English Linguistics 1

5. Sentences and syntax 

What is syntax about? working definition: syntax is the system that tells us how to put 'words' together to produce phrases, clauses, sentences

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focus of the lecture on:

word classes / parts of speech,grammatical functions / sentence elements,grammatical categories,levels: word, phrase, clause, sentence,simple and complex sentences,sentence types,approaches to grammatical description 

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5 Sentences and syntax

5.1 What's a sentence, what's in a sentence?Sentence, syntax, grammar, types, 

grammaticality5.2 Traditional Grammar  5.2.1  Parts of Speech, word classes / Wortarten5.2.2  Grammatical categories 5.2.3  Sentence elements / Satzglieder5.2.4  Sentence types5.2.5  Criticism of traditional grammar

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5.3 Structuralist grammar

5.4 Generative transformational grammar

5.5 Universal grammar

5.6 Functional grammar

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5.1 What's a sentence, what's in a sentence?

sentence "a group of words so put together that they express a thought" (Merriam–Webster Pocket D.) 

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"a group of words that usually contains a subject and a verb … [and] expresses a complete idea [...]"(DCE 2007) "the largest structural unit which is organized by the grammar of a language"(Crystal 1997)

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explain possible difficulties with the terms used: 'thought'a beautiful woman …

I looked at the woman but I did not dare talk to her. …

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'subject + verb'

1. The book is on the table.2. It’s raining.3. Come in.4. Some more tea? Yes, please.

1. 2. 3. 4. 

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difficulties with spoken language When they fed the pigs / they all had to stand well back / - and they were allowed to take the buckets / - but they weren’t allowed to get near the pigs / you see / - so they weren’t happy…

several sentences or one sentence?

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conclusion:notion of 'sentence' is a useful one but search for satisfactory definition – no priority(over 200 different definitions!) 

the aim is to be able to recognize linguistic constructions as sentences

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the term syntax Greek   syn

tasseinsyntaxis

   …

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definitions of syntax:"term for the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language [...]

study of the interrelationship between elements of sentence structure"(Crystal 1997)

grammar – usually includes 'syntax and inflectional morphology'

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Types of grammar

• traditional grammar –

 

• structuralist – 

mixed/combined-

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• generative – 

 

• functional –  

• prescriptive – 

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• descriptive – 

 

• pedagogical – 

 

• reference – 

    universal / theoretical – 

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Jespersen, Otto (1909-1949) A modern English grammar on historical principles. 7 vols. Copenhagen.

Quirk, Randolph et al. (1985) A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London.

Greenberg, J. H. (1986) The role of universals in linguistic explanation. Stanford.

 

Halliday, M.A.K. (1985) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London. 

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Grammaticality versus adequacy / semantic and situational acceptability Grammatikalität vs. Angemessenheit / semantische und situative Angemessenheit

the syntactic component of a language decides upon grammaticality, it does not decide upon truth, falseness, acceptability 

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examine the following examples according to these concepts: 

• The sun is cold.• The sun are warm.• The suns is warm.• The sun is warm.• The suns are delicious.• I do not like the moons.• The sun slept.

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Ex.1. Waiter, we'd like two beers, please.2. Bring us two beers, please. comment: …

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probably literal translations of1.2. 

pragmatically adequate 

1.2.

[pragmatics / G Pragmatik, Pragmalinguistik]

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role of syntax in the constitution of sentence meaning, 

find out two possible interpretations:1. Ship sails tomorrow.2. Time flies, you cannot: Their flight is too erratic.3. The dogs looked longer than the cat.4. Avoid infection by killing germs.5. What has four wheels and flies?6. British bitter wins in Europe.

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1a1b2a 2b3a3b4a 4b

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5a5b6a6b 

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5.2 Traditional grammar Tradition of grammars since Greek and Latin philosophy of language two determining features(1) parts of speech / word classes /      G Wortarten / -klassen (2) relations between sentence elements / G Satzglieder 

word classes dominant characteristic of modern foreign language grammars 

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5.2.1 Parts of speech, word classesclassification according to formal and notional features 

Dionysios Thrax (2nd cty B.C.)noun, verb, adjective, adverb, article, pronoun, preposition, conjunctionNomen (Substantiv), Verb, Adjektiv, Adverb, Artikel, Pronomen, Präposition, Konjunktionlater additions: interjection and numeral / G Interjektion, Numerale

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classification procedures:1. reference to notional features

noun, verb, adjectiveN -

V -A -

German:

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2. reference to formal features Adv -

Prep -Conj -Noun - 

 criticism: a good grammar should have the same criteria for classification of categories

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  modern linguistics favours formal over notional definitions,provide better means of identifying constructions 

Twas brillig, and the slithy toves    Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;   All mimsy were the borogoves,    And the mome raths outgrabe. 

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Grouping of word classes according to structural similarities

1. inflexion / inflection / Flexion

• inflexional / inflectional categories

• non-inflexional

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2. expansion / Erweiterbarkeit: • open class items / offene KlassenN, V, A, Adv

 • closed class items / geschlossene KlassenPrep, Conj, Pron, Art

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5.2.2 Grammatical categories  

in traditional grammar term 'grammatical category' refers to the properties of the word classes, functions signalled by parts of speech 

noun:verb: 

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 adjective: 

G: = categories of noun, + strong / weakein grüner Baum vs. der grüne Baum

 pronouns:     I - me, he - him, she - her, ...…

 adverb: article: 

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definteness

history of English change in the syntactic type of languageOld Englishprimarily synthetic language …

Modern Englishmore analytic language …

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Other syntactic features• concord, agreement / G Kongruenza form of one word requires a corresponding form of another  

English: singular subject + V present tense  … (exception …)

Lat, G:   ...

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• government (G Rektion) linkage whereby one word requires a specific form of anothere.g. Latin, German  Prepostions govern nouns, …L ad  G für  

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verbs require an object or not:

 ……

…

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He made her a cup of coffee.

verbs require gerund or infinitive 

Try to avoid travel in the rush hour.I couldn't help laugh .He promised obey me.We attempted break free.He stopped talk to them.He went on say .He longed hear her voice again.He pretended pity her.

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5.2.3 Sentence elements / Satzgliederelements / constituents of a sentence characterized by a specific grammatical function, functional elements of clause structure The burglar sneezed loudly. Subject     Predicate S V A

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Quirk et al (1985)SubjectPredicateSubjectVerbObject (direct, indirect,

       prepositional)complement (subject, 

object)

     Adverbial

Duden grammar

SubjektPrädikatObjekt (Genitiv-, Dativ-,  Akkusativ-, Präpositional-)Prädikativum  (Gleichsetzungsnominativ,  -akkusativ)Adverbialbestimmung

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Basic sentence patterns in declaratives (without optional elements):

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Pattern Subject Predicate/Verb

Object(s) Complement Adver-bial

SV The girl was sleepingSVO Her 

motherwas dressing the baby 

(Od)SVC Little 

Jamesseemed very happy (Cs)

Pattern Subject Predicate/Verb

Object(s) Complement Adver-bial

SVA He was sitting on the table

SVOO Mrs Bates

gave her children (Oi)all her love (Od)

SVOC Most people

considered her (Od) a perfect mother (Co)

SVOA She had spent all her life (Od)

in the village

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English: fixed SVO order 

German:main clauses: …  

...

...

subordinate clauses :…,

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sentence elements may be complex [Most of the almost two thousand people in her village] S    [considered] V [her] Od [an absolutely perfect mother loved and admired by her family] Co.

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subordinate clauses may function as sentence elementstask: 1. determine the subordinate clause

2. decide which function it fulfills

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That you are here is a miracle.  We knew (that) he was a lousy driver.

 The problem is how to stay away from trouble.

 

 

 

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We left as soon as we had finished breakfast. He waited where I had left him.  She behaves as if she has problems.

 If you leave now, you'll still reach the train.

 

 

 

 

adverbial clauses (semantic classification):

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I was angry because he came late.  Although I love good food, I eat very little. He came (in order) to help me. 

 

 

 

5.2.4 Sentence types

many traditional (learner) grammars list statement, question, command, exclamation  (Alexander, L. G. (1990) Longman English Grammar Practice)or statement, question, imperative(Close, R. A. (1975) A Reference Grammar for Students of English) = mix of formal and notional categories, e.g. statement, command, exclamation (notional),  imperative (formal), question (notional/formal)

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structuralist and most mixed grammatical approaches, e.g. Quirk et al 1985, Huddleston 1988,distinguish clearly between formal and functional (notional) levels of sentences; types according to formal criteria 1. Declarative 2. Interrogative (wh-questions,     yes/no-questions)3. Imperative4. Exclamative

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1. normal for S to precede VPauline gave Tom an iPod for his birthday.

2. two types: 2.a yes-no interrogative:       operator in front of S

…2.b wh-interrogative:       wh-element positioned initially,        subject-operator inversion        …

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 3. overt grammatical subject missing,   base form of V 

… 4.  initial phrase introduced by what/how,    S-V order

…     

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these types close to their (discourse) functions,Statement, Question, Directive, Exclamation(Greenbaum/Quirk 1990, 231)but not identicale.g. ?

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exclamatory questions

directives in question form

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• Simple sentence – one finite clause

The sun is shining.(S)   (V)

Most students have found her reasonably helpful. (S)      (V)  (O)          (C)

You can put the dish on the table. (S)        (V)          (O)             (A)

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• Complex sentence –   at least two clauses,   either co-ordinate or subordinate relationship

[The girl read a book] and [the boy prepared the meal.]

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coordinate clauses

[Although I admire her reasoning], [I reject her conclusions.]

subordinate clause

sometimes more complicated:[He predicted] [that he would discover the tiny particle] [when he conducted his next experiment.]

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main/superordinate clauseHe predicted

subordinate clause (superordinate to when-clause)that he would discover the tiny particle

subordinate clausewhen he conducted his

next experiment.

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O

A

5.2.5 Criticism of traditional grammar

1. Transfer of a Latin-based framework to    languages which do not use the grammatical categories of Latin   in the same systematic way,   e.g. nouns: ... genitive, dative, accusative,   vocative; verb forms etc ...

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2. Mixing of criteria for describing categories, e.g. in the definition of word classes

 

3.Dominance of written language, disregard of spoken language ('some corrupted form of the written variety')

4. Prescriptive and normative tendencies(vs. description)

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5. Use of different descriptive terms in  phonology, grammar, lexicon    no unified explanations

 6.  Insensitive to other important categories,  such as word order

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ad 1.

(a)  Who´s there? - It´s me.(I) He is bigger than me.(I)Latin only complement in nominative case

 

(b) Who(m) did you ask?

(c) No prepositions at the end of sentences

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"This is the kind of nonsense which up with I will not put." (Churchill)…  (usual form?) What did you bring that book I didn´t want to be read to out of up for?…

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labelling regional differences as ungrammatical

She gave him the book. (StE) substitution of  the book by a pronoun:She gave it to him.

…

She gave him it. …

She gave it him.  …

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