English Linguistics 1

Session 6 2

so far: 4. Meaningful building blocks: morphology4.1 Morphological analysis4.2 Typology of morphemes4.3 Word formation 4.3.1 New meanings in new forms4.3.1.1 Coinage, invention4.3.1.2 Borrowing

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new:

4.3.2 Old meanings in new forms4.3.2.1 Clipping4.3.2.2 Acronyming4.3.2.3 Blending

4.3.3 New meanings in old forms4.3.3.1 Derivation4.3.3.2 Zero derivation4.3.3.3 Backformation4.3.3.4 Compounding

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4.3.2 Old meanings in new forms e-mail – shortened form of

... e – new, the meaning ...

principle of limited novelty: ...

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sometimes connotational (stylistic) difference between the two formsshorter form -new form may fully replace the original,better suited for new composite words:

e-mail administrator vs. …

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4.3.2.1 Clipping shortening or clipping the spoken form of a word

pubfan -

- ...

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...

…...

pet

lab, intro, flu, pram try to find the full forms

classification according to position• ... : foil hydrofoil• ... : detox detoxification• ... : vegan vegetarian

(semantically different!)

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…

4.3.2.2 Acronyming a phrase is replaced by a word based on the first letters of its words

two types(1) Spelling acronyms / initialisms(2) Word acronyms

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ad (1) Spelling acronyms pronounced as sequence of letters PR - public relationsCD - compact discLP -ID -

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......

ad (2) Word acronymspronounced as wordsscuba

RAM Unicef

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- ...

- ...- ...

NASA

PIN

combination of (1) and (2) …

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- ...

- ...

Subcategory of word acronyms:word suggests some aspect of the organization's / group's purpose (semantic link)

NOW - National organization of Women may suggest 'impatience'?

WAR -

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...

4.3.2.3 Blendingreplaces two words of phrase with parts of both motel motor + hotelchunnel smog sitcom

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...

......

edutainment glassphalt

original relationship may become obscured

try to find recent blends used in the media

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......

4.3.3 New meanings in old forms 1. Derivation2. Zero derivation3. Backformation4. Compounding

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when morphemes are combined to form new words→ not only linear relationshipe.g. gold + fish → goldfish

in + precise + ion → imprecision

syntagmatic combination always implies a hierarchical relationship between the elements

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Syntagmatic relationships the elements of a word or composite form characterized as modifier vs. headdeterminant vs. determinatumG Determinans vs. Determinatum

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e.g. video film teacherdecentralize

what is modifier, what is head?

de - centr- al - iz - ation

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…

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Which option is more plausbile?(a) (b)

4.3.3.1 Derivationcreation of new words by adding derivational affixes to other words or morphemes [ ≠ inflectional affixes]

meaning:-ment: government, settlement …-able: readable …un-: unbalanced …

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derivational suffixes change the class of the element they are attached to

white + en = whitenwrite + er = writerextreme + ist = extremistclass-changing

Exercise: find more examples for other word classes

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...…

…

derivational prefixes don't change the class: write

fair class-maintaining

three exceptionsa- N, V A be- N Ven- A/N V

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....

...

...

......

derivation – most productive word formation process

E derivational suffixes

native (derive from OE) or foreign (borrowed)

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where do native derivational affixes come from?-ful, -less, - ship, -ly often from full words / free morphemes -gradually affixes= process of grammaticalization (in the lexicon, also in syntax)more generalized and more abstract meaning

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e.g. careful, beautiful, hopeful

-ful first used in compounds as mouthful(l), spoonful(l) (e.g. Shakespeare)………careful, trustful, hateful

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...

-less OE ... 'without'; careless, hopeless

-ful, -less still transparent

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in many cases grammaticalization so that origin is no longer understandable

-ship in hardship, craftsmanship, friendshiprelated to old Germanic form ...related to ...

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-ship denotes ...

similarly complicated process-ly adverb suffixbeautifully

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ME -lich, OE -lic …

-lic (as suffix) freondlic (friendly): …

later: …

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Productivity (of affixes) range: from very limited to extensive -th...

-able...

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competition between suffixes-ist, -ian, -ite, -er

what in common?....cyclist, balloonist, skater, pedestrian, socialist, socialite, suburbanite ? motor-, ski-, race-, boat-?,

Darwinian, Darwinist, Darwinite

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4.3.3.2 Zero derivation / Nullableitung(to) run, drive, walk (V)(the) run, drive, walk (V N)

assumption:a zero derivational suffix is added (remember: usual for suffixes to change word class!)

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V + Ø

V N N V A VN A A NPrt V

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……

run, drive, walk head, telephone, contactbetter, empty, bare

...

alternative term for zero derivation:

functional shift, conversionconversion of one word class to another without the addition of a suffixconsequence: not part of derivation

often difficult to know which is the basic form,

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some sets of zero derivations show a difference in stress

V Ncon'duct 'conductre'bel 'rebelper'mit 'permitim'port 'import

but: control, acclaim, account, accord, dissent, divorce; distance

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4.3.3.3 Backformation / Rückbildung

a new word is derived from a more complex form

stage-manager to stage-manage (result looks like compound)

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backformation = opposite of derivation

self-destruction sedative

without knowledge of history of a word impossible to distinguish –back formation or derivation ?

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to ...to ...

some cases: presumed affix-ar, -or, -er - no agentive suffix but part of the root morpheme:burglar editor lecher pedlar/peddler oremotion

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to ...to ...to ...

to ...

to ...

4.3.3.4 Compounding / Komposition

A compound (G Kompositum) consists of at least two free morphemesfruit juicewheelchair patientone-way

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Characteristic features of compounds

• 1st element - main stress• 2nd element - determines the compound's new

word class• conceptual / semantic relations between

components not predictable• syntagmatic relations ~

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blackbird to vacuum-clean colour-blind

noun compounds, verb -, adjective -Nominalkomposita, Verb-, Adjektiv-

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...

...

...

head of the compoundmodifier-head structureG Determinativkompositum..................

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dogfood, steamboat, airplanerocking chair

highlightsleep-walkhighchair

dark-blue

rare: class of compound not inferable from head

make-believe V+V N, Alift-off V+ Adv N

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a. leather shoesb. alligator shoesc. tennis shoesd. horse shoese. snow shoes

formal equivalents, semantic relationship not predictable from form, which groupings can you

suggest ?

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...

...

draw bridge G Zugbrückeweigh bridge G Brückenwaage

semantically: 'purpose', bridge for drawing, ~ weighing

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necessity of syntactic analysis:someone can draw ……

someone can weigh ……

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majority of compoundsendocentric compounds / headed (modifier + head) goldfield

but:skinhead, paleface, pickpocket……

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Compound versus syntactic groupsyntactic group - a composite syntactic unita black bird distinction between comp. and syntactic g.: orthography unreliable…

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stress pattern

syntactic group primary stresssecondary stress

a ,black 'birda ,sweet 'juice

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compare:carrot juice sweet juiceatom bomb atomic bombsmall talk small talkgreenhouse green housepaper basket paper basket

…

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archbishop, vice-chancellor, apple-pie, knee-deep, backfire (v)

….

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semantic levelsyntactic g.: adding of meaningscompounds: the sum of the individual meanings is not the new meaning, meaning is lexicalized

a brown blackbird (females of the species)

* a brown black bird

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The conceptual role of compounds play a major role in developing taxonomies in the lexiconcf. hyponymy (superordinate term, sub-)

sportscar

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family car ≠city carmicrocarestate car

saloon, sedanstation wagonSUVvanoff roader

motorway/highwayinformation highway (compounding, metaphor) by relating conceptual subcategories (hyponyms) lexically (cf. -way) to the hyperonym instead of completely new lexical items

= …

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