ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES - UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT

UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGYFOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY

FOOD AND NUTRITION 1

1FOOD AND NUTRITION

READING COMPREHENSION

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All living organisms require food for survival, growth, and reproduction.Most broadly, the term food can be taken to include any kind of nutrientneeded by animals, plants, and simpler forms of life, on down tobacteria. This would include, for example, the inorganic substances thatplants draw from air and water. The processes that circulate these basicnutrients in the environment are called nutrient cycles, and the processesby which organisms make use of nutrients are collectively known asmetabolism.

In terms of the energy needs of humans and other animals, food consistsof carbohydrate, fat, and protein, along with vitamins and minerals.Humans may consume a wide range of different food substances, aslong as they meet nutrition requirements. Otherwise nutritional-deficiency diseases will develop.

2 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES

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Nutrition is the science that interprets the relationship of food to thefunctioning of the living organism. It is concerned with the intake offood, digestive processes, the liberation of energy, and the eliminationof wastes, as well as with all the syntheses that are essential formaintenance, growth, and reproduction. These fundamental activities arecharacteristic of all living organisms – from the simplest to the mostcomplex plants and animals. Nutrients are substances, either naturallyoccurring or synthesized, that are necessary for maintenance of thenormal function of organisms. These include carbohydrates, lipids,proteins, vitamins and minerals, water, and some unknown substances.

The nutritionist, a scientist working in the field of nutrition, differs fromthe dietitian, who translates the science of nutrition into the skill offurnishing optimal nourishment to people. Dietetics is a professionconcerned with the science and art of human nutrition care, an essentialcomponent of the health sciences. The treatment of disease bymodification of the diet lies within the province of the physician and thedietitian.

The foods consumed by humans must contain, in adequate amounts,about 45 to 50 highly important substances. Water and oxygen areequally essential. Starting only with these essential nutrients obtainedfrom food, the body makes literally thousands of substances necessaryfor life and physical fitness. Most of these substances are far morecomplicated in structure than the original nutrients.

Energy metabolism and requirements are customarily expressed in termsof the calorie, a heat unit. Adoption of the calorie by nutritionistsfollowed quite naturally from the original methods of measuring energymetabolism. The magnitude of human energy metabolism, however,made it awkward to record the calorie measured, so the convention ofthe large calorie, or kilocalorie (kcal), was accepted. Atwater factors,also called physiologic fuel factors, are based on the corrections forlosses of unabsorbed nutrients in the feces and for the calorie equivalentof the nitrogenous products in the urine. These factors are as follows: 1gof pure protein will yield 4 calories, 1g of pure fat will yield 9 calories,and 1 g of pure carbohydrate will yield 4 calories.

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What is food?2) What are nutrient cycles?3) What is metabolism?4) How different are the nutritionist and the dietitian?5) What are physiologic fuel factors?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false._____ The term food does not include the inorganic substances

that plants draw from air and water.


_____ The intake of food, digestive processes, the liberation ofenergy, and the elimination of wastes are the fundamentalactivities of all living organisms.

_____ Unless food substances humans consume meet nutritionrequirements, nutritional-deficiency diseases will develop.

_____ Water and oxygen are equally essential._____ The treatment of disease by modification of the diet lies

within the province of the physician and the nutritionist.

VOCABULARY

Fill in these statements with the words in the box.

diet dietetics nutrients metabolism organismsconsume province nutrition synthesis nourishment

1) Improvements in ……………… have been mostly to do withpersuading people to eat less fatty food and more raw vegetables.

2) Exercise is supposed to speed up your ……………….3) A young baby obtains all the ……………… it needs from its

mother's milk.4) If you have a balanced ………………, you are getting all the

vitamins you need.5) ……………… is the scientific study of diet and its effects on

health.6) Humans may ……………… a wide range of different food

substances.7) The treatment of disease by modification of the diet lies within the

……………… of the physician and the dietitian.8) Plants draw minerals and other ……………… from the soil.9) All living ……………… require food for survival, growth, and

reproduction.10) Plants need sunlight for the ……………… of their food from

carbon dioxide and water.

WORD STUDY

A. UN-, IM-, IN-, DIS-, AND NON-

The prefixes un-, im-, in-, dis-, and non- can be added to the beginningof some words. These prefixes mean “not.”

Look at this example:un- + healthy = unhealthySmoking is not good for you. It’s unhealthy.


Here are other words with these negative prefixes.

un- unimportant, unpopularim- impossiblein- incomplete, inexpensivedis- discontinuenon- nonfat

Exercise: Choose the best word to complete each sentence.1) A person who is unfriendly is probably ………, too.

A. unpopular B. unusualC. uncomfortable D. unimportant

2) The service at this restaurant is very slow. It’s ……… to have aquick lunch here!A. impossible B. important C. immoral D. immediate

3) The airline will ……… service to that city. It is not a popular placeto go.A. discontinue B. disagree C. disable D. discover

4) ……… yogurt is better for you than ice cream.A. Nonstop B. Nonfat C. Nonstandard D. Nonstick

5) Jaime’s homework is ……… because he felt sick last night.A. inexpensive B. incomplete C. inflexible D. inevitable

B. MENT AND ER

Some nouns and verbs have the same form. We can add a specialending, or suffix, to other verbs to make noun forms.

Here are some examples:

same form -ment -erverb noun verb noun verb noun

order order govern government drive driverdrink drink agree agreement own ownercost cost run runner

work worker

Exercise: Complete the sentences with verbs and nouns from the chart. (If youneed to, make the nouns plural. Also, make sure that each verbagrees with its subject.)

1) Susan is the fastest ……………… . She can ……………… therace in less than three minutes.

2) The bus ……………… will not ……………… an unsafe bus.3) I think the two companies will ……………… to work together.

They will both sign the ……………….4) – Did Saul ……………… a salad and some tea?

– Yes. Now he’s waiting for his ……………… .5) Joseph bought a lot of food and ……………… for the get-together.

He hopes that everyone will eat and ……………… a lot.6) Even though they……………… hard, most of the ………………


at fast-food restaurants do not make a lot of money.7) – My aunt is the ……………… of that popular take-out restaurant

on Main Street.– Does she ……………… the restaurant on Green Street, too?

C. TH AND GHT

Some nouns that end in th or ght are related to similar words that arenot nouns. Read the following pairs of sentences and see how the wordsin bold print are related.

1) Some cities grow quickly. Their growth is fast.2) The street is five kilometers long. The length is five kilometers.3) The street is fifteen meters wide. Its width is fifteen meters.4) The lake is thirty meters deep. Its depth is thirty meters.5) Joanna is very strong. She has a lot of strength.6) How high is that building? What is its height?7) Anna weighs 50 kilos. Her weight is 50 kilos.

Exercise: Now choose the best word for each sentence. Use each word onlyonce.

depth height strength widthgrowth length weight

1) The flag is flying high above the ground. The …………………ofthat flagpole is about 20 meters.

2) The …………………of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Franciscois about 1,400 meters. It is a very long bridge.

3) What is the …………………of the Pacific Ocean at its deepestpoint?

4) People who build houses must be very strong. They must havegreat …………………in their arms.

5) Plants need a lot of water to grow. Without it, their ………………is slow.

6) What is the …………………of your garage? Is it wide enough topark two cars inside?

7) David is very thin now. He weighs only 49 kilos. He lost a lot of………………….

STRUCTURE STUDY

THE PASSIVE

A sentence is often written in a passive form when the important idea isnot WHO does something, but WHAT IS DONE.

(a) They measured the extension in the steel bar.(b) The extension in the steel bar was measured.


If the doer of the action has some importance (though less than theobject), or is needed to complete the sense of the sentence, it is given,e.g. ‘A knowledge of statistics is required by every type of scientists.’

Passives can be formed in the following ways:A tense of be + past participle

active: He cooked the food.passive: The food was cooked.

Modal + be / have been + past participleactive: He may cook the food.passive: The food may be cooked.

to be / to have been + past participleactive: He is to cook the food.passive: The food is to be cooked.

being / having been + past participleactive: Cooking / Having cooked …passive: Being / Having been cooked …

Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences in the passive :1) People apply mathematics in many different activities.2) People use computers for many different purposes.3) People use the decimal system even in countries with non-

decimalized systems of weights and measurements.4) Water covers most of the Earth’s surface.5) Somebody was cleaning the room when I arrived.6) Huge ocean waves swept houses into the sea.7) They have postponed the seminar.8) A mystery is something that we can explain.9) We are going to build a new zoo next year.

10) The vegetables didn’t taste very good. People had cooked them fortoo long.

11) The situation is serious. We must do something before it’s too late.12) When we got to the stadium, we found that they had cancelled the

game.13) They are building a new ring road round the city.14) I don’t like people telling me what to do.15) We gave the police the information.16) We will give you plenty of time to decide.17) They must first clean sewage in treatment plants.18) Has anybody told you about ecology?19) In modern zoos, people can see animals in more natural habitats.20) He said that he wanted somebody to wake him up at 6.30 next

morning.

ESSENRIAL NUTRIENTS 7

2ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS


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Water

The human body contains 50 to 70% water, making it the most abundantcompound in the body. Because there is no storage of water within thebody water must be replaced continually. Water may be obtained frombeverages, foods, and from energy metabolism within the body. Waterfunctions in temperature regulation, as a solvent, in chemical reactions,and as a body lubricant. Adults must consume two to three liters ofsome form of water each day.

Proteins

Proteins are widely distributed in nature, and no life-forms are knownwithout them. They are made up of relatively simple organiccompounds, the amino acids, which contain nitrogen and sometimessulfur. Humans and animals build the protein they need for growth andrepair of tissues by breaking down the proteins obtained in food intotheir component parts, the amino acids, and then building up thesecomponents into proteins of the type needed. The protein-rich foodsfrom animal sources contain complete proteins, which supply all theamino acids in the proper proportions necessary in the human diet.Although it was formerly believed that plant proteins had to becombined at each meal, research shows that a balanced diet will providethe proper combinations.

Vitamins and Minerals


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Most foods contain several vitamins and minerals. Vitamins are organicfood substances, needed only in minute quantities but essential for thenormal metabolism of other nutrients. Many vitamins and minerals actas catalysts or help form catalysts in the body. Minerals – such ascalcium, iodine, and iron – are an essential part of all cells and bodyfluids and enter into many functions.

Fats and Carbohydrates

Fats, which are widely distributed in nature, are a concentrated foodsource of energy. Fats are glyceryl esters of fatty acids and yieldglycerol and many different fatty acids when broken down byhydrolysis. Carbohydrates are the most abundant food sources ofenergy. Important dietary carbohydrates are divided into two groups –starches and sugars. The starches, which may be converted intoutilizable sugars in plants or in the human body, are in the grains, thepulses, the tubers, and some rhizomes and roots. The sugars occur inmany plants and fruits, the most important being sucrose, obtained fromsugarcane or the sugar beet.

Dietary Fiber

Dietary fiber, also known as bulk and roughage, is also an essentialelement in the diet even though it provides no nutrients. It consists ofplant cellulose and other indigestible materials in foods, along withpectins and gums. The chewing it requires stimulates saliva flow, andthe bulk it adds in the stomach and intestines during digestion providesmore time for absorption of nutrients. Diets with sufficient fiber producesofter, bulkier stools and help to promote bowel regularity and avoidconstipation and other disorders, such as diverticulosis.

Fruits, vegetables, whole-grain breads, and products made from nutsand legumes are all sources of dietary fiber. A diet overly abundant indietary fiber, however, can cut down on the absorption of importanttrace minerals during digestion.

Vegetables, fruits, grains, andlegumes constitute a richsource of dietary fiber.


Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What are the essential nutrients in human diet?2) Where may water be obtained?3) What are proteins used for?4) Why are vitamins essential for the normal metabolism of other

nutrients?5) What are the two groups of important dietary carbohydrates?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Water functions in temperature regulation, as a solvent, in

chemical reactions, and as a body lubricant.2) _____ A few life-forms do not have proteins.3) _____ Vitamins are inorganic food substances, needed only in

minute quantities.4) _____ Carbohydrates are the most abundant food sources of

energy.5) _____ A diet overly abundant in dietary fiber can help the

absorption of important trace minerals during digestion.

VOCABULARY


bowel beverages indigestible tuber catalysts

digestion absorption constipated starches balanced

1) You should eat more fiber and fruit if you are ……………….2) Hot …………… include tea, coffee and hot chocolate.3) Many vitamins and minerals help form …………… in the body.4) Research shows that a …………… diet will provide the proper

combinations.5) Eating plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables can reduce the risk of

cancer of the …………….6) A …………… the short thick round part of an underground stem

or root of some plants, such as potatoes, which stores food andfrom which new plants grow.

7) Vegetables are usually cooked to aid …………….8) Vitamin D is necessary to aid the …………… of calcium from

food.9) Beans can be rather …………….

10) …………… may be converted into utilizable sugars in plants or inthe human body


WORD STUDY

A. COMPOUND WORDS

A compound word is two smaller words put together. The meaning ofthe compound word is related to the meanings of the two words.Here are some examples:

bird + house = birdhouse (a place for birds to live)car + wash = carwash (a place to wash your car)

Exercise: First, make compound words by putting together these pairs ofwords.

some + one = …………………………stop + light = …………………………bed + room = …………………………birth + day = …………………………under + line = …………………………note + book = …………………………

Now use the compound words to complete the sentences.1) In class, students write notes in a …………………………2) I sleep in a bed in my …………………………3) Cars must stop when the …………………………is red.4) Next week is my 20th …………………………. I am going to have

a party for all my friends. I will be 20 years old.5) If the teacher says to put a line under the verb, then we must

………………………… the verb.6) ………………………… wants to talk to you on the telephone. I

don’t know who it is.

B. -AL, -ABLE, AND -FUL

The suffixes -al, -able, and -ful can be added to the end of some words.These suffixes mean that something “is full of something” or “hassomething.”Here are some examples:

Roses are beautiful flowers. (full of beauty)Puerto Rico has many coastal cities. (has a coast)That is a very comfortable chair. (has comfort)

When you add these suffixes to a word, the new word becomes anadjective. An adjective describes a noun or a pronoun. It usually comesbefore a noun or after the verb be.


Exercise: Practice making adjectives by adding the suffixes -al, -able, and -fulto the following words.

Spelling Note: Change y to i before -al and -ful.

noun (add –al) adjective verb (add -able) adjectivecoast ……………………… notice ………………………season ……………………… agree ………………………industry ……………………… enjoy ………………………nation ………………………noun (add -ful) adjectivebeauty ………………………help ………………………wonder ………………………

Complete each sentence with an adjective from the lists.1) Most people in Puerto Rico live in …………………… cities.2) The influence of Spain is very …………………… in San Juan.3) The people of Puerto Rico are usually …………………… to tourists.4) San Juan is a modern, …………………… city.5) Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. …………………… elections.6) The beaches and mountains of Puerto Rico are ……………………7) My cousins had a very …………………… time visiting the old city

of San Juan. They bought some souvenirs and had a delicious lunch.8) In general, Puerto Rico is a …………………… place to visit.

C. -EN

We can change some nouns and adjectives into verbs by adding thesuffix -en. For example, if you add -en to the adjective dark, you getthe word darken. Darken means “to make something dark.”

Exercise: Look at these examples. Complete the chart.

noun verb adjective verbstrengthlength

strengthen…………......

weak…………......short

weakenwiden…………......


STRUCTURE STUDY

THE PASSIVE (continued)

When we talk about what other people say, believe, etc we can usetwo possible passive forms. Compare:

Active: People say that Mr. Ross is a millionaire.Passive (1): It is said that Mr. Ross is a millionaire.Passive (2): Mr. Ross is said to be a millionaire.

We often use these passive forms in a formal style and with verbssuch as: say, think, believe, consider, understand, know, report,expect, allege, claim, acknowledge, fear.

Exercise: Read each sentence. Then make two new sentences in the passive.1) People expect that taxes will be reduced soon.2) People say that the monument is over 2000 years old.3) People expect that the president will resign.4) People think the fire started at about 8 o’clock.5) Journalists reported that seven people had been injured in the fire.6) They expect that a new law will be introduced next year.7) People say that the concert was very good.8) People allege that the man drove through the town at 90 miles an

hour.9) They report that many people are homeless after the floods.

10) Those two houses belong to the same family. People say that thereis a secret tunnel between them.

11) They say that the company is losing a lot of money.12) People expect that the strike will end soon.13) They believed that the workers had stolen the money.14) They say that it was designed by Leonardo da Vinci.15) They say that there is plenty of oil off our coast.16) People know that there are thousands of different species of

beetles.17) They suppose that George is an expert in financial matters.18) They say that thousands of new jobs will be created in the

computer industry.19) They reported that all the passengers had died in the crash.20) They say that there are thousands of people waiting to renew their

passports.

FOOD GROUPS 13

3FOOD GROUPS


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Bread and Cereal

The bread-cereal group includes all breads and cereals that are whole-grain, enriched, or restored. The protein content is not high in cereals,but these products can be a significant source of protein when they areconsumed in large quantities. All cereals are very high in starch, andthey are good, generally inexpensive sources of energy. The fat contentof cereal products generally is very low unless the germ is included.Whole-grain products contribute significant quantities of fiber and suchtrace vitamins and minerals as pantothenic acid, vitamin E, zinc, copper,manganese, and molybdenum.

Vegetables

Most vegetables are important sources of minerals, vitamins, andcellulose. Certain vegetables, such as potatoes, contribute appreciablequantities of starch. Large amounts of the minerals calcium and iron arein vegetables, particularly beans, peas, and broccoli. Vegetables alsohelp meet the body's need for sodium, chloride, cobalt, copper,magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and potassium. Carotenes (theprecursor of vitamin A) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are abundant inmany vegetables. Vegetables are useful as sources of roughage.

Fruits

The nutritional value of fruits varies. Some fruits are composed largelyof water, but contain valuable vitamins. The citrus fruits are a valuable


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source of vitamin C, and yellow-colored fruits, such as peaches, containcarotene. Dried fruits contain an ample amount of iron, and figs andoranges are an excellent source of calcium. Like vegetables, fruits havea high cellulose content.

Milk

The milk group includes milk and milk products, cheese, and ice cream.Milk is a complete protein food containing several protein complexes. Italso contains important amounts of most nutrients, but it is very low iniron and ascorbic acid and low in niacin. Calcium and phosphorus levelsin milk are very high. Vitamin A levels are high in whole milk, but thisfat-soluble vitamin is removed in the production of skim milk.Riboflavin is present in significant quantities in milk unless the milk hasbeen exposed to light.

Modern milking parlorsenable few people tomilk and inspect a largenumber of cows in aclean environment.

Meat and Meat Substitutes

The meat and meat substitutes group includes beef; veal; lamb; pork;organ meats such as liver, heart, and kidney; poultry and eggs; fish andshellfish; and dried peas, beans, and nuts. The meat group containsmany valuable nutrients. One of its main nutrients is protein, but meatalso contains cholesterol, which is believed to contribute to coronaryartery disease. The minerals copper, iron, and phosphorus occur inmeats in significant amounts, particularly iron and copper in liver.Different meats vary in their vitamin content. Liver usually contains auseful amount of vitamin A. Thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin, all Bvitamins, occur in significant amounts in all meats.

Other Foods

Butter, margarine, other fats, oils, sugars, or unenriched refined-grainproducts are included in the diet to round out meals and satisfy theappetite. Fats, oils, and sugars are added to other foods duringpreparation of the meal or at the table. These foods supply calories andcan add to total nutrients in meals.

FOOD GROUPS 15

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What nutrients are provided most by breads and cereals?2) What nutrients are provided by most vegetables?3) What kinds of fruit contain vitamin C?4) Why is milk a valuable food?5) Why is meat believed to contribute to coronary artery disease?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Cereals provide a sufficient amount of protein for the

human body’s need.2) _____ Vegetables contain a significant amount of sodium,

chloride, cobalt, copper, magnesium, manganese,phosphorus, and potassium.

3) _____ Vegetables have a high cellulose content, but fruits do not.4) _____ Vitamin A levels are high in skim milk.5) _____ Liver usually contains a useful amount of vitamin A.

VOCABULARY


contribute fat-soluble enriched appetite vary

nutritional cholesterol germ mineral roughage

1) The fat content of cereal products generally is very low unless the………… is included

2) Most breakfast cereals are ………… with vitamins.3) Certain vegetables, such as potatoes, ………… appreciable

quantities of starch.4) Fruit and vegetables are important sources of ………….5) Chemical sweeteners, like preservatives and colorings, have no

value.6) Vitamin A is a ………… vitamin, so it can dissolve in fat only.7) Don't spoil your ………… by eating between meals.8) ………… is thought to be part of the cause of heart disease if there

is too much of it.9) Different meats ………… in their vitamin content.

10) Many people drink ………… water because they do not want todrink tap water.


WORD STUDY

A. RE-

The prefix re- means “to do something again.”Here is an example:

re- + read = reread (to read again)If you don’t understand a story the first time you read it, then youshould reread it.

Exercise: Add the prefix re- to each word in the box. Then choose the correctword to complete each sentence.

arrange do order tell

build married take write

1) José made many mistakes in his first composition. Before he givesit to his teacher tomorrow, he is going to ……………………… it.

2) Dave and Susan Johnson got divorced 10 years ago. Last yearSusan got ………………… and moved to Canada with her newhusband.

3) I think I should ……………………… the furniture in myapartment. The way I have the tables and chairs now makes theroom look crowded.

4) Children love to hear their grandparents tell stories! They often asktheir grandparents to ……………………… their favorite storiesmany times.

5) The new waiter at the restaurant forgot our order for dinner, so wehad to …………………… everything.

6) If you don’t get a good score on the TOEFL exam this weekend,you can …………………… it next month.

B. WORD FORMS: NOUNS

Sometimes verbs and nouns have the same form. Sometimes we canchange adjectives and verbs to nouns by adding a suffix or changing theform of the word. Look at the nouns below. Notice how they are relatedto other words.

-ity same form

adjective noun verb nounchangecontroldivorce

changecontroldivorce

different form

electricablenationalnecessarypossible

electricityabilitynationalitynecessitypossibility marry

choosemarriagechoice

FOOD GROUPS 17

Exercise: Practice using direct objects. Choose the correct noun form of theword in bold print to complete each sentence.electric 1) Yesterday there was a big storm and we lost the

……………………… at school. Everything wasdark!

national 2) Katarina was born in Spain. Her first languageand her …………………... are Spanish.

marry 3) Parents used to arrange the ………………………of their child. Now people usually marry theperson they love.

control 4) After 1800 mothers usually stayed home and had……………………… of the children and thehome.

necessary 5) An education is very important for a good life.Parents must explain this ………………………to their children.

able 6) My cousin is able to learn languages veryquickly. She uses this ……………………… inher job as a tour guide.

choose 7) You must choose which movie to see tonight. Ichose the movie last week. Now it’s your……………………….

possible 8) Ali doesn’t know where to go on vacation. Hemight choose Mexico, but Puerto Rico is another………………………

C. WORD FORMS: NOUNS

Sometimes in English we can change an adjective to a noun by adding asuffix or changing the spelling.

Look at the examples. Complete the chart.

-ness t → ceadjective noun adjective nounsmoothhappyweak

smoothnesshappiness………………

importantdifferent……………

importance………silence

When we add a suffix to some verbs, we can make nouns. Sometimesa verb and a noun have the same form.Look at these examples.

-ture -er same formverb noun verb noun verb nounmixsignfurnish

mixturesignaturefurniture

exploredrywash

explorerdryerwasher

changeworkstart

changeworkstart


Exercise: Complete each sentence with the correct form of the word in boldprint.change 1) The teacher explained the reason for the ………

in the class schedule.different 2) Modern and traditional clothes are different. Do

you understand the ………………………?explore 3) James Cook is the name of an ………………furnish 4) What kind of ……………… do you have in your

apartment?happy 5) Money does not always bring ……………………important 6) Social scientists do not understand the

…………………… of animal carvings in Eskimosociety.

mix 7) To make lemonade, mix lemon juice and water.Then add sugar to the ……………………… .

sign 8) There is a place for your ……………………… atthe bottom of the application. Please sign it.

silent 9) You can almost hear the ……………………… innorthern Canada. It is very peaceful there.

smooth 10) Handling the carvings makes them smoother, and……………………… improves them.

start 11) The students finished their homework in thecafeteria only five minutes before the……………………… of class.

work 12) What kind of ……………………… did you do inyour native country?

STRUCTURE STUDY

THE CAUSATIVE

Formhave object past participle

I am havingHow often do you have

We hadSimon has just had

You should haveAre you going to have

a garageyour hairour computera suityour eyesnew carpets

built at the moment.cut?serviced last week.made.tested.fitted in your flat?

UseWe use the structure have something done to talk about somethingwhich we arrange for someone else to do for us.Compare:

m building a garage at the moment. (I am building the garage

FOOD GROUPS 19

myself.)m having a garage built at the moment. (I arranged for someone

else to do this for me.”

We can also use have something done when we do not arrange forsomeone else to do something for us.

I had my leg broken in a football match.We had our fence blown down in a storm last week.

We often use have something done un this way when somethingunpleasant or unexpected happens to someone.

Note that we can often use get something done instead of havesomething done especially in an informal style e.g. I must get this jacketcleaned.

Exercise: Complete the sentences using the correct form of having somethingdone.1) Are you going to ……………………………………… or shall I

throw them away? (these shoes / repair)2) My neighbors are ……………………………………… onto their

house at the moment. (an extension / build)3) I must ……………………………………… They keep falling off.

(my glasses / mend)4) Where do you …………………………………? It always looks

very nice. (your hair / do)5) I ……………………………………… on my car last month. (four

new tires / fit)6) I’ve just ……………………………………… (my suit / dry-clean)7) Peter ……………………………………… while he was out at

work. (his flat / burgle)8) Mr. and Mrs. Woods ……………………………………… in a

storm. (the roof of their house / damage)9) Kate ……………………………………… from her bag while she

was out shopping. (her wallet / steal)10) My brother ……………………………………… in a football

match. (his nose / break)


4FOOD PRESERVATION


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Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such away as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborneillness while maintaining nutritional value, texture and flavor.

Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungiand other micro-organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fatswhich causes rancidity.

Common methods of preserving food include drying, freeze drying,freezing, vacuum-packing, canning, radiation treatment and addingpreservatives. Other methods that not only help to preserve food, butalso add flavor, include pickling, salting, smoking and curing.

The oldest method of food preservation is by drying, which reduceswater activity sufficient to delay or prevent bacterial growth. Smoking issometimes done in conjunction with drying. Although not sufficient byitself to permit long term storage of food, smoking adds chemicals thathelp inhibit the growth of micro-organisms.

Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in anair-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria ofoxygen needed for survival, hence preventing the food from spoiling.Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts.

Curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis.Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two. Nitratesand nitrites are also often used to cure meat.

FOOD PRESERVATION 21

Method Effect on microbial growth or survival

Refrigeration or chilling Low temperature to retard growth

Freezing Low temperature and reduction of wateractivity to prevent growth

Drying, curing and conserving Reduction in water activity sufficient to delayor prevent growth

Vacuum and oxygen free modifiedatmosphere packaging

Low oxygen tension in inhibit strict aerobesand delay growth of facultive anaerobes

Carbon dioxide enriched modifiedatmosphere packaging

Specific inhibition of some micro-organismsby carbon dioxide

Addition of acids Reduction of pH value and sometimesadditional inhibition by the particular acid

Lactic fermentation Reduction of pH value in situ by microbialaction and sometimes additional inhibition bythe lactic and acetic acids formed and by othermicrobial products. (e.g. ethanol, bacteriocins)

Emulsification Compartmentalisation and nutrient limitationwithin the aqueous droplets in water-in-oilemulsion foods

Addition of preservatives Inhibition of specific groups of micro-organisms

Pasteurization and appertization Delivery of heat sufficient to inactivate targetmicro-organisms to the desired extent

food irradation (Radurization,radicidation and radappertization)

Delivery of ionising radiation

Application of high hydrostaticpressure (Pascalization)

Pressure-inactivation of vegetative bacteria,yeasts and moulds

Main food preservation methods

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Pickling is a method of preserving food by placing it in either a brine(high in salt), or a solution of vinegar which is too acidic to permitbacterial growth.

Canning involves cooking fruits or vegetables, sealing them in sterilecans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remainingbacteria. Various foods have varying degrees of natural protectionagainst spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a pressurecooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to canand only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoesrequire longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Manyvegetables require pressure canning.

A 1950s issue of Popular Mechanics details the impending arrival of"food irradiation". However, at the present time, the implicationssurrounding the irradiation of food are still not fully understood, and thetechnology is therefore still not in widespread use. However, irradiationof potatoes, strawberries, and meat is common in many countries where


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refrigerated facilities and trucks are not common. In 2002, the FDApermitted irradiation of meat and poultry to reduce the spread of E. coliand Salmonella. In the US and most of Europe irradiation of spices iscommon, as the only alternative (treatment with gas) has been shown tobe potentially carcinogenic. The process is incorrectly called"pasteurization" to avoid the reduced sales that arise from the correctterm of "irradiation".

A tomato cannery in Modesto, California

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What is the definition of food preservation?2) What are some common methods of preserving food?3) Why can vacuum-packing prevent the food from spoiling?4) What is pickling?5) Why is food irradiation still not in widespread use?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Food preservation is aimed to stop or greatly slow down

spoilage to prevent foodborne illness.2) _____ The oxidation of proteins causes rancidity.3) _____ Pickling, salting, smoking and curing not only help to

preserve food, but also add flavor.4) _____ Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection

against spoilage.5) _____ Irradiation of spices can cause cancer.


VOCABULARY


osmosis carcinogenic spices preservatives pasteurizationpoultry bacteria preserved implications facilities

1) Olives are usually ………… in brine.2) ………… are chemicals used to keep especially food from

decaying.3) Curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of ……….4) Irradiation of potatoes, strawberries, and meat is common in many

countries where refrigerated ………… and trucks are not common.5) Many people who give up eating meat and ………… carry on

eating fish.6) The introduction of …………, which kills micro-organisms by

heat, has been a major factor in making milk safer to drink.7) They are studying the ………… effects of some pesticides used on

fruit.8) Illnesses caused by ………… can often be treated with antibiotics.9) Cinnamon, ginger and cloves are all ………….

10) At the present time, the ………… surrounding the irradiation offood are still not fully understood.

WORD STUDY

A. WORD FORMS: NOUN ENDINGS

So far you have studied many common noun endings. Look at the wordlist below and notice how the nouns are related to the other words.

noun adjective verb1) similarity similar —2) crowd crowded crowd3) excellence excellent excel4) payment — pay5) equipment — equip6) popularity popular popularize7) weakness weak weaken8) pleasure pleasant please


Exercise: Choose the correct word form to complete each sentence. Somenouns may need to be made plural. Use a word from line 1 insentence 1, and so on.1) There are several major …………………… between life in the

United States and in Canada.2) Lots of people went to the movie theater last night. There was a big

……………………… waiting outside to buy tickets.3) Keiko had no mistakes on her test yesterday. The teacher wrote

“……………………!” on the top of her test. Keiko was veryhappy.

4) If you take a loan from the bank to buy a car, you must make a…………………… every month until you pay all the money back.

5) Tennis shoes and other sports …………………… are usually veryexpensive.

6) It’s hard to understand the …………………… of video games.Many people play them, but I don’t like them.

7) David is very good at speaking and reading English. His major…………………… is writing, so he practices all the time.

8) I was so happy when I received a letter from my best friend athome. It is such a …………………… to get mail when you are faraway from family and friends.

B. - LESS

The suffix less means “without” or “not having something.”Here is an example:

The number of English words to learn is endless. (“without end”)

Exercise: Add the suffix -less to each word. Then choose the best word foreach sentence.

care ………………… change …………………hope ………………… worth …………………help ………………… thought …………………end ………………… sleep …………………

1) Babies cannot take care of themselves. Someone must help thembecause they are …………………….

2) Stephan found an old coin. He thought it was gold, but it wasn’t. Infact, it had no value. It was …………………….

3) You must take your time and be careful when you write. If you tryto hurry, you will make …………………… mistakes.

4) Michael was sick last night so he could not sleep. Today in class hewas very tired after such a …………………… night.

5) Helen said something that hurt my feelings. I know she didn’t wantto hurt my feelings. She just wasn’t thinking. She made a…………………… mistake.


C. WORD FORMS: NOUNS

Some common noun endings are -sion, -tion, -ation, and -t. Look at thislist of verbs and nouns. Notice how the nouns are related to the verbs.

verb noun verb noundivideintroduceexploreeducateprevent

divisionintroductionexplorationeducationprevention

populatecomplicateinformproducefly

populationcomplicationinformationproductionflight

Exercise: Choose the best verb or noun from the chart to complete eachsentence. Remember to use the correct verb tenses and singular orplural noun forms.1) In the 19th century, parents realized that they had to take care of

their children’s health and try to give them a good………………………. Before that, most people did not go toschool.

2) The ………………………. of the world is increasing every year.In the year 2005 there will be at least 7.2 billion people on theearth.

3) When people in North America ………………………. themselvesto you for the first time, they usually say, “Nice to meet you” andshake your hand.

4) Some scientists think that drinking green tea is good for yourhealth. In fact, some people think it helps ……………………….diseases.

5) The island of Puerto Rico ………………………. a lot ofsugarcane. The sugar that comes from it is sold all over the world.

6) After World War II, Germany was divided into two separatecountries. However, this ………………………. did not last. In1990 the two Germanies united as one country again.

7) Many centuries ago, people left their countries to search for newlands. The ………………… of the new world brought people frommany countries together in North America.

8) If you have a question when you are in the library, go to the………………………. desk and ask one of the librarians for help.


STRUCTURE STUDY

THE RELATIVE CLAUSE

A noun can be modified by a clause. A clause of this kind is begun bya relative pronoun and called a relative clause. It always follows thenoun which it modifies and which is known as its antecedent.

Look at the following sentences:(a) An engineer is a skilled person. He designs, builds or maintains

engines, machines, bridges, railways, etc.(b) An engineer is a skilled person who designs, builds or maintains

engines, machines, bridges, railways, etc.The relative pronouns are:

Subject: who, which, that,Object: who, whom, which, that, ØPossessive Determiner: whose (+ a noun)Adverbial: when, where, why (when and why can be

replaced by that or Ø)

Exercise 1: Join each pair of sentences, making the second sentence a relativeclause.

1) I can’t find the envelopes. I bought it this morning.2) This is a picture of the place. We’re going there for our holidays.3) Have you found the money? You lost it.4) His refusal to tell her the truth is the reason. That’s why she is so

angry with him.5) Are these all the letters? They came in this morning’s post.6) The factory is going to close down. I work there.7) The car has now been found. It was stolen.8) She’s the person. She gives me a lift to work every day.9) The outdoor swimming pool has now been closed down. We often

went there as children.10) The man was very nice. He interviewed me.11) She’s the girl. Her brother works in the post office.12) Is there a reason? You want to leave now for that reason.13) Is Technico the company? Sarah works for them.14) The house is over 100 years old. Sue has bought it.15) I’m looking for the person. I’ve just hit his car.16) Most of the books are still popular today. I read them as a child.17) The woman is coming back to work soon. I’m doing her job.18) Edinburgh is the city. I’d most like to live there.19) His dishonesty is the reason. That’s why I left him.20) The early morning is the time. I work best then.


Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences with an appropriate relativepronoun.

1) They’re the people ………………… house caught fire.2) This is the report ………………… the president wanted.3) The girls ………………… are in my class are all good students.4) Is that the hospital ………………… you had your operation?5) Do you remember the time ………………… your car broke down

on the motorway?6) Our teacher, ………………… is an American, speaks English

perfectly.7) The car ………………… Hernando used belongs to his uncle.8) The teacher with ………………… I studied mathematics last year

died last week.9) They’re the people ………………… children were injured in the

accident.10) Did they tell you the reason ………………… they wanted you to

do that?11) Is this the program ………………… you always watch on TV?12) I don’t understand the reason ………………… he was late.13) The movies ………………… we saw this summer were all good.14) What’s the name of the restaurant ………………… you had

lunch?15) These are the kinds of exercises ………………… help us learn

English.16) The lamp ………………… you broke is my brother’s.17) She is one of the workers ………………… went on strike.18) She was the pilot ………………… flew our 747.19) It is the little things in life ………………… count.20) I can remember a time ………………… there was no television.


5COOKING


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EARLIEST TYPES OF COOKING

The origins of cooking are obscure. Primitive humans may first havesavored roast meat by chance, when the flesh of a beast killed in a forestfire was found to be more palatable and easier to chew and digest thanthe customary raw meat. They probably did not deliberately cook food,though, until long after they had learned to use fire for light and warmth.It has been speculated that Peking man roasted meats, but no clearevidence supports the theory. From whenever it began, however,roasting spitted meats over fires remained virtually the sole culinarytechnique until the Paleolithic Period, when the Aurignacian people ofsouthern France began to steam their food over hot embers by wrappingit in wet leaves. Aside from such crude procedures as toasting wildgrains on flat rocks and using shells, skulls, or hollowed stones to heatliquids, no further culinary advances were made until the introduction ofpottery during the Neolithic Period.

The earliest compound dish was a crude paste (the prototype of thepulmentum of the Roman legions and the polenta of later Italians) madeby mixing water with the cracked kernels of wild grasses. This paste,toasted to crustiness when dropped on a hot stone, made the first bread.

ADVANCES IN COOKING TECHNIQUES

Culinary techniques improved with the introduction of earthenware(and, more or less concomitantly, the development of settledcommunities), as well as the domestication of livestock and thecultivation of edible plants. A more dependable supply of foodstuffs,

COOKING 29

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including milk and its derivatives, was now assured. The roasting spitwas augmented by a variety of fired-clay vessels, and the cookingtechniques of boiling, stewing, braising, and perhaps even incipientforms of pickling, frying, and oven baking were added. Early cooksprobably had already learned to preserve meats and fish by smoking,salting, air-drying, or chilling. New utensils made it possible to preparethese foods in new ways, and such dishes as bacalao à la vizcaina("dried cod") and finnan haddie (smoked haddock) are still eaten.

The microwave oven cooks a 20 kilo turkey in less than1/2 hour instead of the 4 to 5 hours it would take in astandard oven.

COOKING METHODS

Heat-activated cooking methods take five basic forms. Food may beimmersed in liquids such as water, stock, or wine (boiling, poaching,stewing); immersed in fat or oil (frying); exposed to vapor (steamingand, to some extent, braising); exposed to dry heat (roasting, baking,broiling); and subjected to contact with hot fats (sautéing). With minormodifications, all five methods are applicable to any type of food noteaten raw, but certain treatments traditionally are rarely used toprepare particular foods. Deep-fat frying, for example, is not generallythought the ideal method for preparing steaks or chops.

Boiled foods usually are immersed in flavored or unflavored liquidsfor longer periods of time than poached foods, and the cooking liquidusually takes the form of a thickened sauce when foods are stewed.The chief difference between frying and sautéing is that fryingproduces a crisp surface, sealing natural moisture inside the food,whereas in the sauté process, natural juices usually mingle with thepan fat, coating the food with a light sauce. As opposed to steaming,which does not place foods in direct contact with liquids, braising isaccomplished by first browning food in fat and then placing it in directcontact with a small amount of liquid within an airtight pan.Originally, roasted foods were exposed to the action of open fires or


55live coals, but in contemporary cookery roasting is synonymous withbaking – that is, cooking by dry heat in a closed oven. Broiling,whether in an oven or over an open fire or coals, exposes meats to thedirect action of more intense heat, which sears their surfaces quicklyto seal in their juices.

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) How did primitive humans cook food until the Paleolithic Period?2) What helped to improve cooking techniques?3) How may primitive humans have preserved meat and fish?4) What are the basic cooking methods?5) What is the main difference between frying and sautéing?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Primitive people cooked food long before they learned to

use fire for light and warmth.2) _____ Culinary advances were made only after the introduction of

pottery during the Neolithic Period.3) _____ Deep-fat frying is the common method for preparing steaks

or chops.4) _____ Boiled foods usually are immersed in liquids for longer

periods of time than poached foods.5) _____ Nowadays roasted foods are usually cooked over open fires

or live coals.

VOCABULARY


palatable cookery savored embers pickling

foodstuffs sauté airtight immersed utensils

1) …………… the meat for a few minutes over a medium heat beforeadding the wine.

2) It was the first chocolate he had tasted for over a year, so he…………… every mouthful.

3) The shells should be …………… in boiling water for two minutes.4) The meal was barely …………… – in fact, I thought it was

disgusting.5) They lack basic ……………, such as bread and milk.6) In the drawer was a selection of kitchen …………… – spoons,

spatulas, knives and whisks.7) …………… onions are small onions of a type which are preserved

in vinegar.8) A …………… book is a book containing recipes which tell you

how to prepare and cook particular dishes.

COOKING 31

9) They poked the glowing …………… and the fire burst into flames.10) Biscuits will stay crisp if you keep them in an …………… tin.

WORD STUDY

A. OVER-

The prefix over- means “too,” “too much,” or “too many.”Look at the example:

Third World cities are already overcrowded. (too crowded)

Exercise: Add the prefix over- to each word. Then choose the best word foreach sentence.

eat …………………………………………populated …………………………………………weight …………………………………………heated …………………………………………slept …………………………………………cooked …………………………………………

1) There are too many people on the island of Java in Indonesia. Javais ……………………….

2) We were driving in the mountains on a very hot day, and our car………………………. . We had to stop and let it cool down.

3) Toshi left the rice in the rice cooker too long. Now the rice is……………….

4) Martin has a class at 8:00 in the morning. He usually wakes up at7:00 to get ready. Today he was late for class because he didn’twake up until 8:15. He ……………………….

5) If you ………………………. every day, you will soon be………………………. Eating too much can make you fat, and it’snot good for your health.

B. -LY

Sometimes we can add the suffix ly to an adjective to make an adverb.Here is an example:

slowly + -ly = slowlyPlease speak slowly so I can understand.

Exercise: Add the suffix -ly to each adjective. Then choose the best adverb foreach sentence.

accidental ……………………………………inexpensive ……………………………………careful ……………………………………silent ……………………………………thoughtless ……………………………………


similar ……………………………………

1) Brian …………………… told his friend that he didn’t like thecolor of her new car. Then he was sorry for what he said. He didn’tthink about it before he said it.

2) Always read the directions …………………… before you take atest so you don’t make any careless mistakes.

3) Loud talking is not allowed in the library. You must work…………………… so other people can study, too.

4) Julia …………………… knocked her glass off the table, and itbroke. She did not mean to do it.

5) If you cook your meals at home and don’t go out too often, you canlive……………………. You don’t have to spend too much money.

C. WORD FORMS: OTHER WORDS WITH -LY

The meanings of a few common words with the suffix -ly are differentfrom what you might guess. Look at these words and their meanings.

likely = probablyThe sky is full of gray clouds. It is likely to rain soon.greatly = very muchFamily life has changed greatly in the last two centuries.largely = mostlyShopping centers have developed largely because of trafficproblems in cities.lately = recentlyI haven t seen Maria lately, have you? The last time I saw her wasmonths ago.hardly = not much, only a little, almost noneThere are so many cars in Bangkok that there is hardly any spaceto park.(Note: hardly is a negative word. Don’t use no or not with it.)widely = in many places, over a large areaEnglish is widely used as a second language. Italian is not.shortly = in a short time, very soonI will finish my homework shortly. Then I will play tennis with you.nearly = almostToday is November 20. It is nearly winter.

Exercise: Now choose the best -ly word from the above list to complete eachsentence.1) We are …………………… finished with unit 5. We have only two

more exercises to do.2) Nick …………………… enjoyed the jazz music festival at school

last week. It was excellent, and Nick loves jazz.3) The train will arrive …………………… . Please wait in the

waiting area. It will only be a few minutes.4) Jeff …………………… ever eats in fast-food restaurants because

he is a vegetarian. He usually cooks for himself at home.

COOKING 33

5) Country music is …………………… to be popular for a long time.It will probably still be popular in 20 years.

6) Euphorbia is not a …………………… known plant. People inmost places have never heard of it.

7) Deserts are growing all over the world. This is ……………………because of humans and their animals.

8) I used to go to movies a lot, but I haven’t been to one ……………

STRUCTURE STUDY

DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

‘Defining’ relative clauses identify nouns: these clauses tell us whichperson, thing, etc the speaker means.

I spoke to the woman who owns the hotel. (who owns the hotel tellsus which woman)The house which Sue has bought is over 100 years old. (which Suehas bought tells us which house)

‘Non-defining’ relative clause do not tell us which person, thing, etc thespeaker means; these clauses give more information about a person orthing already identified.

Ken s mother, who is 69, has just passed her driving test. (who is69 does not tell us which woman; we already know that it is Ken smother)Sue s house, which is in the centre of town, is over 100 years old.(which is in the centre of town does not tell us which house; wealready know that it is Sue s house)

Non-defining clauses are more common in a formal style, especially inwriting.

When we write these clauses, we put commas (,) at the beginning of theclause (and often at the end of the clause).

Last weekend I met Sue, who told me she was going on holidaysoon.Frank Morris, who is one of my best friends, has decided to go andlive in France.

Note that in a non-defining clause we cannot use that or Ø.She gave me the key, which I put in my pocket.My uncle John, who lives in Manchester, is coming to visit me nextweek.


Exercise: Rewrite the sentences making the second sentence into a non-defining relative clause and putting it into the correct place.1) When I was in town, I met your sister. She was shopping for some

clothes.2) Their house needs a lot of work doing to it. It is near the beach.3) Sandra’s just got a new job with Capital Insurers. It’s a much better

company than the last one she worked for.4) The new manager seems to be a very capable woman. I met her last

week.5) This case is full of books. I carried it all the way from the station.6) The Games International Company has just gone bankrupt. We

have done business with them for many years.7) The hospital has handed out redundancy notices to all its staff. It is

due to close down next year.8) The prisoners are requesting more time out of their cells. Their

families are campaigning on their behalf.9) The new government is now facing major problems. It came to

power with a lot of public support.10) Her latest novel is really good. I read it on holiday.11) The Home Affairs Minister is suspected of being involved in a

financial scandal. The opposition have accused the minister oflying.

12) The Education Department is changing its policy on single sexschools. Mrs. Parkinson is in charge of the department.

13) The Lilley and Swan department store has made reductions onmost of its goods. The store has a sale on at the moment.

14) The principal actor could hardly speak last night due to a sorethroat. He normally has a wonderful voice.

15) The sales manager is planning a new advertising campaign. Isupport her ideas.

16) The oldest method of food preservation is by drying. reduces wateractivity sufficient to delay or prevent bacterial growth.

17) Dr. Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretary resignedtwo week ago

18) Meat contains cholesterol. Cholesterol is believed to contribute tocoronary artery disease.

19) My mother knew that they were in the building. She had beentalking to them earlier.

20) We went away in August. The children were on holiday fromschool then.

HUMAN DIET 35

6HUMAN DIET


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Because the human diet is typically diverse, human beings are classifiedas omnivores rather than as herbivores (plant eaters) or carnivores (meateaters). Certain groups of people do derive most of their food fromanimal sources while other people practice vegetarianism. By far themajority of humankind, however, eats a wide range of foods of bothanimal and vegetable origin. Prehistoric humans were hunter-gathererswho fed on animals, insects, berries, roots, and leaves. The range ofdietary choices was extended when humans learned how to use fire forcooking and when they developed weapons for hunting and trappinglarger game; most importantly, they eventually learned how to rearanimals for their own use and how to cultivate crops. Today someisolated groups are still hunter-gatherers, but most human diets derivefrom agriculture and animal husbandry.

Asian-style noodles


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Italian-style pasta

Social factors and cultural practices in most countries have a greatinfluence on what people eat, on how they prepare food, on their feedingpractices, and on the foods they prefer. Throughout history, differentsocieties have exhibited great variations in diet. But during the 20thcentury, greatly increased world trade and improved communicationshave resulted in major changes in the variety of foods eaten in manycountries. Asian cuisines have become popular in Europe and NorthAmerica, and Western "fast foods" are increasingly available indeveloping countries. In general, the staple food in most countries hasnot changed.

Throughout history, as long as the food supply was sufficient thetraditional diets of most cultures have provided all the essential nutrients.These are divided into macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins) andmicronutrients (vitamins and minerals). In general, humans obtain mostof their food energy from carbohydrates (perhaps 65% worldwide);lesser amounts come from fat (about 20%) and protein (about 15%),mainly from meat and fish.

The major cause of undernutrition and nutritional-deficiency diseases hasseldom been traditional food habits. The usual cause has been a lack ofadequate food due to poverty or consumption of too limited a variety offood. Infectious diseases and lack of care contribute importantly tomalnutrition in children. Protein-energy malnutrition is generally due toconsumption of too little food, and micronutrient deficiencies such asanemia, iodine deficiency disorders, and pellagra are due to dietsinadequate in specific minerals and vitamins.

Advances in agriculture and food-processing techniques have affordedthe potential of increased food supply and a nutritionally enriched diet,but modernization and Westernization of food habits have also haddeleterious effects. For example, at the turn of the 20th century new ricemilling techniques caused an outbreak of beriberi (a thiamine-deficiencydisease) in Asia, resulting in millions of deaths. The substitution ofbottle-feeding for breast-feeding among poor families in developingcountries has been responsible for a great deal of malnutrition anddiarrhea, as well as infant deaths.

HUMAN DIET 37

50Increasingly, changes in diets in the developing countries due toWesternization and greater affluence has led to an increase in chronicdiseases such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, andcertain cancers. These diseases are already major causes of mortality inthe industrialized countries. Much of this is related to high intakes offoods of animal origin and a greater percentage of food energy comingfrom fats, oils, and sugar and less coming from complex carbohydrates.

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) Why are human beings classified as omnivores?2) When was the range of dietary choices extended?3) What has the major cause of undernutrition and nutritional-

deficiency diseases been?4) What is the harmful effect of the substitution of bottle-feeding for

breast-feeding among poor families in developing countries?5) What have changes in diets in the developing countries resulted in?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ The major cause of nutritional-deficiency diseases has been

traditional food habits.2) _____ Most groups of people do derive most of their food from

animal sources.3) _____ Today no groups are still hunter-gatherers.4) _____ Social factors and cultural practices in most countries have

a great influence on their feeding practices.5) _____ Modernization and Westernization of food habits have also

had harmful effects.

VOCABULARY


reared hypertension malnutrition mortality bottle-feeding

feed deficiency vegetarian staple diet breast-feeding

1) If you …………… your dog on cakes and biscuits, it's notsurprising he's so fat.

2) A clean water supply played a large part in reducing the…………… rate.

3) A well-balanced …………… diet can be a lot healthier for you thanthe average meat-eater's diet because it contains less fat and morefiber.

4) The scientists tracked one lot of infected meat back to the farmswhere the animals had been …………….

5) Infectious diseases and lack of care contribute importantly to…………… in children.


6) …………… is extremely beneficial to the health of newbornbabies.

7) Pregnant women often suffer from iron …………….8) We are conducting extensive research into treatments for …………

and heart disease.9) Bamboo is the panda's …………….

10) She started …………… her baby when she went back to work.

WORD STUDY

A. WORD FORMS: ADJECTIVES

Some common adjective endings are -al, -able, -ful, -less, -t, and -ous.Look at the words in the list below. Notice the endings on the adjectives.See how the adjectives are related to the other words.

adjective verb noun1) experimental experiment experiment2) natural — nature3) preventable prevent prevention4) suitable suit —5) believable believe belief6) successful succeed success7) violent — violence8) different differ difference9) religious — religion

10) useful, useless use use

Exercise: Choose the best word to complete each sentence. Use a word fromline 1 in sentence 1, and so on.1) Scientists have planted jojoba and euphorbia crops on ……………

farms in several countries.2) The ancient Egyptians used plants as ……………………medicine

to treat diseases.3) Many common diseases of the 19th century are ……………………

now. People no longer get sick from these diseases.4) There are many wild plants in the woods, but not all of them are

……………………for humans to eat.5) I don’t ……………………your story about meeting people from

Mars. I don’t think it’s true.6) The first experiment with the new crop did not ………………… .

The plants died, and the scientists had to begin again.7) Some people think that television is too …………………… . There

are too many programs that show people fighting and killing eachother.

8) It can be very cold in parts of the United States during the winter,but it is almost never cold in Australia. The …………………… in

HUMAN DIET 39

weather is very great in these two areas of the world.9) Helen goes to church every day and often reads the Bible. She is

very …………………….10) The jojoba is a very …………………… plant. It can be used to

soothe burns, to make hair shiny, and to make a drink similar tocoffee.

B. WORD FORMS: ADJECTIVES

Adjectives have only one form. They can never be plural.Look at these examples:

We have a two-week vacation from school in March.It is a four-hour flight from Chicago to Los Angeles.

Exercise: Change the words in bold print to hyphenated adjectives and rewritethe sentences. The first one is done for you.1) A flight from Los Angeles to London is ten hours.

It is a ten-hour flight from Los Angeles to London.2) High school students in California have a summer vacation for

three months.………………………………………………………………………

3) It is a long drive from Toronto to Winnipeg. It takes four days.………………………………………………………………………

4) It is a short trip from New York to Boston. It is only 200kilometers.………………………………………………………………………

C. WORD FORMS

Look at the list of verbs, nouns, and adjectives below. Notice how theyare related to each other.

Verb Noun Adjective1) — scene, scenery scenic2) — science, scientist scientific3) persuade persuasion persuasive4) protect protection protective5) continue continuation continuous6) — history, historian historical7) enjoy enjoyment enjoyable8) suggest suggestion suggestive9) solve solution —

10) organize organization organized


Exercise: Choose the correct word for each sentence. Use a word from line 1 insentence 1, and so on.1) Kei brought a book of photographs of Japan to class last week.

Japan has very beautiful ………………………. We saw pictures ofmountains, lakes, and lovely cherry trees.

2) Chemistry and biology are two kinds of ………………………… .3) Bill could persuade you to do almost anything. He is a very

………………………… person. He talked me into going campingin Yellowstone National Park.

4) Some of the huge redwood trees in California are under the………………………… of the National Park Service. The servicekeeps the trees safe and healthy.

5) Workers can become very tired of the ……………………… noisein a factory. The noise never stops.

6) Most countries have a ……………………… museum that explainsthe history of the country in pictures, films, and art.

7) People of all ages like to go to national parks. A visit to a nationalpark is …………………… for the whole family.

8) I would like to make a ……………………… for your trip. Take atrain ride across Canada. I did it last year. The scenery is beautiful.

9) Many countries are trying to ……………………… the problem ofthe growth of the deserts.

10) The United Nations is an international ………………………….

STRUCTURE STUDY

REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses are often reduced or contracted as follows:

The man who is talking to John is from Korea.The man talking to John is from Korea.

English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters.English has an alphabet consisting of 26 letters.

Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.

The ideas which are presented in that book are interesting.The ideas presented in that book are interesting.

Half of the people who had been invited to the party didn t turn up.Half of the people invited to the party didn t turn up.

HUMAN DIET 41

Exercise: Reduce (contract) the underline part of the following sentences:1) An agreement has been signed to protect the forests which are being

cut down all over the world.2) Be sure to follow the instructions that are given at the top of the

page.3) Companies that already use computers have found that the number

of staff that is needed for stock-control can be substantially reduced.4) Did you get the message that concerned the special meeting?5) Do you know the woman who is coming toward us?6) Her books, which are read by people all over the world, are still

immensely popular.7) I come from a city that is located in the southern part of the country.8) I haven’t yet had an opportunity to think over the proposals that

were made at the last meeting.9) The children who attend that school receive a good education.

10) The experiment which was conducted at the University of Chicagowas successful.

11) The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood.12) The firm’s latest product, which was launched only six months ago,

has already captured a significant share of the market.13) The head office has now moved to new premises which overlook

the Thames.14) The Indians who lived in Peru before the discovery of the New

World by Europeans belonged to the Incan culture.15) The new hostel, which accommodates 200 students, will be opened

next month.16) The people who are being asked to take early retirement are all over

the age of 60.17) The people who are waiting for the bus in the rain are getting wet.18) The psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made

important discoveries.19) The scientists who are searching the causes of cancer are making

progress.20) Their letter, which explained why they had not paid promptly,

arrived a few days later.21) They live in a house that was built in 1890.22) They sent us an invoice that gave details of all the goods that had

been ordered.23) We can deliver within three days any articles that are ordered from

stock.24) We have an apartment which overlooks the park.25) We received your Giro slip today, which informed us that you had

paid £126.00 into your account.


7FOOD POISONING


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Foodborne illness or food poisoning is caused by consuming foodcontaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions orparasites. Such contamination usually arises from improper handling,preparation or storage of food. Foodborne illness can also be caused byadding pesticides or medicines to food, or by accidentally consumingnaturally poisonous substances like poisonous mushrooms or reef fish.Contact between food and pests, especially flies, rodents andcockroaches, is a further cause of contamination of food.

Although most mushrooms are edible, severalspecies can cause serious poisoning

Some common diseases are occasionally foodborne mainly through thewater vector, even though they are usually transmitted by other routes.These include infections caused by Shigella, Hepatitis A, and theparasites Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION DEFINITIONFoodborne illnesses are defined by the World Health Organization as diseases,usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter thebody through the ingestion of food. Every person is at risk of foodborne illness.

Preventing Bacterial Food Poisoning

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The prevention is mainly the role of the state, through the definition ofstrict rules of hygiene and a public service of veterinary survey of thefood chain, from farming to the transformation industry and the delivery(shops and restaurants). This regulation includes:

• traceability: in a final product, it must be possible to know theorigin of the ingredients (originating farm, identification of theharvesting or of the animal) and where and when it wasprocessed; the origin of the illness can thus be tracked andsolved (and possibly penalized), and the final products can beremoved from the sale if a problem is detected;

• respect of hygiene procedures like HACCP and the "cold chain";• power of control and of law enforcement of the veterinarians.

At home, the prevention mainly consists of:• the respect of the food storage and food preservation methods

(especially refrigeration), and checking the expiration date;• washing the hands before preparing the meal and before eating;• washing the fresh vegetables with clear water, especially when

not cooked (e.g. fruits, salads);• washing the dishes after use;• keeping the kitchen clean.

Spray washing of harvested tomatoes prior to processing.

Bacteria need warmth, moisture, food and time to grow. The presence,or absence, of oxygen, salt, sugar and acidity are also important factorsfor growth. In the right conditions, one bacterium can multiply usingbinary fission to become four million in eight hours. Since bacteria canbe neither smelled nor seen, the best way to ensure that food is safe is tofollow principles of good food hygiene. This includes not allowing rawor partially cooked food to touch dishes, utensils, hands or worksurfaces previously used to handle even properly cooked or ready to eatfood.High salt, high sugar or high acid levels keep bacteria from growing,


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which is why salted meats, jam, and pickled vegetables are traditionalpreserved foods.

The most frequent causes of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination and inadequate temperature control. Therefore control ofthese two matters is especially important.

Thoroughly cooking food until it is piping hot, i.e. above 70°C willquickly kill virtually all bacteria, parasites or viruses, except forClostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfringens, which produces aheat-resistant spore that survives temperatures up to 100°C. Oncecooked, hot foods should be kept hot – above 63°C stops microbialgrowth.

Cold foods should be kept cold, below 5°C (41°F). However, Listeriamonocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica can both grow at refrigeratortemperatures.

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What is food poisoning according to the WHO?2) How are foodborne diseases are transmitted?3) What regulations should be observed to avoid food poisoning?4) What must be done at home to avoid poisoning?5) What are the most frequent causes of bacterial foodborne illness?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Contact between food and pests is also a cause of

contamination of food.2) _____ All diseases are occasionally foodborne mainly through

the water vector.3) _____ The prevention against bacterial food poisoning is mainly

the role of the state.4) _____ Bacteria need warmth, moisture, food and time to grow.5) _____ Cooking food until above 70°C will kill all bacteria,

parasites or viruses.

FOOD POISONING 45

VOCABULARY


veterinary spore vectors ingredient food chainexpiration hygiene poisonous viruses contaminated

1) The best way to ensure that food is safe is to follow principles ofgood food …………….

2) The drinking water has become …………… with lead.3) Can you tell me the difference between …………… mushrooms

and edible varieties?4) Following the outbreak of the disease, several sheep and lambs

were destroyed on …………… advice.5) Sheep products are being fed to cows, thereby passing into the

human …………….6) Coconut is a basic …………… for many curries.7) The …………… date on this yogurt was November 20.8) Mosquitoes are the …………… of malaria.9) This group of bacteria have the ability to change into a dormant

form called a …………… if the cell starts to run out of food.10) In humans, …………… cause such illnesses as the common cold,

flu and measles.

WORD STUDY

A. -IZE

You can change some words into verbs by adding the suffix -ize. Thesuffix -ize means “to make into (something)” or “to cause to be(something).”

Here is an example:Radio helped to popularize country music.popular + -ize = to make something (country music) popularSpelling Note: When a word ends in y, drop they before adding-ize.

Exercise: Add the suffix -ize to each word. Then choose the best word for eachsentence. Be sure to use the correct tense.

memory …………………… special ……………………winter …………………… modern ……………………colony …………………… industrial ……………………


1) Spain and Portugal started many new cities in the New World,especially south of Mexico. These two countries …………………most of Central and South America.

2) The Greens bought a beautiful old house in the country. They………………………… the kitchen by adding a dishwasher, amicrowave, and a new refrigerator. The rest of the house is notmodern. It has simple furniture and old wood floors, but it’s verynice.

3) Victor is studying engineering at the university. After two years ofgeneral studies, he wants to ………………………… in biomedicalengineering.

4) Sometimes there are no rules for irregular verbs in English. If youwant to remember them, you have to …………………………them and use them often.

5) Every fall I take my car to the auto mechanic. He changes the oiland adds some chemicals to help it run well during the winter. Hethinks all people should ………………………… their cars toprevent problems during the very cold months.

6) Developing countries want to …………………………as fast aspossible. They want to change from a society of farm workers to asociety of modern factory workers. Having a strong industry willhelp these countries grow.

B. -IVE

Adjectives that end with the suffix -ive mean “able to do something.”Here is an example:

David is very persuasive. He can persuade people to do almostanything.

Exercise: Look at the list of adjectives with the suffix -ive. Notice how they arerelated to other words. Then choose the best adjective for eachsentence.

adjective other forms(un)productive product (noun)(un)imaginative imagine (verb)(in)active act (verb)(non)destructive destruction (noun)(un)protective protect (verb)

1) Ahmed is very ………………………… in the InternationalStudent Organization. He goes to meetings every week and helpsthe new members get to know each other.

2) Desert soil is ………………………… without water. Even desertplants need water. Without it, the soil becomes dry and cannotproduce healthy plants.

3) The storms were very …………………………. The windsknocked over trees and damaged houses.

4) Writers and artists are very …………………………people. They

FOOD POISONING 47

need to have wild imaginations to create stories and paintings.5) Ms. Miller is very …………………………of her children. She

worries that something bad will happen to one of them, so she triesto protect them and keep them safe.

C. WORD FORMS

Exercise: Look at the words in the list. Notice how they are related to eachother. Then choose the best word for each sentence. Use a wordfrom line 1 in sentence 1, and so on.

verb noun adjective1) prepare preparation —2) value value valuable3) encourage encouragement encouraging4) — ice icy5) imagine imagination (un)imaginative /

(un)imaginable6) produce product / production (un)productive7) discover discovery —8) depend (in)dependence (in)dependent /

(un)dependable9) educate education educational

10) colonize colony colonial

1) A big holiday dinner requires special ………………… . We cleanthe house and spend hours and hours in the kitchen preparingeverything we need. It is a lot of work and a lot of fun.

2) Gold is more …………… than silver. It is always more expensive.3) George succeeded at the university because his parents gave him so

much ………………… Every day they told him to keep workinghard. They told him they were proud of him. They knew he coulddo it, and he did.

4) Yesterday afternoon it rained, and at night the temperature droppedbelow zero. In the morning the streets were covered with…………………………. Driving was very dangerous.

5) What do you think life will be like in 200 years? Use your…………………………and describe what you think.

6) Japan has greatly increased its …………………………of cars.More cars are made in Japan now than ever before.

7) Marie Curie made an important scientific ……………………… .She discovered radium.

8) David is very …………………………. If he says he will dosomething, you always know he will do it.

9) Films used in the classroom are usually ……………………. Theyprovide information we can learn. Films at movie theaters areusually for enjoyment only.

10) People in Quebec speak French because Quebec was once a French……………………….


STRUCTURE STUDY

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Adverbial clauses, like adverbs, tell us something further about the verband answer the questions When? Where? How? Why? etc.Here are some of the most common conjunctions used to introduceadverbial clauses:Time when, after, before, as, as soon as, by the time (that),

once, since/ever since, until/till, whenever, whilePlace where, wherever, anywhere, everywhereManner as, as if, as thoughComparison than, as ... asReason because, as, sincePurpose so that, in order that, in caseResult so ... that, such a ... thatCondition if, unless, provided/providing (that), so/as long asContrast although/though/even though, while, whereasNote: We generally use the present simple to refer to the future in

adverbial clauses of time and condition:When/If I come to London, I ll come and see you.

and we use the present perfect in place of the future perfect:When I ve finished my dinner, I ll come and help you.

Exercise: Complete the following with an appropriate conjunction. In somesentences, more than one conjunction is possible.1) I’m sorry I wasn’t here earlier but I came ……………… I could.2) I’m staying in all weekend ……………… I can get my work done.3) He spoke to me ……………… it was all my fault.4) He didn’t react ……………… I’d hoped; he was actually rather

angry.5) Things are never ……………… bad ……………… you think they

are.6) He’d like to be an actor ……………… his father would like him to

be a lawyer.7) She’s ……………… interested in her work ……………… she

never seems to do anything else.8) I’ll meet you ……………… you like; I don’t mind where it is.9) I won’t believe you ………………………… I’ve seen it for

myself.10) She seems happy ………………………… she can’t find a job.11) ………………………… I didn’t feel very well, we decided to

leave early.

FOOD POISONING 49

12) The money was hidden ……………… no-one could find it.13) ……………… he’s not interested in classical music, he decided

not to go to the concert.14) I’ll come with you ……………… we don’t stay late. I need to be

up early tomorrow.15) ……………… I like him, I sometimes find him very irritating.16) I’ll give you my phone number ……………… you need to get in

touch with me.17) You can’t travel abroad ……………… you have a passport.18) ……………… no one has any further questions, the meeting will

be adjourned.19) ……………… bacteria can be neither smelled nor seen, the best

way to ensure that food is safe is to follow principles of good foodhygiene.

20) Some common diseases are occasionally foodborne mainly throughthe water vector, ……………… they are usually transmitted byother routes.

21) At simplest, processing may involve only picking, sorting, andwashing fruits and vegetables ……………… they are sent tomarket.

22) ……………… people have known about spoilage and somepreservation methods to prevent it for centuries, it was only in 1857that French chemist Louis Pasteur demonstrated the role ofmicroorganisms in the process.

23) Curing and smoking preserve food by binding or removing water…………… it is not available for the growth of microorganisms.

24) Refrigeration is advantageous ……………… it does not causechemical or physical changes to food.

25) …………… irradiation involves minimal heating, it has very littleeffect on the taste, texture, and nutritive value of food.

26) Genetic engineering has been practiced for thousands of years,…………… humans began selectively breeding plants and animalsto create more nutritious, better tasting foods.

27) A person can survive only eight to ten days without water,…………… it takes weeks or even months to die from a lack offood.

28) Water needs are increased …………… a person suffers fromdiarrhea or vomiting or undergoes heavy physical exercise.

29) …………… fibers provide no energy or building materials, theyplay a vital role in our health.

30) Warm-blooded animals require more food for energy production…………… do cold-blooded animals.


8ORGANIC FOOD


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Organic food has both a popular meaning, and in some countries, a legaldefinition. In everyday conversation, it usually refers to all “naturallyproduced” foods, or the product of organic farming. As a legal term, itmeans certified organic. The distinction is important, as the twodefinitions can represent quite different products.

Types of organic food

Organic foods, like food in general, can be grouped into two categories,fresh and processed, based on production methods, availability andconsumer perception.

Fresh food is seasonal and highly perishable. Fresh produce – vegetablesand fruits – is the most available type of organic food, and closelyassociated with organic farming. It is often purchased directly from thegrowers, at farmers' markets, from on-farm stands, through specialtyfood stores, and through community-supported agriculture projects.

Unprocessed animal products – organic meat, eggs, dairy – are lesscommon. Prices are significantly higher than for conventional food, andavailability is lower. They are still premium priced items.

For fresh food, “organic” usually means:• produced without synthetic chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides,

antibiotics, hormones)• free of genetically modified organisms• (often, but not necessarily) locally grown

Processed food accounts for most of the items in a supermarket. Little of

ORGANIC FOOD 51

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it is organic, and organic prices are often high. In spite of this, organicprocessed products are now primarily purchased from supermarkets.The majority of processed organics comes from large foodconglomerates, as producing and marketing products like frozen entreesand other convenience foods is beyond the scope of the original smallorganic producers.

For processed organic food, the general definition is:• contains only (or at least a certain specified percentage of)

organic ingredients• contains no artificial food additives• processed without artificial methods, materials and conditions

(e.g. no chemical ripening, no food irradiation)

Organic Farming

Identifying organic food

Early organic consumers, looking for essentially chemical-free fresh orminimally processed food, had to buy direct from growers: Know yourfarmer, know your food was a practical reality. Organic food at firstcomprised mainly fresh vegetables. Individual ideas of what exactlyconstituted “organic” could be developed and verified through talking tofarmers and actually observing farm conditions and farming activities.Small farms can grow vegetables (and raise livestock) using organicfarming practices, with or without certification, and this is more or lesssomething a direct consumer can monitor.

As consumer demand for organic foods increases, high volume salesthrough mass outlets, typically supermarkets, is rapidly replacing thedirect farmer connection. For supermarket consumers, food productionis not easily observable. Product labeling, like “certified organic”, isrelied on. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are lookedto for assurance.With widespread distribution of organic food, the processed food


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category has also become dominant, confusing the issue further.Processed foods are more difficult to understand non-technically.Commercial preparation methods, food additives, packaging, and thelike are outside the direct experience of most people (including organicfarmers). Traditional and minimally processed products, like flour andrice; baked goods; and canned, frozen, and pickled fruits and vegetables,are easier for consumers to understand by comparison with homepreparation methods, although home and mass-production techniquesare quite different. For convenience foods, like frozen prepared dishes,cooked breakfast cereals, and margarine, ingredients and methods arequite a mystery. A “certified organic” label is usually the only way forconsumers to trust that a processed product is “organic”.

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What are the two meanings of the term “organic food”?2) For fresh food, what does “organic” usually mean?3) For processed organic food, what does “organic” usually mean?4) How was organic food identified in the past?5) How is organic food identified nowadays?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Prices for organic food are significantly higher than for

conventional food.2) _____ Most of the items in a supermarket are unprocessed.3) _____ Processed organic food must not contain any food

additives.4) _____ Small farms that grow vegetables and raise livestock using

organic farming practices need certification.5) _____ Consumers can identify an organic processed product only

thanks to a “certified organic” label.

VOCABULARY


perishable livestock cereal categories entrée

convenience farming additives ripen conventional

1) Organic foods can be grouped into two, …………… fresh andprocessed.

2) The classification of …………… by 'E' number is made under anEC directive.

3) The supermarket has its …………… foods delivered by air ratherthan truck to ensure freshness.

4) …………… food is food that is almost ready to eat when it isbought and can be prepared for eating quickly and easily.

ORGANIC FOOD 53

5) Organic food is usually much more expensive than ……………food.

6) Farmers are involved in a constant battle to control vermin whichruin their crops and damage their …………….

7) The …………… is the main dish of the meal or a dish servedbefore the main course.

8) Olives turn from green to black as they …………….9) Cornflakes are a popular breakfast …………… in Britain.

10) Sheep …………… is a major business in Australia and NewZealand.

WORD STUDY

A. -SHIP

Many nouns end in -ship. The suffix -ship means “the condition of’” or“the art of.”Here are some examples:

One United Nations conference was about the uses and ownershipof oceans.Alex and I have had a wonderful friendship for many years.

Exercise: Add the suffix -ship to each word. Then choose the best word foreach sentence. Make the word plural if necessary.

member ………………… friend …………………hard ………………… relation …………………sportsman …………………

1) People who play sports should follow the rules of the game and befriendly to the other team. This is good ………………………….

2) Life was very difficult for the first explorers of Antarctica. Theweather was terribly cold, they didn’t always have enough to eat,and some of them died. These early explorers suffered many………………………….

3) The …………………… of the International Student Organizationincreases every semester. This semester there are 105 members —that’s 20 more members than before.

4) Marie and Anne became friends when they were in school together.Now they are both grandmothers, and they are still friends. Their………………………… has lasted for more than fifty years!

5) What is the ………………………… between goats and deserts?How do goats cause deserts to become larger?


B. EN-

Sometimes we can add the prefix en- to a word to make a verb. Themeaning of the new verb is related to the meaning of the original word.

Look at these examples:Police sometimes use force to enforce laws.I want this picture made larger. I will take it to the photo store tohave it enlarged.

Exercise: Add the prefix en- to each word. Then choose the best verb for eachsentence. Be sure to use the correct endings and tenses.

joy …………………… large ……………………able …………………… danger ……………………rich ……………………

1) Some soil is very poor and is not good for growing crops. Farmersneed to ………………… the soil in order for plants to grow.

2) United Nations organizations ………………………… people indeveloping countries to improve their education programs andindustry.

3) David really ………………………… his trip to YellowstoneNational Park last summer. He said he had a wonderful time.

4) The Smiths think their house is too small for their family. Theywant to ……………………… it by adding two more bedrooms.

5) Krill is important to the chain of life in the Antarctic Ocean. Ifhumans catch too much krill, it might ………………………… thelives of penguins and other animals that need krill for food.

C. -AGE

Many nouns in English end with the suffix -age.Look at the example:

A passage connects those two buildings. In winter people can walkthrough the hall from one building to the other without goingoutside.

Exercise: Add the suffix -age to each word. Then choose the best noun foreach sentence.

Spelling notes:If a word ends in y, change they to i before adding -age.If a word ends in e, drop the e before adding -age.

marry …………………… out ……………………short …………………… post ……………………store …………………… pack ……………………

1) Louis bought presents to send to his parents. He packed themcarefully in a box. Then he took the ………………………… to the

ORGANIC FOOD 55

post office and mailed it.2) Because of very bad weather most of the Brazilian coffee crop

died. Now the supermarkets in the United States are short ofcoffee. They do not have enough coffee to sell because of this………………………….

3) Alice and Paul got married 20 years ago. They are still very happytogether today. They have a great ………………………….

4) How much ………………………… do you need to send a letter toSaudi Arabia? You can find out at the post office.

5) The electricity went out last night during the storm. No one couldturn on the lights. The power ………………………… lasted forthree hours.

6) Our apartment building has a ………………………… room. It is aplace to put things that people do not use very often.

D. -IST

Many nouns in English end in -ist. The suffix -ist means “a person whodoes something.”

Look at the example:A chemist is a person who works in chemistry.

Exercise: Complete each sentence with a noun that ends in the suffix -ist. Thewords in bold print are related to the nouns you should use. Makethe nouns plural if necessary. (When you are finished, check yourspelling with this list: finalists, guitarists, artist, zoologist, pianist,naturalist, scientist.)1) Two teams are playing in the final games for the World Cup. One

of these two ……………………… will win the competition. Thatteam will be the best soccer team in the world.

2) Some country musicians are excellent ……………………… Theycan sing and play the guitar at the same time.

3) Pablo Picasso was a famous ……………………… You can see hisart in museums all over the world.

4) Carol is interested in animals. She studies zoology at the university.She wants to become a ……………………….

5) Sezgi has studied piano all of her life. She is going to be a famous……………………… one day.

6) If you go to a national park, you can sometimes hear a ……………talk about the natural beauty that you see.

7) Albert Einstein was a famous ……………………… He made a lotof important discoveries in science.


STRUCTURE STUDY

REDUCTION ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (1)

Some adverbial clauses may be reduced or contracted, using participles.Note that an adverbial clause can be reduced in this way only when thesubject of the adverbial clause and the subject of the main clause are thesame.

• Time clauses

Since Mary came to this country, she has made many friends.Since coming to this country, Mary has made many friends.Before I left for work, I ate breakfast.Before leaving for work, I ate breakfast.After he (had) finished his homework, he went to bed.After finishing / having finished his homework, he went to bed.Having finished his homework, he went to bed.

While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old man.While walking down the street, I ran into an old man.Walking down the street, I ran into an old man.When he reached the age of 21, he received his inheritance.Upon / On reaching the age of 21, he received his inheritance.

• Cause clausesBecause she needed some money to buy a book, Sue cashed acheck.Needing some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.Because she had seen that movie before, she didn t want to goagain.Having seen that movie before, she didn t want to go again.

Exercise: Reduce (contract) the underlined part of the following sentences.1) After I read the chapter four times, I finally understood the author’s

theory.2) As I had plenty of time to spare, I had a good look round the town.3) Since Tom came here, he has learned a lot of English.4) When Tom saw his wife and child get off the airplane, he broke

into a big smile.5) Because we were enjoying the cool evening breeze and listening to

the sounds of nature, we lost track of time.6) Jennifer looked in the rearview mirror before she drove onto the

main road.7) When Sam reread the figures, he found that he had made a mistake.

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8) Before he became vice-president of marketing and sales, PeterMcKay worked as a sales representative.

9) Since I had been out all day, I was quite happy to stay in for theevening.

10) I have changed my job since I last wrote to you.11) The Browns have experienced many changes in their lifestyle since

they adopted twins.12) When Tina crossed the marathon finish line, she fell in exhaustion.13) Because he loved her so much, he forgave her for everything.14) He bowed his head when he met the King.15) While I was living in Cambodia last year, I learned many things

about Cambodian customs.16) You should always read a contract before you sign your name.17) After he finished breakfast, he left the house and went to his office.18) Because she is a vegetarian, she does not eat meat.19) Mrs. Alexander nearly fainted when she learned that she had won

the lottery.20) While Joe was driving to work yesterday, he had an accident.


9GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD


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A genetically modified food is a food product containing some quantityof any genetically modified organism as an ingredient.

Although “biotechnology” and “genetic modification” commonly areused interchangeably, genetic modification is a special set oftechnologies that alter the genetic makeup of such living organisms asanimals, plants, or bacteria. Biotechnology, a more general term, refersto using living organisms or their components, such as enzymes, tomake products that include wine, cheese, beer, and yogurt. Combininggenes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNAtechnology, and the resulting organism is said to be “geneticallymodified,” “genetically engineered,” or “transgenic.” Geneticallymodified products (current or in the pipeline) include medicines andvaccines, foods and food ingredients, feeds, and fibers.

Extraction from a cell

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DNA Structure

Locating genes for important traits – such as those conferring insectresistance or desired nutrients – is one of the most limiting steps in theprocess. However, genome sequencing and discovery programs forhundreds of different organisms are generating detailed maps along withdata-analyzing technologies to understand and use them.

Transgenic crops are grown commercially or in field trials in over 40countries and on 6 continents. In 2000, about 109.2 million acres(442,000 km²) were planted with transgenic crops, the principal onesbeing herbicide- and insecticide-resistant soybeans, corn, cotton, andcanola. Other crops grown commercially or field-tested are a sweetpotato resistant to a virus that could destroy most of the African harvest,rice with increased iron and vitamins that may alleviate chronicmalnutrition in Asian countries, and a variety of plants able to surviveweather extremes.

On the horizon are bananas that produce human vaccines againstinfectious diseases such as hepatitis B; fish that mature more quickly;fruit and nut trees that yield years earlier, and plants that produce newplastics with unique properties.

In 2000, countries that grew 99% of the global transgenic crops were theUnited States (68%), Argentina (23%), Canada (7%), and China (1%).Although growth is expected to plateau in industrialized countries, it isincreasing in developing countries. The next decade will see exponentialprogress in genetically modified product development as researchersgain increasing and unprecedented access to genomic resources that areapplicable to organisms beyond the scope of individual projects.

Technologies for genetically modifying foods offer dramatic promise formeeting some areas of greatest challenge for the 21st century. Like allnew technologies, they also pose some risks, both known and unknown.Controversies surrounding genetically modified foods and cropscommonly focus on human and environmental safety, labeling andconsumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security,poverty reduction, and environmental conservation.


Genetically Modified Products: Benefits and Controversies

Benefits• Crops

o Enhanced taste and qualityo Reduced maturation timeo Increased nutrients, yields, and stress toleranceo Improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicideso New products and growing techniques

• Animalso Increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiencyo Better yields of meat, eggs, and milko Improved animal health and diagnostic methods

• Environmento “Friendly” bioherbicides and bioinsecticideso Conservation of soil, water, and energyo Bioprocessing for forestry productso Better natural waste managemento More efficient processing

• Societyo Increased food security for growing populations

Controversies• Safety

o Potential human health impact: allergens, transfer of antibioticresistance markers, unknown effects

o Potential environmental impact: unintended transfer of transgenesthrough cross-pollination, unknown effects on other organisms (e.g.soil microbes), and loss of flora and fauna biodiversity

• Access and Intellectual Propertyo Domination of world food production by a few companieso Increasing dependence on Industrialized nations by developing

countrieso Biopiracy – foreign exploitation of natural resources

• Ethicso Violation of natural organisms' intrinsic valueso Tampering with nature by mixing genes among specieso Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versao Stress for animal

• Labelingo Not mandatory in some countries (e.g. United States)o Mixing GM crops with non-GM confounds labeling attempts

• Societyo New advances may be skewed to interests of rich countries

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What is a genetically modified food?2) What is biotechnology?3) Give some examples of genetically modified products.4) What do you think the greatest benefits of genetically modified

food are?5) What are some controversies surrounding genetically modified

foods?


True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Recombinant DNA technology refers to the combination

of genes from different organisms.2) _____ Wheat with increased iron and vitamins may alleviate

chronic malnutrition in Asian countries.3) _____ We have known all the risks posed by technologies for

genetically modifying foods.4) _____ Genetically modified bananas can produce human

vaccines against infectious diseases.5) _____ Genetically modified plants can produce new plastics with

unique properties.

VOCABULARY


makeup enzyme exponential mandatory biotechnology

genome intrinsic crops genetically allergen

1) If a plant or animal is …………… engineered, some of its geneshave been changed artificially.

2) Genetic modification is a special set of technologies that alter thegenetic …………… of such living organisms as animals, plants, orbacteria.

3) …………… is the use of living cells and bacteria in industrial andscientific processes.

4) There has been an …………… increase in world population thiscentury.

5) The human …………… project is an attempt to produce a map ofall the genetic information in the human body.

6) An …………… is a substance which can cause an allergy, butwhich is harmless to most people.

7) It is immoral to treat animals as if they had no …………… value.8) Athletes must undergo a …………… drugs test before competing

in the championship.9) The main …………… grown for export are coffee and rice.

10) An …………… in the saliva of the mouth starts the process ofbreaking down the food.


WORD STUDY

A. WORD FORMS

Exercise: Study the list of verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Notice how they arerelated to each other. Then choose the correct word for eachsentence. Use a word from line 1 in sentence 1, and so on. Make thenouns plural if necessary.

verb noun adjective1) compete competition competitive2) refrigerate refrigerator refrigerated3) announce announcement4) poison poison poison / poisonous5) unite union united6) decide decision decisive7) store storage storage8) — chemical / chemist chemical / chemist9) embarrass embarrassment embarrassed

10) add addition additional

1) Tom is very ……………………… He enters every competition hecan, and he always wants to be the winner.

2) You cannot keep milk in the cupboard. You must …………………it, or it will turn bad.

3) The president of the international student organization made animportant …………...……… at the meeting last night. Sheannounced that there will be a big party next Saturday.

4) Some plants are suitable for humans to eat. Other plants are………………………… . If you eat them, you might die.

5) UN stands for the …………………………Nations.6) Kiki made an important …………………………. She decided to

stay in the United States and go to college. After college, she willreturn to her country to work.

7) If you don’t have enough room to keep your bicycle in yourapartment, you can ………………………… it in the basement.

8) Scientists say tears contain ………………………… that your bodyneeds to get rid of. They say it’s good to cry sometimes.

9) I hope the teacher doesn’t ask me a question in class today, becauseI didn’t finish my homework last night. If she calls on me, I will bevery ………………………… because I won’t know the answer.

10) This lemonade is not sweet enough. If we …………………………a little more sugar, it will taste better.


B. -Y, -ITY, -TY

In English you can often change an adjective to a noun by adding -y, -ty, or -ity. Look at the adjectives in the chart. Add the correct suffix toeach one to make a noun.

-y -ityadjective noun adjective noundifficult ………………

-tycertainsafespecial

………………………………………………

abilityelectricequalpopularhumansimilar

ability………………………………………………………………………………

Exercise: Choose the best noun from the chart for each sentence.1) Amnesty International is trying to improve the lives of all ………..

This organization tries to make life better and more peaceful for allpeople in the world.

2) In many countries, people of different races and religions do nothave equal rights in society. People are still fighting for …………..

3) Factories should provide better equipment for the workers to helpimprove ………………… and prevent accidents.

4) Third World countries have ……………………… providing food,housing and medical care for all people. It is difficult for thesecountries because their governments have very little money.

5) My brother studied engineering at the university. He has a……………………… in chemical engineering because he studiedin a special program for it,

6) Name one ……………………… between life in Canada and life inthe United States. These two countries are not very different.

7) If you study English for several years, you will be able to speak itwell. This ………………… can help you find a good job.

C. -Y

In English we can add -y to some nouns to make adjectives.

Look at the example:noun + -y = adjectivesyrup + -y = syrupyThe mixture is heated until it becomes a syrupy liquid.Spelling notes:1) If a noun ends in silent e, drop the e before adding y.2) If a noun ends in consonant-vowel-consonant and is a one-

syllable word, double the final consonant before adding y.


Here are two examples:

lace (drop the e) lacyfun (double the n) funny

Exercise: Add -y to each noun to make an adjective. Remember to follow thespelling rules. Then choose the best adjective for each sentence.

sun …………………… snow ……………………wind …………………… cloud ……………………juice …………………… ice ……………………rain ……………………

1) Last night the wind started to blow and it started to rain. It neverstopped. It has been ………………… and …………………… allday today, too.

2) In summer, the weather is usually warm and …………………….In fact, the sun shines almost every day.

3) Be careful if you drive a car in winter. Sometimes water on theroads ‘freezes and the roads become ………………………

4) Oranges and lemons are two fruits with lots of juice. A banana isdifferent. It is not ……………………

5) Sometimes in winter it is difficult to see far away because the skyis full of snow and covered with clouds. But I like ………………and ………………… days because everything looks very whiteand peaceful.

D. -EVER

Several words in English end in the suffix -ever. Look at thesewords and their meanings. Then choose the best word for eachsentence.whatever = anything whenever = any timewhoever = anyone wherever = any place1) We can leave the party ……………………… you like. I don’t care

what time we go home.2) I lent my book to someone in class, but I forget who. Would

……………………… has it please return it to me?3) Tonight is my birthday, and I am taking you out to dinner. You can

order …………………… you like. I’m having spaghetti.4) You can go ……………………… you like on vacation if you have

a lot of money. Some places are very expensive.


STRUCTURE STUDY

REDUCTION ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (2)

• Past participle in place of the passive:As he was loved by all who knew him, he devoted his life to others.Loved by all who knew him, he devoted his life to others.Although it was intended to be a nice surprise, the party was notwhet I wanted at all.Although intended to be a nice surprise, the party was not what Iwanted at all.If I am accepted for the job, I ll have to start at the beginning ofnext month.If accepted for the job, I ll have to start at the beginning of nextmonth.After the manuscript had been lost for many years, it suddenlyturned up again.Lost for many year, the manuscript suddenly turned up again.

Once the brain is deprived of oxygen, it dies.Once deprived of the oxygen, the brain dies.

• Being + past participle following after, before, when, since, while,on, by:

After it was cleaned the bike looked as good as new.After being cleaned, the bike looked as good as new.

Since the government was elected, it has had one crisis afteranother.Since being elected, the government has had one crisis afteranother.

He did military service before he was admitted into university.He did military service before being admitted into university.

When he was being questioned, he suddenly burst into tears.When being questioned, he suddenly burst into tears.

The message got across to people because it was repeated overand over again.The message got across to people by being repeated over and overagain.


Exercise: Reduce (contract) the underlined part of the following sentences.1) Because I was exhausted through lack of sleep, I fell asleep at my

desk.2) Although it was written many years ago, the book is still relevant

today.3) Since I was promoted, I’ve had no time to go out.4) After he was released from prison, Andy could not find a job

anywhere.5) When he was caught, he confessed everything.6) When it is seen from the outside, the building looks a mess, but it is

lovely inside.7) If we are elected, we will increase the value of pensions.8) Although he was ridiculed by everybody, he continued to pursue

his bizarre projects.9) Unless it is destroyed, this material could have damaging

consequences.10) Jennifer had been shoplifting for many years before she was found

out.11) When British people are introduced, they often shake hands.12) After the concert had been delayed for an hour, it started at nine

o’clock.13) When we were informed the flight would be delayed, we made

other arrangements.14) Although it was built years ago, it was in good condition.15) If you are accepted for the job, you will be informed soon.16) When the poem is read aloud it is very effective.17) If the picture is seen from this angle, it looks rather good.18) Because he has been promised a reward, he hopes he’ll get one.19) Unless it is changed, this law will make life difficult for farmers.20) When it was viewed from a distance, the island of Nepenthe looked

like a cloud.

FOOD INDUSTRY 67

10FOOD INDUSTRY


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The food industry comprises all business operations that are involved inproducing a raw food material, processing it, and distributing it to salesoutlets. The entire complex of the industry includes: farms and ranches;producers of raw materials, such as phosphates, for agricultural use;water-supply systems; food-processing plants; manufacturers ofpackaging materials and food-processing and transportation equipment;transportation systems; and retail stores and food-service operationssuch as restaurants, institutional feeding commissaries, and vending-machine services.

HISTORY OF THE INDUSTRY

The organized trading and transport of salt, spices, grain, olive oil,fermented beverages, and other foods have probably been practicedalmost since the time of the first agricultural surpluses. Inventories oflivestock and foodstuffs are among the first written records. However,until modern preservation methods were developed, the kinds of foodsthat could be traded were limited to those which did not spoil quickly.

Most food-processing operations seem to have begun as extensions ofkitchen preparation techniques, scaled up to furnish enough surplusproduct to be bartered or sold outside the household. Enlargement of abusiness entailed simply building more or larger processing equipment –oil presses, baking ovens, or wine vats. Gradual improvements in designwere made to increase yields or improve quality. This was the generalpattern until the Industrial Revolution, when major qualitative changesbegan to be made in food processing and distribution operations. Not


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only were factories greatly enlarged and much of the manual laborreplaced by machinery, but entirely new principles of processing, suchas canning and spray drying, were invented. Channels of distributionbecame much more complex and extended, and special techniques forretaining quality were used, for example, shipping by means ofrefrigerated railroad cars. The present-day industry slowly took shape asit responded to ever-growing agricultural surpluses, to advances intransportation, and to the enormous changes made possible by thegrowth in processing technologies.

Beef calves are often sent to feedlots.

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS

Farmers, ranchers, other producers of agricultural raw materials, andfeedlot operators usually sell their output to collection points, such asgrain terminals or stockyards. The terminal or stockyard supplies theprocessing companies, which select needed raw materials from theavailable stock and process them either into finished foodstuffs – cuts ofmeat, for example – or into food ingredients, such as flour.

Flow of goods in the food industryFrom the final processor, finished food products are moved by truck or

FOOD INDUSTRY 69

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rail to warehouses, usually located near a city. Most modern warehouseshave storage areas for frozen and refrigerated food and are equipped tocontrol temperature and humidity within a narrow range. Warehousescan assemble full truckloads of products originating from many differentsuppliers for shipment to one large retailer or to a number of smalleroutlets in a given region, allowing a great reduction in unittransportation costs as compared to shipping a small quantity of oneitem directly from the producer to the retailer. If the retail outlet is largeenough to accept complete truckloads directly from the manufacturer,direct shipments from the factory are sometimes made.

Processors of perishable foods (dairies, ice-cream manufacturers,wholesale bread bakeries, and meat-packers) usually maintain their ownfleets of trucks for carrying fresh products directly to their retailercustomers. Truck drivers from bakeries and dairies may also serviceretail outlets by rotating stock and picking up stale products andreturning them to the factory. Restaurants and institutional commissariespurchase staples and nonperishable foods from the warehouses ofspecialized distributors, but they also receive direct shipment fromdairies, bakeries, and meat-packers.

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.1) What does the food industry consist of?2) When did the organized trading and transport of salt, spices, grain,

olive oil, fermented beverages, and other foods begin?3) What do the processing companies terminals or stockyards supply

do?4) When can direct shipments from the factory to retailers be made?5) Where do restaurants and institutional commissaries buy staples

and nonperishable foods?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.1) _____ Most food-processing operations seem to have begun as

extensions of kitchen preparation techniques.2) _____ Farmers, ranchers, and other producers of agricultural raw

materials seldom sell their output to grain terminals orstockyards.

3) _____ In the past, the kinds of foods that could be traded werelimited to those which did not spoil quickly.

4) _____ Processors of perishable foods usually hire fleets of trucksfor carrying fresh products directly to their retailercustomers.

5) _____ Restaurants receive direct shipment from dairies, bakeries,and meat-packers.


VOCABULARY


ferment stale vats commissary stockyarddairy entails raw vending machine surplus

1) Sushi is a Japanese dish made from …………… fish.2) You make wine by leaving grape juice to …………… until all the

sugar has turned to alcohol.3) Farmers are feeding all their …………… wheat to pigs.4) A …………… is a place where farm animals are kept for a short

time before they are sold at a market.5) The wines used to be made in deep wooden …………….6) While we were camping we bought our milk from a nearby farm

…………….7) Coffee goes …………… within a couple of weeks so it is best to

buy it in small quantities.8) A …………… is a machine from which you can buy small items

such as cigarettes, drinks and sweets by putting coins into it.9) A …………… is a shop which supplies food and goods, especially

to people in the army or in prison.10) Enlargement of a food business simply …………… building more

or larger processing equipment.

WORD STUDY

A. WORD FORMS

Study the words in the list. Notice how they are related to eachother. Then choose the best word to complete each sentence. Use aword from line 1 in sentence 1, and so on.

Verb Noun Adjective1) die death dead2) decorate decoration —3) — cruelty cruel4) describe description descriptive5) breathe breath —6) compute computer / computation —7) reserve reservation —8) revolt revolution revolutionary9) know knowledge —

10) connect connection connected

FOOD INDUSTRY 71

1) President John F. Kennedy is ……………… He ………………….in 1963. Thousands of people went to his funeral.

2) In Canada and the United States, many people ……………………a tree with lights and colorful decorations for Christmas.

3) Amnesty International tries to stop …………………… to prisonersin all countries. In many places, prisoners have terrible lives ofpain and suffering.

4) For your homework tonight, write a ……………… of your hometown. Tell how it looks, where you like to go, and why you like it.

5) When people swim under water, they must hold their………………… Fish can breathe under water, but humans cannot.

6) If you have a small calculator, you can ………………… yourgrocery bill while you are in the store.

7) Next month Kei is going on a trip to New York. He already madehis plane …………………, so he is very excited.

8) Thirteen colonies participated in the …………………… waragainst England. They became the United States of America.

9) The more you study, the more your …………………… increases.10) Maria is going to Julie’s house tonight to help her

……………………… her new computer. Julie doesn’t know howto do it by herself.

B. WORD FORMS

This exercise is just for fun, and it is difficult. See if you can figureout the meanings of these words and use the correct word in eachsentence.

commercialized multiplicity oversimplification undereducateddiscouraged non-warlike programmer unrecognizable

1) Paula dressed in strange clothes and put a lot of makeup on herface for a party. She was completely ……………………… No oneknew who she was!

2) One student said that his native country nationalized the oilcompanies because people were stealing the oil. This is only part ofwhat really happened. This explanation is an ………………………of the situation.

3) There is a ………………………… of problems in Third Worldcountries, such as poor living conditions, few jobs, and very littlemedical care for people.

4) Another problem in Third World countries is that most of thepeople are ……………………… because they quit school at anearly age to get jobs.

5) Carl is a computer ………………………… for a large company.He writes programs for businesses and industries.

6) Christmas has become very ………………………… in the UnitedStates. Marketing experts make a lot of money because of this.

7) Don’t be ………………………… if you can’t do this exercise.The words are very difficult!


C. SHIP, -OUS, -LIKE

In English, we can add the suffix -ous and -like to some nouns to makeadjectives. Words that end in -ous mean “full of something.” Here is anexample:

Our classroom is very spacious. (full of space)

Words that end in -like mean “similar to,” or “like.” Here is an example:The painting that Simon made is very lifelike.

Spelling Note: If a noun ends in silent e, drop the e before adding thesuffix -ous. There are no spelling changes when you add the suffix -like.

Exercise: Add the correct suffix to each noun in the chart.

-ous -likenoun adjective noun adjectivejoy ……………………… life ………………………fame ……………………… war ………………………danger ……………………… child ………………………poison ………………………

Now choose the best adjective to complete each sentence.1) Some plants are very …………………… to eat. In fact, if you eat

a ……………………… plant, you could become sick or even die.2) Holidays are usually ………………………… times. People don’t

have to work, and everyone celebrates and is happy.3) Albert Einstein is a ………………………… scientist. Most people

in the world know who he was.4) Eskimo carvings are very …………………………. They look

exactly like living animals.5) In the 1930s Germany began to take …………………………

actions. Then in 1939 it attacked Poland and started a war.6) When an adult does something that a child might do, people say he

or she is ………………………….

STRUCTURE STUDY

SUBJECT-AUXILIARY INVERSION

If a negative adverb or adverbial expression is put at the beginning of aclause for emphasis, it is usually followed by auxiliary verb + subject.

Under no circumstances can we cash checks.Not until he received her letter did he fully understand the depth ofher feelings.Hardly had I arrived when trouble started.

FOOD INDUSTRY 73

Not only did we lose our money, but we were nearly killed.Seldom have I seen such a remarkable creature.No sooner had I closed the door than somebody knocked.

Exercise: Rewrite these sentences beginning with the words in brackets.

1) I had hardly closed my eyes when the phone rang. (Hardly …)2) We no sooner sat down in the train than I felt sick. (No sooner …)3) There has never been so much protest against land mines.

(Never …)4) I realized what had happened only later. (Only later …)5) You shouldn’t answer the door when I’m out in any circumstances.

(In no circumstances …)6) You shouldn’t sign the document on any account.

(On no account …)7) I have never seen such a big tree. (Never …)8) We are not taking applications for that position any longer.

(No longer …)9) You can hardly ever see such a spectacular sight. (Hardly ever …)

10) Billy does not only sings, but he also plays the piano and writes hisown songs. (Not only …)

In formal styles, if in an if-clause can be dropped and an auxiliary verbput before the subject. This happens with were, had and should.

Were she my daughter, (If she were my daughter, )Had I realized what you intended, (If I had realized )Should you change your mind, (If you should change )Had we not changed our reservations, (If we hadn t changed )

Exercise: Rewrite these sentences beginning with the words in brackets.1) If the boss were to come in now, we would be in real trouble.

(Were …)2) If he should be late, we’ll have to start without him. (Should …)3) If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.

(Had …)4) If I were rich, I would spend all my time traveling. (Were …)5) If my mother had been alive, she would have been 80 next year.

(Had …)6) If you should run into Peter, tell him he owes me a letter.

(Should …)7) If I hadn’t been so tired, I might have realized what was happening.

(Had …)8) If her nose were a little shorter, she would be quite pretty.

(Were …)9) If you should happen to finish early, give me a ring. (Should …)

10) If Jane hadn’t helped me, I would have been in bad trouble.(Had …)


CONTENTS

UnitReading

VocabularyWord Study Language Focus Page

1 Food and Nutrition

- The Prefixes UN-, IM-, IN-,DIS-, NON-

- The Suffixes -MENT, -ER- The Suffixes -TH, -GTH

- The Passive 01

2 Essential Nutrients

- Compound Words- The Suffixes -AL, -ABLE, -

FUL- The Suffix -EN

- The Passive(cont.)

07

3 Food Groups- The Prefix RE-- Word Forms: Nouns (1)- Word Forms: Nouns (2)

- The Causative 13

4 Food Preservation- Word Form: Noun Endings- The Suffix -LESS- Word Forms: Nouns

- Relative Clauses 20

5 Cooking

- The Prefix OVER-- The Suffix -LY- Word Forms: Other Words

with -LY

- Defining andNon-definingRelative Clauses

28

6 Human Diet- Word Forms: Adjectives (1)- Word Forms: Adjectives (2)- Word Forms

- Reduction ofRelative Clauses

35

7 Food Poisoning- The Suffix -IZE- The Suffix -IVE- Word Forms

- AdverbialClauses

42

8 Organic Food

- The Suffix -SHIP- The Prefix EN-- The Suffix -AGE- The Suffix -IST

- Reduction ofAdverbialClauses (1)

50

9GeneticallyModified Food

- Word Forms- The Suffixes -Y, -ITY, -TY- The Suffix -Y- The Suffix -EVER

- Reduction ofAdverbialClauses (2)

58

10 Food Industry- Word Forms (1)- Word Forms (2)- The Suffixes -OUS, -LIKE

- Subject-AuxiliaryInversion

67

Contents 74

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ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES - UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT

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