sealed, when the date of sealing is giVe?l .
..4 ny person mav, at any time within two months from the date of the advertisement of the acceptance of a Complete Specification give notice at the Patent Office of opposition to the g1·a11t of C.:. Patent on any of the grounds mentioned in the Acts.
EI·ECTRICAL APPARATUS.
13,538. J. G. Lorraln, London. (P. C. Bu1·ns, Chicago, l ll. , .u.s . .A.) Curre~t Arreatera. [7 Pigs.] July 27, 1900. - TbJS "current -arrestmg or deflecting apparatus for strong and 'sneak ' currents of continuing duration" comprises a coil which is rigid when cold, but which readily bends when warm, and one
IJ.S38
end of which is engaged by a conducting spr ing that disengages and breaks circuit when t be coil becomes sufficient ly heated by current to bend under the influence of the pre98ure of the said spring. The glass cover stops the coil should the sprin~r cause it to be t hrown out of place. Contributory devices are provided. (.Accepted August 7, 1901.)
13,539. J. G. Lorraln, London. (P. 0. Burn-s, Chicago, I ll., U.S . .A.) Current Arrester& and Alarms. [7 Figs.) July 27, 1900.-In this current arrester, somewhat of the kind described in the Specification No. 13,538 of 1900, the spring is
1.1
arranged in relation to a contact and alarm circuit in such manner that when the " beat coil, flies out and the circuit to be protected is interrupted, an alarm is sounded. (.Acceptec:l.Atl{JUBt 7, 1901.)
13,577. P. Loescher, Charlottenberg, Germany. High-Tension Fuses. [1 Fig.] July 8, 1901.-ln the fuse according to this invention t he fuse wire, which is kept under tension from one or both ends, passes ~hrough the straight limbs of a T·tube, whose outstandin~ limb is left open. The tube is
---··--------·-_____ ., __ -·- --
filled around the ends of the wire with granulated fireproof insulating material. When ~he fuse burns out at its. middle, t~e arcing ends are snatched JOto the granulated matertal, and t hts, coupled with the explosive effor t produced by the sudden heating of the air in the tube, is, it is stated, sufficient to extinguish the arc. (Accepted A.ugust 7, 1901.)
18,006. E. J. Kiss, Budapest, Hungary. Cable Conduit. [5 Figs. ] Ootobet· 10, 1900.-A conduit for electric cables according to t his invention comprises a t ubular casing provided with a longitudinal elot t hrough which t he cable may be inser ted. The slot has a cover fl tted and p rojeotinS" over and bt-yond the edge of the conduit and secured in posttion by a filleting of cement. Tbe conduit may be made in sections, and the sloli may extend the whole of the length of each section. Tbe sections are advantageously joined up by so<'kets formed at one
E N G I N E E R I N G.
end of each of the sections, into which the plain ends of the sec· tions fit, the joint being ~ade good by cement. The conduit ~ay be made o~ ceme~t, or cemen t having wire netting or wires 1mbedded t berem, or 1t may be of iron. The cross·section of t he conduit may be plain on the interior, or may be provided with
internal longitudinal ribs, or may be divided internally by means of longitudinal partitions. It ribs 1u·e formed, t hey may be so arranged that they serve to partly partition off or keep apart several cables, which may be placed in one and the same conduit. (Accepted August 14, 1901.)
13,901. A. Wrtght, J. R. Dick, and the Reason Manufacturing Company, Limited, Brighton. De· mand Indicators. [7 Pigs. ] August 2, 1900.-In electrical demand indicators of the kind in which relative motion between a liquid and a solid produces a mark upon that part of t he solid
which has been immersed in t he liquid, the depth of immersion b.earing a c~rt!lin relat.ion to the demand ; according to this inven· tton the sohd JS corrodtble or soluble, and the liquid is corrosive or S?lvent, but preferably not. so corrosi~e or solvent as to appre· CJably mark or entirely d1ssolve the 1mmersed portion of the solid in less than a reasonable time. (Accepted August 14, 1901.)
14,354. The Edi.son Ore· Mtlltng Syndicate, Ll· mtted, London. (T . .A. Edison, Llewellyn Pcvrk, N.J., U.S . .A.) Magnetic Concentrators. [4 Figs.) Augus t 10, 1900.-0na arrangement of an ore concentrator according to this invention cc;>mprises a belt having an outstanding flexible edging, and run· ntog over a magnet pulley capable of producing a. strong magnetic field along the middle of that part of t he belt which part ly
encircles the pulley. Ore Is fed to the sides only of t he belt at a rate approximately equal to that at which the belt travels. When the ore is brought by t he belt within the influence of the ma~netic pulley, centrifugal force throws off the non·ma.gnetic material, whilst the magnetic particles are d1·awn towards t he centre of the belt and are carded round and d ischaged when beyond the influence of t he ma~net. (.Accepted .August 14, 1901.)
1!_,001. J. P. Ball, Oldham. Motor Switch. [S Jl·igs.] October 10, 1900.-An automatic break switob for use with electromotors, and having a liquid contact, comprises means !or holding the sw~toh arm out of ~ontact and other means operat· tng eleotromagnettcally and oppostng those first-named for hold· ing the switch arm in contact while current continues to flow.
When t he switch is to be used to out t he motor out on a cessation of current so that it cannot star t automatically, t he electro· magnet is energised by the main current; but when it is intended for use as a safety out.out against excessive load or potential an additional device is used which breaks the derivation circuit of the magnet on the occurrence of any such excess. (.Accepted A ugttbf 14, 1901.)
[OcT. 18, 1901.
GAS ENGINES, PRODUCERS, HOLDERS, &c.
16,627. C. D. Abel, London. (Panhanl. Oomptmy, Paria. ) Explosion Motor&. [8 Figs.] September 18, 1900.- Tbe " lanterns " of t he admi98ion valves and tbe covers of the exhaust valves are fitted on the valve boxes in pairs, and each pair is held by a crosshead secured by a bolt, in order to faoili ·
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tate the dismount ing and inspection of t he valveP. The exhaust valve rods are guided by double forks embracing the camshaft on each side of the cam, t he camshaft heing enclosed in a sheath open to the crank casing, so a~ to insure the lubrication of the shaft and bearings. (Accepted .August 7, 1901.)
16,467. C. D. Abel, London. (Panhard Company, Paris. Explosion Motor-Charging Valves. (3 Figs.] Septem· ber 15, 1900.-ln order to equalise the speed of motor·car explo· sion engines, according to this invention the cbargiag valve is adapted to be cont rolled by tbe speed governor, and comprises a
piston moving in a cylinder having lateral holes of graduated size, t he piston as it is moved in the cylinder covering and un· covering a less or greater number and area of these holes, so as to vary the admission of gaseous mixture to the cylinder of the motor. (Accepted Attgust 7, 1901.)
14,348. G. Green, Bezhtll, and E. J. Booper, London. Explosion Englne Valves. [2 Pigs.] August 10, 1900.- ln explosion engines and according to t his inven· tion the admission valve for the combustible is distinct from the air-admission valve, but is arranged in the passage tbrou~h which t he air flows to tbe said air-admi98ion valve and in positive connection therewith in such a manner that when the air valre opens the gas valve is correspondingly opened to allow the com·
bustible t o escape and mingle with t he air passing into t he cylinder t hrough the air valve. An arrangement which, it is stated, ha9 been found to give good results in p ractice consists in placing t he etems of t he air and gas valves at an angle to each other and con· neoting the two stems by a bell-crank lever, so that any motion of one valve is communicated to the other. If the two valve stems are parallel or substantially parallel, a simple lever pivoted between the two stems and en~aging at its ends with the said stems may be employed. (.Accepted .Attgust 14, 1901.)
GUNS AND EXPLOSIVES.
17.'181. R. Fiedler, BerUn. Smoke Shells. Ootober 6, 1900. - In order to p rovide smokeless shells with a smoke-pro· ducing substance so t hat the point at which the shell bursts may be easily observed from the fi ring battery, or for the making of small shells to be used for the production of a smoke screen in front of an enemy's position ; amorphous (red) phosphorus is added to the shell, preferably being made up in cartridge form and surrounded by explosive. It is stated that the substance mentioned is very suitable for t he purpose, as it producea a white smoke of g reat density, and may safely be used, because it is unaffected by concussion or by t emperatures below 250 deg Oent. (.Accepted J1 ugust 14, 1901.)
UNITED STATES FATENTB AND FATBNT FRAOTIOE. Descriptions with illustrations of inventions patented in the
United States of America from 1847 to the present time, and reports of t rials of patent law cases in the United States, may be consulted, gratis, at t he offices of ENotNRERINO, So and 86, Bedford· street, Strand .
